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Translating Cultures

This bestselling coursebook introduces current understanding about cul-

ture and provides a model for teaching culture to translators, interpreters
and other mediators. The approach is interdisciplinary, with theory from
Translation Studies and beyond, while authentic texts and translations
illustrate intercultural issues and strategies adopted to overcome them.
This new (third) edition has been thoroughly revised to update scholar-
ship and examples and now includes new languages such as Arabic, Chinese,
German, Japanese, Russian and Spanish, and examples from interpreting
settings. This edition revisits the chapters based on recent developments
in scholarship in intercultural communication, cultural mediation, trans-
lation and interpreting. It aims to achieve a more balanced representa-
tion of written and spoken communication by giving more attention to
interpreting than the previous editions, especially in interactional settings.
Enriched with discussion of key recent scholarly contributions, each prac-
tical example has been revisited and/​or updated.
Complemented with online resources, which may be used by both
teachers and students, this is the ideal resource for all students of transla-
tion and interpreting, as well as any reader interested in communication
across cultural divides.
Additional resources are available on the Routledge Translation Studies
Portal: http://​routledgetranslationstudiesportal.com

David Katan is Full Professor of Language and Translation at the

University of Salento in Italy, a visiting professor at the University
of South Africa, and Editor of Cultus: The Journal of Intercultural
Mediation and Communication. Recent publications include keyword
entries for Routledge Encyclopedias and Benjamins Handbooks on trans-
lation: ‘Culture’, ‘Defining Culture … Defining Translation’, ‘Translating
Tourism’ and ‘Transcreation’.

Mustapha Taibi is Associate Professor in Interpreting and Translation

at Western Sydney University, and Editor of Translation & Interpreting:
The International Journal of Translation and Interpreting Research. His
most recent books are Community Translation (2016), New Insights
into Arabic Translation and Interpreting (2016), Translating for the
Community (2018), and Multicultural Health Translation, Interpreting
and Communication (Routledge, 2019).
Translating
Cultures
An Introduction for Translators,
Interpreters and Mediators

Third Edition
David Katan and
Mustapha Taibi
Third edition published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2021 David Katan and Mustapha Taibi

The right of David Katan and Mustapha Taibi to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

For the Italian University Research Assessment Agency, though both authors
collaborated on all chapters, Mustapha Taibi is responsible for
Chapters 1, 7, 11 and 12, while David Katan is responsible for the rest.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

First published 1999

Second edition published 2004
Second edition republished by Routledge 2014

British Library Cataloguing-​in-​Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data

A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-​1-​138-​34445-​7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-​1-​138-​34446-​4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​003-​17817-​0 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by Newgen Publishing UK
Contents

List of figures and tables viii

Preface to the third edition xi
Preface to the second edition xiii
Acknowledgements xiv

Introduction 1

Part I: F
 raming culture: the culture-​bound mental map
of the world 5

1 The translator, interpreter and cultural mediator 7

1.1 Translation … and culture 7
1.2 The cultural mediator 18
1.3 The translator and interpreter 20
1.4 Clarification of roles 26

2 Defining, modelling and teaching culture 31

2.1 On defining culture 31
2.2 Approaches to the study of culture 34
2.3 McDonaldization or local globalization? 39
2.4 Models of culture 44

3 Frames and levels 57

3.1 Frames 57
3.2 Logical Levels 61
3.3 Culture and behaviour 67

4 Logical Levels and culture 75

4.1 Environment (Where and When) 75
4.2 Behaviour (What) 87
4.3 Capabilities/​Strategies/​Skills (How) 89
4.4 Values 93
vi Contents

4.5 Beliefs (Why) 93

4.6 Identity 97
4.7 Imprinting 99
4.8 The model as a system 105

5 Language and culture 115

5.1 Contexts of situation and culture 115
5.2 The Sapir‒Whorf Hypothesis 119
5.3 Lexis 121
5.4 The language system 136

6 Perception and Meta-​Model 141

6.1 Filters 143
6.2 Expectations and mental images 146
6.3 The Meta-​Model 149
6.4 Generalization 154
6.5 Deletion 157
6.6 Distortion 177

