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Teaching and
learning
early number
Second edition

Edited by
Ian Thompson
Teaching and
learning early
number
Second edition
Teaching and
learning early
number
Second edition

Edited by
Ian Thompson
Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL

email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA

First published 2008

Copyright © Ian Thompson 2008

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained
from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street,
London EC1N 8TS.

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-13: 978-0-33-523411-0 (pb)

ISBN-10: 0-33-523411-9 (pb)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data applied for

Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

Printed in the UK by Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters and/or data that may
be used herein (in case studies or in examples) are not intended to represent any
real individual, company, product or event.
 Contents

Notes on contributors ix
Editor’s preface xv

SECTION 1
Setting the scene for teaching and learning early number 1
1 Still not getting it right from the start? 3
Carol Aubrey and Dondu Durmaz

SECTION 2
The early stages of number acquisition 17
2 Children’s beliefs about counting 19
Penny Munn

3 Mathematics through play 34

Kate Tucker

4 The family counts 47

Rose Griffiths

SECTION 3
The place of counting in number development 59

5 Development in oral counting, enumeration, and counting

for cardinality 61
John Threlfall

6 Counting: what it is and why it matters 72

Effie Maclellan

7 Compressing the counting process: strength from

the flexible interpretation of symbols 82
Eddie Gray
vi CONTENTS

SECTION 4
Extending counting to calculating 95
8 From counting to deriving number facts 97
Ian Thompson

9 Uses of counting in multiplication and division 110

Julia Anghileri

SECTION 5
Representation and calculation 123

10 Children’s mathematical graphics: young children

calculating for meaning 127
Elizabeth Carruthers and Maulfry Worthington

11 What do young children’s mathematical graphics tell

us about the teaching of written calculation? 149
Ian Thompson

12 What’s in a picture? Understanding and

representation in early mathematics 160
Tony Harries, Patrick Barmby and Jennifer Suggate

13 Mathematical learning and the use of information and

communications technology in the early years 176
Steve Higgins

SECTION 6
Assessing young children’s progress in number 189

14 Interview-based assessment of early number knowledge 193

Robert J. Wright

15 Addressing errors and misconceptions with young children 205

Ian Thompson

SECTION 7
Towards an early years mathematics pedagogy 215

16 ‘How do you teach nursery children mathematics?’ In

search of a mathematics pedagogy for the early years 217
Sue Gifford

Index 229
To my wife, Barbara, and our children, John and Anna,
my mathematical guinea pigs.
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 Notes on contributors

Julia Anghileri is senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the University

of Cambridge. She has an international reputation for her research relating to
children learning arithmetic and has published a number of articles in profes-
sional and research journals. She has been a consultant to the National
Numeracy Strategy and the Primary Strategy and works on national test devel-
opment with the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) and the
National Assessment Agency (NAA). She has extensive experience with both
pre-service and in-service teachers through undergraduate and postgraduate
courses as well as in-service courses.

Carol Aubrey is professor of early childhood at the Institute of Education at

the University of Warwick and Director of Research. She trained first as a pri-
mary school teacher and then as an educational psychologist. Later, she spent
a number of years in primary teacher education with a particular focus on the
early years, first at University College Cardiff and then at the University of
Durham. Thereafter, from 2001, she worked at Canterbury Christ Church
University College where she led the Centre for International Studies in Early
Childhood (CISEC). Her research interests lie in the area of the policy to prac-
tice context of early childhood education, early learning and development
with a particular interest in early mathematics and inclusion/special edu-
cational needs. She has been convener of the British Educational Research
Association (BERA) Special Interest Group for Early Childhood Education and
Care and a member of BERA Council (2004–2007). She is the UK editor for
Journal of Early Childhood Research.

