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The Routledge Companion to Linguistics
in India

This companion offers a unique introductory study of linguistics in India. Well supplemented
with sample problems and linguistic puzzles to bolster analytical skills and logical reasoning,
it promotes a unique inquiry-based approach to learning linguistics. The volume looks at
all the major subdisciplines of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology, morphology,
semantics, syntax, and the interdisciplinary domains of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics.
It provides a wealth of data not only from many Indian languages belonging to the primary
language families present in the country – Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and
Tibeto-Burman – but also from the endangered languages of the Tai-Kadai family of Assam
and the Greater Andamanese family.
The author gives a holistic view of the linguistic landscape of India and fills a significant
gap in the study of the lesser-known languages of South Asia. This volume will be an
excellent resource for students and researchers of Indian languages, cultural studies, South
Asian studies, and all branches of linguistics.

Hemalatha Nagarajan is Professor in the Department of Linguistics and Contemporary

English at the English and Foreign Languages University (formerly known as the Central
Institute of English and Foreign Languages), Hyderabad, India. She obtained an MA in
English from Madras University and an MLitt and PhD from CIEFL, Hyderabad, India. She
was awarded the British Chevening scholarship for a post-doctoral research programme at
University College, London, in 1994. Her PhD work was published as a book titled A Theory
of Post-Syntactic Phonology. Her areas of interest in linguistics are phonology, syntax,
neurolinguistics, and language acquisition. Apart from research articles in her area of interest,
namely linguistics, she has published books on grammar and general textbooks. She has
worked as a resource person in several workshops and teacher training programmes in India
and Sri Lanka and presented papers at various conferences at the national and international
levels. She has guided 14 doctoral students and 13 students of MPhil.
The Routledge Companion to
Linguistics in India

Hemalatha Nagarajan
Cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Hemalatha Nagarajan
The right of Hemalatha Nagarajan to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Nagarajan, Hemalatha, author.
Title: The Routledge companion to linguistics in India/Hemalatha Nagarajan.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2022022881 (print) | LCCN 2022022882 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367541514 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032366418 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003099024 (ebook)
ISBN: 978-0-367-54151-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-36641-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-09902-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003099024
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Dedicated to the source – my teachers, and the destination – students of
linguistics


Contents

List of Figures viii

List of Tables xi
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
List of Symbols xvii

1 Introduction 1

2 Language and Linguistics 18

3 Phonetics and Phonology: Learning the Sound System 34

4 Learning to Expand and Dissect Words: Morphology 111

5 Learning the Rules: Syntax 154

6 Understanding Meaning: Semantics 215

7 Language and Social Identity: Sociolinguistics 267

8 Language and the Brain: Neurolinguistics 301

9 Acquiring and Processing Language: Psycholinguistics 328

10 Natural vs. Computer Languages: Computational Linguistics 376

11 Conclusion 399

Bibliography 401
Index 421
Language Index 437


Figures

1.1 A quote in Edwardian script 1

1.2 Letters of the English alphabet in correct and reverse order 2
1.3 Letters of the Tamil alphabet (vowels) 2
1.4 Map of India with languages spoken in each state 5
1.5 A state in India 6
1.6 A state in India 6
1.7 A state in India 7
1.8 Letters of the English alphabet 14
1.9 Vowels in Tamil 15
2.1 Hierarchical structure of bees’ memory 23
2.2 How devices like Alexa, Siri, and Google Assistant work 26
2.3 How the software analyzes a sentence 26
2.4 Major language families of India 30
2.5 Minor language families of India 31
3.1 An optical illusion 35
3.2 A puzzle 36
3.3 A puzzle 36
3.4 The speech mechanism 37
3.5 The IPA Chart 40
3.6 The vowels 40
3.7 How to establish phonemes 42
3.8 Major class features 43
3.9 Manner features 44
3.10 Place features 44
3.11 Place features (continued) 45
3.12 Underlying representation and surface representation 48
3.13 Prosodic hierarchy 61
3.14 Syllable structure 61
3.15 Sonority hierarchy 64
3.16 A perfect syllable 64
3.17 An abacus 65
3.18 Feature geometry 68
3.19 A linear approach  87