Part II: Shifting frames: translation and mediation in

theory and practice 187

7 Translation/​mediation 189
7.1 The translation process 189
7.2 The Meta-​Model and translation 195
7.3 Generalization 197
7.4 Deletion 197
7.5 Distortion and adaptation 209

8 Chunking 219
8.1 Local translating 219
8.2 Chunking 222
8.3 Global translation and mediation between cultures 226

Part III: The array of frames: communication orientations 243

9 Cultural orientations 245

9.1 Cultural myths 245
9.2 Cultural orientations 252
9.3 A taxonomy of orientations 259
 Contents vii

10 Contexting 275
10.1 High and low context 275
10.2 English ‒ the language of strangers 283
10.3 Contexting and the brain 288
10.4 Grammatical ‘be’ and ‘do’ 291

11 Transactional communication 296

11.1 Transactional and interactional communication 296
11.2 “Verba volant, scripta manent” 300
11.3 Author/​addressee orientation 306
11.4 Formal/​informal communication 316
11.5 Extrinsic features 320
11.6 White space quotient 321

12 Interactional communication 325

12.1 Expressive/​instrumental communication 325
12.2 Expression in address forms 332
12.3 Direct and indirect communication 335
12.4 Cooperative maxims and miscommunication 339
12.5 The Action orientation 345
12.6 Conversational features 348
12.7 Non-​verbal language 353
12.8 The role of the mediator, translator or interpreter 355

Concluding remarks 359

References 364
Name index 400
Subject index 409
Figures and tables

Figures
1.1 Super Disc Shot 13
1.2 Dimensions of (translating and interpreting as) mediation 28
2.1 Trompenaars and Hampden-​Turner’s (2012:29)
Layers of Culture 45
2.2 Hofstede’s Levels of Culture 46
2.3 The Cultural Iceberg 51
3.1 A paradox 58
3.2 Paradox framed and resolved 59
3.3 Dilts’ Logical Levels of organization in systems 63
3.4 Culture-​bound behavioural distribution curve:
greeting friends 69
3.5 Behavioural distribution curve: when is ‘late’ late? 70
4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 100
4.2 A HAP and LAP view of the world 103
4.3 Dilts’ imprinting and development stages 104
4.4 Dilts’ Logical Levels and change 108
4.5 Culture-​bound misinterpretation 110
4.6 The media interpreter and TV habitus 113
5.1 Perceptions and evaluations of ‘United States’ 122
6.1 Hofstede’s perception filters 143
6.2 The original stimulus figures 146
6.3 The reproduction as dumb-​bells and glasses 147
6.4 Creation of the map of the world 152
6.5 Representation of the map of the world 153
7.1 The decoding‒encoding translation model 190
7.2 The cognitive creation translation model 193
8.1 Chunking overview 223
8.2 Bell’s procedural model and NLP chunking 226
8.3 Chunking to generate choice 231
8.4 Translating and chunking: Maxwell House 233
8.5 Chunking questions 234
8.6 Translating and chunking: sharbat 235
8.7 Translating without mediating values: suntan 236
 List of figures and tables ix

8.8 Translating without mediating values: money 238

8.9 Chunking to mediate values 239
9.1 Kramsch’s perception rings 249
9.2 Testing orientation: local or global? 253
9.3 Cultural orientations 255
9.4 Iceberg-​like models of culture with orientations 256
10.1 Hall’s triangles 278
10.2 Context ranking of cultures 282
11.1 Australian marriage certificate 312
11.2 Moroccan marriage certificate 313
12.1 Trompenaars and Hampden-​Turner’s idealized
turn-​taking styles 349
12.2 Trompenaars and Hampden-​Turner’s idealized
tone of voice 352

Tables
1.1 Product labelling in different countries 11
1.2 Typical localization issues when translating software
and manuals 15
3.1 Logical Levels 67
4.1 Stereotypical characteristics of different generations
(from Wallop 2014) 86
8.1 The mediator’s task by Logical Level 241
Preface to the third edition