Patrick Barmby is a lecturer in mathematics education at Durham University,

with a particular interest in primary mathematics. His areas of research include
examining what we mean by understanding in mathematics and the role
played by reasoning. Prior to lecturing at Durham University, Patrick was
teaching in a rural secondary school in Kenya, working with wonderfully
enthusiastic students of mathematics, physics and chemistry. He has been
researching attitudes in science, stemming from the gender issues that he
encountered in Kenya. Patrick also works for the Curriculum, Evaluation and
Management (CEM) Centre in Durham, carrying out evaluations of edu-
cational initiatives.
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Elizabeth Carruthers is head teacher of Redcliffe Children’s Centre in Bristol.

She has taught for many years in primary schools and nurseries including
three years in the USA. She is co-author of the book Children’s Mathematics and
co-founder of the Children’s Mathematics Network. Elizabeth has written
articles on mathematics for a variety of academic journals and books. Her
research interests include the pedagogy of children’s mathematical graphics
and research on Children’s Centres.

Dondu Durmaz is from Turkey, where she graduated in educational psycho-

logy and worked six years in primary, secondary and high schools. She then
focused on early years education, particularly on mathematical development
in this stage, and took a full scholarship award to do a Masters Degree and PhD
in early years education at the University of Warwick under the supervision of
Professor Carol Aubrey. Her PhD is entitled ‘Policies for early years mathema-
tics in Foundation Stage’, and explores the policy-to-practice context of early
years mathematics. After her PhD she returned to Turkey to work at Akdeniz
University, Antalya.

Sue Gifford is principal lecturer in mathematics education at Roehampton

University. She has worked in a variety of London schools, and has published
books and articles on children’s own recordings of mathematics, early years
mathematics education and, more recently, dyscalculia. Her research interests
currently include the prevention of mathematics difficulties.

Eddie Gray is reader (Emeritus) of the University of Warwick. He has 20 years

of teaching experience in primary and secondary schools – five as a head
teacher – and has taught on BA(QTS), PGCE ITT courses, and BSc and Graduate
programmes. One-time director of the Mathematics Education Research
Centre at Warwick, his research interest, focusing on the cognitive reasons
for success and failure in mathematics, spans the spectrum of mathematics
learning from pre-school to undergraduate level. The chapter within this text,
partially the outcome of a fruitful partnership with Professor David Tall, profits
from his observations of children’s mathematical learning and the knowledge
acquired through the supervision of numerous PhD students, several of whom
were practising teachers.

Rose Griffiths is senior lecturer in education at the University of Leicester.

Starting as a teacher with a particular interest in working with children who
find maths difficult, Rose has taught in primary, secondary and special
schools, and worked with young children and their parents and carers, includ-
ing Sure Start. Her publications include many books for children, parents and
teachers. Rose’s research interests are in counting and early arithmetic, raising
the achievement of looked-after children and childhood bereavement.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

Tony Harries is the director of the Initial Teacher Training Division at the
School of Education in Durham University, and is a senior lecturer in mathe-
matics education. His main area of research at present is in exploring the role
of computer-based environments in the learning of early mathematics. Before
coming to Durham nine years ago, he worked at Bath Spa University College,
was head of mathematics at a large Bristol comprehensive school, and worked
in the development of primary education in Bangladesh. At present, he is also
involved in a curriculum development project for teacher trainees in southern
Africa.

Steven Higgins is professor of education at Durham University. He has under-

taken a number of research projects in primary schools investigating the
impact of information and communications technology on children’s learn-
ing of mathematics, including a study of the impact of interactive whiteboards
for the Primary National Strategy. A former primary school teacher, he has a
particular interest in how children’s thinking and reasoning develops. He has
investigated practical approaches to support thinking in classrooms with
teachers and the development of pupils’ learning skills and confidence in their
ability to learn associated with these teaching strategies.

Effie Maclellan is professor of education at the University of Strathclyde. She

is also a chartered psychologist and chartered scientist. Before coming
to Strathclyde, she worked for more than 20 years as a class teacher and a
head teacher in mainstream primary education and in special education. She
teaches about, carries out research in, and offers consultancies in, learning,
teaching and assessment. In all of this she is excited by use-inspired basic
scholarship: combining the quest for fundamental understanding (what is
normally thought of as basic research) with a concern for practical usefulness
(what is normally thought of as applied research).