 Figures  ix
3.20 A simultaneous approach 88
3.21 The OT architecture 88
3.22 Illustrative tableau 89
3.23 Tableau for Kangari phonemic contrast [pəṭ] 93
3.24 Tableau for Kangari phonemic contrast [phəṭ] 94
3.25 Tableau for Tamil allophonic variation [pal] 94
3.26 Tableau for Tamil allophonic variation [phal] 94
3.27 Tableau for Tulu allophonic variation [ka:pu] 94
3.28 Tableau for Tulu allophonic variation [phacca] 95
3.29 Tableau for positional neutralization in Bodo 95
3.30 Tableau for syllable-based constraints in Kuvi 100
3.31 Tableau for alignment constraints in Kuvi 101
4.1 Types of morphemes 112
4.2 The Wug Test (Berko 1958)  113
4.3 Kiparsky’s 1982 model for the English lexicon 125
4.4 Mohanan’s (1982) LP model for Malayalam 126
4.5 The inverted Y model 135
4.6 Distributed morphology 136
4.7 The different derivational functions of -tə 142
5.1 Types of verbs and sentence types 158
5.2 The structure of a phrase: specifier, head, and complement 165
5.3 The complementizer phrase, inflectional phrase, and verb phrase 166
5.4 The Minimalist model of language generation 206
6.1 Temporal and spatial properties 221
6.2 Venn diagram showing subset–superset relationship 230
6.3 Venn diagram showing intersection 231
6.4 Scope of negation of [Not A] and B and Not [A and B] 233
7.1 Dialects: regional and social 268
7.2 Kinship terms in English 288
7.3 Kinship terms in Khasi 289
8.1 Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in the brain 302
8.2 Lichtheim’s depiction of seven types of aphasia 303
8.3 Left and right brain functions 304
8.4 The tree pruning hypothesis 315
8.5 Types of bilinguals 316
8.6 The stroop test 317
8.7 Aspects of verbal communicative competence 317
8.8 The modules for a Tamil–English bilingual 318
8.9 I and II. Complete loss of either Tamil or English and preservation
of the other language 318
8.10 III. Tamil and English phonology submodules affected 319
8.11 IV. Tamil and English syntax submodules affected 319
8.12 V. Tamil and English semantics submodules affected 319
8.13 Unattested loss 320
x­ Figures
8.14 The Charminar monument in Hyderabad 323
9.1 Cartoon about child language Bucella Marty (2012) 328
9.2 Stages in Psycholinguistics Research 329
9.3 Disjunct 333
9.4 Subset 333
9.5 Intersects 333
9.6 Superset 333
9.7 Possible word orders in the Maturation Hypothesis 336
9.8 Stages of comprehension 348
9.9 Types of sentences and percentage of accurate responses 354
9.10 Picture of a rabbit idhikundhelu 359
9.11 Picture of many animals 360
9.12 Picture of many animals including a rabbit 360
9.13 The use of relative clauses by two age groups of Tamil-speaking children 362
9.14 Acquisition of subject, object, and location relative clauses
by Tamil-speaking children 362
10.1 Four phases in the development of NLP 379
10.2 A shallow parse of the sentence ‘The brown fox is quick and
he is jumping over the lazy dog’ 381
10.3 A constituent parse of the sentence ‘The brown fox is quick and
he is jumping over the lazy dog’ 382
10.4 A dependency parse of the sentence ‘John can hit the ball with a bat’ 382
10.5 What machine learning (ML) can do 387
10.6 Different stages of machine learning 387
Tables

3.1 Places of Articulation (the sound concerned is in Bold) 39

3.2 Manner of Articulation 39
3.3 Phonemic Inventory 59
3.4 Syllable Typology 62
3.5 Syllable Typology and Word Stress 73
3.6 Lexical Tones 75
4.1 Lexical and Post-Lexical Levels 125
4.2 Morphosyntactic and Morphosemantic Features  134
4.3 Participation in Agreement 134
4.4 Causatives I and II 138
4.5 Verb Agreement (Pronouns and Nouns) in Kannada 140
5.1 Case in Malayalam 161
5.2 Clause Types 187
5.3 Syntactic Differences and Similarities 199
6.1 Image Schema 221
6.2 Word Structure 223
6.3 Vendler’s Classification of Verbs 226
6.4 Classification of Nouns 228
6.5 Truth Table for Conjunction A and B 231
6.6 Truth Table for Disjunction A or B 232
6.7 Truth Table for Negation Not A 232
6.8 Truth Table for (¬ A) and B, ¬ (A and B) 233
6.9 Truth Table for A and B, ¬ (A and B) 233
6.10 Truth Table for Structural Ambiguity: Bracketed Constituents (A or B) 234
6.11 Truth Table for (A or B) and C 234
6.12 Truth Table for Implication if A then B (=>) 234
6.13 Truth table for Bidirectional Conditional A <=>B 235
6.14 Truth Table for Entailments A-> B (A⊃B) 236
6.15 Truth Table for Presupposition 237
6.16 Inalienability Markers in Greater Andamanese 250
6.17 Inalienability Markers in Greater Andamanese 250
7.1 Caste-Based Differences 271
7.2 Diglossia in Tamil 276


xii­ Tables
8.1 Performance of Broca’s Aphasics 313
9.1 Perception by Children 337
9.2 Speech Production 338
9.3 An Accuracy Order of Grammatical Morphemes 341
9.4 Syntactic Development 343
9.5 Phonological Development in Indian Languages 344
9.6 Syntactic Development in Indian Languages 346
9.7 Models of Language Processing 350
9.8 Work on Language Processing in Languages of India 353
10.1 Similarities between Human and Computer Languages 377
10.2 Differences between Human and Computer Languages 378
10.3 Different Types of Computer Languages 378
10.4 Different Types of Tagging 380
10.5 Temporal Expressions 384
10.6 Discourse Markers 386
Foreword