When Routledge asked me (David) if I wanted to work on a third

edition, 15 years after the original publication of the second edition,
I was clearly flattered. What had begun as a local project for my own
students at the Interpreters’ School in Trieste had now been adopted
by two international publishers. First, St Jerome, to whom I owe an
enormous debt of gratitude, mainly in the name of Mona Baker, who
continued to support my writing, asking for encyclopedic entries
on culture and translation and for a second edition of this volume.
Routledge took over, and quite soon afterwards, started discussing
a third edition. I was very uncertain given Routledge’s simple but
exhaustive requirements: to update and make more international.
Updating work on ‘culture’, and in particular intercultural communi-
cation, was one area that was needed. But also, ‘culture’ was no longer
an exotic or an optional add-​on to Translation Studies. A large swathe
of scholars were already integrating ‘culture’ into its ever-​broadening
field, from audiovisual to public service translation; quite apart from
the development of ‘cultural translation’ whose remit, though, has
little to do with interlingual translation.
What was necessary now was to anchor the edition more firmly
within the new fields, and I also needed to move from a bicultural
to a multicultural viewpoint, especially with regard to the practical
examples, which were not only very local to the UK and Italy but
were also very dated. Many were taken from (paper) news articles
concerning events that even the British and the Italians would have
difficulty in relating to 20 years on.
I began thinking of sharing what was looking like an enormous
task. Routledge meanwhile were sending questionnaires to a number
of academics who were using Translating Cultures, asking about the
feasibility of a new edition. By happy chance, the respondent who
replied in most detail, with some extremely useful suggestions, was the
same academic who had just published a volume entitled Community
Translation, one of a number of new fields in Translation Studies. This
field, also known as Public Service Translation, takes for granted that
translation is for a particular readership that has particular needs, and
consequently a translator’s (or interpreter’s) job is that of ‘mediation’.
xii Preface to the third edition

To my happy surprise, Mustapha Taibi’s book itself had taken on board

many of the ideas present in Translating Cultures, and had made fre-
quent reference to the volume. Not only that. Mustapha was also able
to bring in a much more international and intercultural view, having
grown up, studied and worked both in the Arab World and in Spain,
while now teaching Translation and Interpreting in Australia. I had
found my co-​author. I must also thank Mustapha for his meticulous
attention to coherence and detail, and for insisting on time limits, which
meant that this 12-​month project took only two years rather than five.
When Routledge approached me (Mustapha) for an opinion, I wrote:

The book provides a comprehensive overview of cultural issues

relating to communication in general and translation, interpreting
and mediation in particular. It covers a wide range of theories and
contributions from different disciplines, which facilitate an in-​depth
understanding of what cultural differences are based on, how they
work in intercultural communication, what challenges they may
give rise to, and how these challenges may be overcome, especially
in a professional context such as interpreting and translation.

I suggested further elaboration on the notion of ‘mediation’ and clari-

fication of boundaries between roles such as ‘cultural mediator’ and
‘interpreter’. I also thought that interpreting was not given its fair share
in the second edition. The different settings for interpreting, and com-
munity interpreting in particular, offer relevant and challenging sites
for both theorists and language service professionals to grapple with
cultural frames and intercultural ‘mediation’. In relation to this, I also
suggested that the chapter on Interactional Communication could be
enriched with further discussion and examples from community and
other interpreting settings.
So, when David invited me to co-​author the third edition, I was
thrilled at the opportunity to contribute to this seminal work. Together
we have updated the book in terms of scholarly literature and alignment
with developments in the relevant professions, and we have diversified
the examples, drawing on different genres, cultural contexts, institu-
tional settings and languages. We hope the new edition offers readers
an even more useful resource.
Preface to the second edition