Penny Munn is a developmental psychologist and reader in education at

Strathclyde University. Her research in numeracy began with investigations
into pre-schoolers’ conceptions of counting. Her current work is focused
on mathematics recovery as a framework for developing the primary maths
curriculum, and on teachers’ understanding of children’s conceptions of
number.

Jennifer Suggate worked for over 10 years in the School of Education at

Durham University, contributing to the mathematics part of the primary
PGCE course. She has now been working on developing computer programs
for primary mathematics for over 20 years. Such programs should allow child-
ren to interact with animated visual representations of number and the oper-
ations on them. Fertile discussion can be provoked by considering carefully
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

different representations of the same numbers and operations. Although now

retired, she is still interested in developing new programs and ideas for using
them in the primary classroom.

Ian Thompson taught in schools and higher education for 38 years. Observa-
tions of his own young children struggling to make sense of number concepts
provided the stimulus for his research into children’s idiosyncratic mental and
written calculation strategies. To date, he has published over 100 articles, book
chapters and conference papers, and has edited two other books for the Open
University Press: Issues in teaching numeracy in primary schools (1999) and
Enhancing primary mathematics teaching (2003). He was a member of the
Advisory Group for the National Numeracy Project, and was seconded to
the project for two years. He is currently visiting professor at Edge Hill
University, Ormskirk, Lancashire.

John Threlfall lectures in primary mathematics at the University of Leeds,

where he is involved in the preparation of primary teachers, teaches on higher
degree courses and supervises doctoral study. His main research interest
is in children’s cognition, especially calculation strategies and mathematical
problem-solving, and he has been involved in a number of related projects,
including developing classroom materials for the World Class Arena for gifted
and talented pupils. He is currently director of the University of Leeds School
of Education Assessment and Evaluation Unit.

Kate Tucker is a nursery teacher and head of Foundation and Key Stage 1 at
Two Moors Primary School, Tiverton, Devon. She has written widely on early
years mathematics and Foundation Stage practice. For several years, she has
trained teachers in these areas as part of her work for Devon Education
Services. She occasionally teaches on the mathematics module for the Early
Childhood Studies BEd students at the University of Plymouth.

Maulfry Worthington has taught throughout the 3–8 year age range for over
26 years. She has lectured in higher education on primary mathematics and on
early years courses and was a national numeracy consultant. Maulfry’s
research interests include children’s thinking, play and semiotics, with a focus
on children’s graphicacy and their early written mathematics. She has many
publications including Children’s Mathematics: Making Marks, Making Meaning
(Sage Publications, 2006) which she co-authored. Currently engaged in
research for her doctorate at the Free University, Amsterdam, Maulfry is
conducting a longitudinal, ethnographic study into children’s meaning-
making in imaginative play and its relationship with children’s mathematical
graphics.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Bob Wright is associate professor in mathematics education at Southern Cross

University in New South Wales, Australia, and is an internationally recognized
leader in understanding and assessing young children’s numerical knowledge
and strategies. He is the first author of three books related to early number
assessment and instruction, and has published many articles and papers in this
field. His work in the last 15 years includes the development of the Mathemat-
ics Recovery Programme, which has been implemented widely in the USA, the
UK, Ireland and elsewhere. Bob is currently leading a project funded by the
Australian Research Council focusing on intervention in the number learning
of low-attaining 8- to 10-year-olds.
 Editor’s preface