This book attempts to transport the reader to that place, where the human mind would per-
ceive order in all aspects related to language. The use of language is one of the distinguishing
features of mankind and, hence, has been studied from time immemorial. The basic quest of
linguists has been to detect patterns in language, be it in the sound system, grammar, or acqui-
sition. What prompted me to write this book is the story of Ann Klinestiver, a teacher who
was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease and who later became a gambling addict. It has been
established that there is a link between Parkinson’s disease and gambling, the reason being the
synthetic dopamine drugs that are administered to patients with Parkinson’s disease. The brain
is always looking for patterns and, hence, links it to gambling, which is another dopamine-
inducing activity. This shows that the brain is always keyed to looking for patterns.
Stated simply, the aim of this book is to sharpen one’s analytical skills by looking at ran-
dom sets of data and finding patterns and making generalizations. My task, as the author, has
been one of a torch-bearer and a guide in discovering a method to the madness in language.
Jonas Salk said, “Nothing happens quite by chance. It’s a question of accretion of infor-
mation and experience”. Having taught linguistics for 30 years, and being in the sunset of my
career, it was time for some introspection, stocktaking, and some looking ahead. It dawned
on me that in spite of the fact that India is home to several hundreds of languages, there is no
single book in linguistics that examines data from all the language families in India, nor is
there any workbook with data solely from Indian languages. Hence, this book is an attempt
to fill this lacuna.
Most languages spoken in India belong either to the Indo-European (74%), the Dravidian
(24%), the Austro-Asiatic (Munda) (1.2%), or the Tibeto-Burman (0.6%) families. However,
there are two other families from which we have sparse data, but whatever is available is
invaluable as the languages belonging to these two families are almost extinct now. Many
of these languages are endangered languages, and there are efforts being made in recent
times to promote and preserve these languages. These two families are the Tai-Kadai family
of Assam and the Greater Andamanese family, spoken in the Andamans. Hence, data from
these two families have also been presented in this book. Indian languages are not well rep-
resented in most books on linguistics, and so the main aim of this book would be to expose
this wealth of data.
My task in this book has been twofold: to create as well as curate. Every new venture is a
creation as it sets out to add to the existing body of knowledge, but curation involves finding
available content and presenting it in a meaningful way, usually around a theme. “Museums
curate art and artifacts. Radio stations curate music and news. Content marketers curate con-
tent created by other people and publishers: stuff people said, wrote, designed or recorded”
(Joanna Coles).


xiv­ Foreword
This book is a comprehensive study of all areas of linguistics (and is a one-stop shop)
where the approach to teaching linguistics has been different. An attempt has been made to
gather information in all areas and simplify all concepts and make them absolutely reader/
student-friendly. Analyzing data in linguistics is akin to solving a mathematical problem.
Hence, sample problems have been provided and solved. Any information that has been
omitted in the chapter is often touched upon in the problems. The idea of providing problems
is not just to challenge the learners and sharpen their brains but also to enable them to acquire
knowledge in areas where there are gaps. Having stated that, I admit that the focus has been
on the breadth of coverage and perhaps depth has been sacrificed to make it less lengthy! A
more systematic exposition of all the topics has not been possible due to the limitation of
space.
This book could be a main textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate students of lin-
guistics and an introductory book in linguistics for anyone interested in the field or in Indian
languages (computer scientists working on artificial intelligence, doctors and speech thera-
pists, cognitive scientists, etc.). I hope this book instils curiosity and interest in its readers and
spurs them to explore the unexplored terrains of languages in general and Indian languages
in particular.
I wish to express my gratitude to people who have worked behind the scenes and without
whom this work would not have been completed. Firstly, I thank my university for sanction-
ing me sabbatical leave for a year (which helped me in these COVID times too!) and K.G.
Vijayakrishnan, who has always supported and encouraged me. I am extremely grateful to
Amritavalli, who readily agreed to write the Preface to the book, and to Madhavan – I have
no words to express my gratitude to you for taking up the arduous task of editing the book,
studying it so meticulously for its content and language, and finally, providing me the most
honest feedback. Thanks to Suma, who carefully examined every chapter and transcribed
the data in International Phonetic Alphabet, and Jayakrishnan, who went through the proofs.
Preface
R. Amritavalli

The liveliness of the presentation in this Companion to Linguistics in India belies the wealth
of experience, knowledge, and commitment that has gone into its making. The work is monu-
mental in size, in achievement, and as a stimulus to the informed study of language in India.
It is difficult to encompass the scope or aims of this work in terms of well-worn, famil-
iar, categories. At one level, it is a problem-book or workbook. “Stated simply,” says the
author, “the aim of this book is to sharpen one’s analytical skills by looking at … data and
finding patterns and making generalizations.” But it carefully integrates this apprenticeship
in linguistic analysis into theoretical premises and guides it by brief expositions of current
theorization.
It thus leans towards being an introductory textbook. But uniquely perhaps among text-
books, its up-to-date References section mentions the work of subcontinental researchers
from A to Y (Abbi to Yadav), in print and on the World Wide Web. It is this research that the
author has painstakingly mined and curated to provide problems and illustrative data for the
Companion. She states in a matter-of-fact way:

in spite of the fact that India is home to several hundreds of languages, there is no single
book in linguistics that examines data from all the language families in India nor is there
any workbook with data solely from Indian languages.

To “fill this lacuna,” she includes, in addition to data from the four language families collec-
tively spoken by 99.8% of the country’s people, data from two other little-known language
families: Greater Andamanese and Tai-Kadai. This transports the reader from the analytical
to the human side of linguistics: from the centre to the periphery of endangered languages
and from the academic world of the classroom or computer to the forests of fieldwork and
research.
Linguistic theorization in the absence of data from familiar languages leaves theory in a
vacuum, alienated from reality. Ignoring the linguistic wealth of our country leaves room for
ignorance of shared heritage, in which linguistic jingoism and narrow prejudice can thrive.
Against this, our many languages are presented here in ways that invite theorization; com-
monalities as well as differences are explored, valorizing equally languages spoken by large
populations and those that only a few can claim as their own.
The author’s choices, then, are value-laden; but with so light a touch as to be impercep-
tibly so. (As, for example, in the story about what you can hear as you walk through Times
Square in New York.) There is impish humour in the choice of cartoons and the epigraphs
to chapters or sections. Complex concepts are explained with homely analogies (optimality
theory in terms of requirements for job recruitment!). A ‘garden-path’ sentence is illustrated


xvi­ Preface
– from Sanskrit. A seven-page story is included that consists of a single sentence; perceptual
illusions and paradoxes, and Alexa and Siri, also find a place.
I would recommend this volume as a sourcebook for all practitioners of linguistics in
India, including those in the classroom. Its breadth and range of topics require a move away
from mastery-learning and teaching of a set syllabus (often with neither understanding nor
interest), to a curiosity-driven exploration of its topics, to be pursued further at will with the
help of the suggested resources. The nuggets of theory here, again, should be approached as
appetizers for a fuller banquet of original sources. This Companion is a resource particularly
relevant to the individual, autonomous, and self-paced learning appropriate for our times,
even within the formal face-to-face system of education.
Finally, the author intriguingly provides from Sanskrit “six different words for ‘teacher’
based on their unique abilities”. I leave it to each reader to determine where in this pantheon
they would place this volume.
R. Amritavalli
Retired Professor of Linguistics, EFL University, Hyderabad
Bengaluru, December 2020
List of Symbols

The phonetic transcription that has been used is the symbols of the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) in most of the cases (where the author is familiar with the language).
However, in cases where the author is unsure of the pronunciation of the words, the original
transcription that was used in the source text has been retained.
List of symbols (as per IPA):

Symbol: Vowels Phonetic Value

ɑ open back unrounded vowel

ɒ open back rounded vowel
æ near-open front unrounded vowel
ə mid central vowel
ɛ open-mid front unrounded vowel
ɪ near-close near-front unrounded vowel
ɨ close central unrounded vowel
ɔ open-mid back rounded vowel
œ open-mid front rounded vowel
ø close-mid front rounded vowel
ʊ near-close near-back rounded vowel
ʌ open-mid back unrounded vowel
ɯ close back unrounded vowel
u tense high back rounded vowel
e tense mid front unrounded vowel
i tense high front unrounded vowel
o tense mid back rounded vowel

Symbol: Consonants Phonetic Value

c or ts voiceless alveolar affricate

č or tʃ voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
ɕ voiceless alveolopalatal fricative
ç voiceless palatal fricative
d voiced alveolar stop
ḍ or ɖ voiced retroflex stop
ð voiced dental fricative
f voiceless labiodental fricative
g voiced velar stop
ɣ voiced velar fricative
h voiceless glottal fricative


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