The first edition of this book arose out of my own increasing unease with the
structure of the number curriculum for young children as recommended in
various official publications and as exemplified in the myriad commercial
mathematics schemes on the market in the mid-1990s. The original book
comprised four sections sandwiched between a Prologue and an Epilogue.
The Prologue set the scene for the book, looking in particular at two areas:
the subject of mathematics itself and the discipline of educational psychology.
In the early twentieth century, mathematicians had begun to reconceptu-
alize their subject in an attempt to put it on firm logical foundations. New
branches of the subject had been developed, and more refined and powerful
problem-solving techniques had gradually replaced established standard
methods of working. These developments affected the way in which mathe-
matics came to be taught at university, at secondary school and later, at
primary school. This interest in mathematical precision and rigour was
reflected in a particularly influential primary mathematics scheme that
appeared in 1964 – the Nuffield Mathematics 5 to 13 Project – and in a later
offshoot, the Mathematics for Schools scheme (or ‘Fletcher maths’ as it became
familiarly known).
Another major influence on the primary mathematics curriculum at that
time was the work of Jean Piaget. In reality, Piaget wrote very little about the
teaching of mathematics, but nevertheless his theories were to have a pro-
found influence on the thinking of many of those involved in mathematical
education. Among the many important ideas contained in his writing, it is
probably the concept of conservation that had the greatest impact on the
approach to teaching early number. Children are said to ‘conserve’ number if
they are aware that when two collections have been shown to be equivalent,
either by one-to-one correspondence or by counting, this equivalence is not
destroyed by the rearrangement of one of the sets. Piaget proposed that chil-
dren generally do not develop this awareness before the age of six or seven,
and concluded that they had to grasp the principle of conservation of quantity
before they could develop the concept of number.
This emphasis on the importance of conservation led to recommendations
by mathematics educators for the delaying of number work until children
could conserve number, by which time they would be in a state of ‘readiness’
for learning. This led, in turn, to the introduction of what became known
as the ‘pre-number curriculum’, involving sorting, ordering and matching
xvi EDITOR’S PREFACE

activities for children to engage with before they progressed to tackling work
that involved actual numbers. These ‘sorting, ordering and matching activities’
became an intrinsic part of every new mathematics scheme that was written in
the period between the Nuffield Project in 1964 and the National Numeracy
Strategy in 1999.
So, the Prologue presented a personal interpretation of the reasons for the
structure of the primary mathematics curriculum as it appeared in 1996, and
concluded with the question ‘Is there an alternative approach? . . .’. The next
four sections of the book, focusing mainly on the importance of counting and
mental calculation strategies, set out to show convincingly that there was
indeed ‘an alternative approach’. At the end of the book the Epilogue began
with a detailed critique of the ‘sorting, ordering and matching activities’
pre-number curriculum before proceeding to consider the implications for the
teaching of early number of the views expressed in the 13 chapters in the body
of the text.
Major changes in the primary mathematics over the last decade – some of
which are discussed in Chapter 1 – have contributed to a revised structure for
the second edition of the book; it contains eight new chapters, six completely
rewritten chapters and two updated chapters. It is loosely structured into seven
sections, dealing in turn with the background and context for the teaching of
early number; the early stages of number acquisition; the place of counting in
number development; extending counting to calculating; representation and
calculation; assessing young children’s progress in number; and a proposal for
a mathematics pedagogy for the early years. The chapters are generally short
and succinct with a limited list of references, except for the introductory
chapter which sets the scene, and the final chapter which looks to the future.
All the chapters are self-contained and are written to be read as free-standing
units, although many contain cross-references to other parts of the book
where specific ideas are dealt with in a different manner.
The following information gives details of the ages of children starting
school in England and Wales and in Scotland. It is included to help readers
who work in a different education system from those operating in the UK.
 EDITOR’S PREFACE xvii

School year Age on entry

England and Wales Scotland USA and Australia

Early Years
Foundation Stage 0

Reception (now Primary 1 4

subsumed in FS)
Year 1 (Y1) Primary 2 Kindergarten 5
Year 2 (Y2) Primary 3 Grade 1 6
Year 3 (Y3) Primary 4 Grade 2 7
Year 4 (Y4) Primary 5 Grade 3 8
Year 5 (Y5) Primary 6 Grade 4 9
Year 6 (Y6) Primary 7 Grade 5 10
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