This book, now in its second edition, has had a long gestation. Many
people have helped and given their valuable advice and time along the
way. The first edition would never have seen the light of day without
the firm guidance of John Dodds. Many other colleagues from the
Interpreters’ School in Trieste gave their support in many different
ways; in particular, Federica Scarpa, Francesco-​Sergio Straniero and
Chris Taylor. Eli Rota gave extremely useful feedback regarding
Neuro-​Linguistic Programming (NLP), and the Meta-​Model in par-
ticular; while Carol Torsello’s close reading was responsible for the
improvements in the linguistic analysis. Many of the newspaper
examples have been culled from Pat Madon’s informal but effective
cuttings service
David Trickey has directed my reading in cross-​cultural communi-
cation and has been a constant sparring partner on all things cultural
for well over 20 years.
For the second edition, the book has been almost totally rewritten,
and every single figure has been revised. My thanks go to Licia
Corbolante for her help on localization, to my dissertation students
who have all contributed in some way to the improvements, and
I am also truly grateful for Lara Fabiano’s proofreading and studied
comments. Inevitably, though, in ironing out inconsistencies, updating,
and inserting new ideas, information and examples, new inconsisten-
cies will have crept in. These may be interpreted as ‘breaking news’ in
the lively new discipline of intercultural translation.
The book, naturally, is dedicated to Patty, Thomas and Robert.
newgenprepdf

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all our colleagues who have contributed to

the revision of this book, either through insightful discussions or
by providing and/​or checking examples in different languages. We
are unable to mention everybody, but the following people must be
acknowledged: Masako Ogawa and Robert Mailhammer (Western
Sydney University), Wei Teng (University of Canterbury, New Zealand),
and Ludmila Stern (University of New South Wales).
David’s family should be honoured, not only for putting up with
the “Dad’s on Skype with Mustapha” syndrome but also for taking
an unusually active interest in the project. Thomas, now also a
communications coach, in particular meticulously read every page of the
draft chapters, adding his own extremely long, but also pithy comments
such as “So?”, “Example?” and “Really?”, which riveted us, if not the
rest of the family, over many breakfasts. These comments and discussions
have enriched the book greatly. We also thank Jonathan Katan (QC) for
his help with the legal texts.
A big thank you goes to Jabir, Mustapha’s little son, who helped
with printing, fetching books and even typing, and also for his patience
while tirelessly asking “What chapter are you up to?”
We both heartily thank Routledge for their unending patience as
we unflinchingly broke our own self-​imposed deadlines with Swiss-​
German precision more times than we care to remember. In particular,
we would like to thank Louisa Semlyen and Eleni Steck for their
support and understanding.

Permissions
Copyright permission has been sought from Macmillan regarding the
novel The Bonfire of the Vanities (Wolfe 1990), from which there are
a number of short extracts quoted.
Introduction

Horatio
O day and night, but this is wondrous strange!
Hamlet
And therefore as a stranger give it welcome.
There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
Than are dreamt of in our philosophy.

‘Translating across cultures’ and ‘cultural proficiency’ have become

buzz words in translating and interpreting. Back in 1996, Mona Baker
warned that many scholars had already begun to adopt a “ ‘cultural’
perspective … a dangerously fashionable word that almost substitutes
for rigour and coherence” (Baker 1996:17). Anthropologists, who
were the traditional custodians of the field, complained that “Everyone
is into culture now” (Kuper 1999:2). Indeed, ‘culture’ became “top
look-​up” in 2014, according to the Merriam-​Webster Dictionary
(2021). Its (over)use has led some anthropologists to seriously jettison
the term (Agar 2006). As one anthropologist stated, “studying culture
today is like studying snow in the middle of an avalanche” (cited in
Agar 2006:2).
In translation, the term took centre stage with “the cultural turn
in Translation Studies during the 1980s” (Snell-​ Hornby 2006:47;
see also 47–​67). The ‘cultural turn’ itself began life much earlier in
the field of Cultural Studies, a discipline focussing on contemporary
ideologies, politics and how the media manipulates thought. For this
discipline, ‘cultural translation’ involves analysing the dynamics of
conflicting models of reality and how they effect or suffer change as
a result of contact both at an individual level and at the level of com-
munities. Translation Studies also began to interest itself in the effects
or changes as a result of intervention on the text, as well summed up
by translation theorist Susan Bassnett (2014:25): “In the same way
that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that
surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the cul-
ture at his or her peril”.
For linguists this means that understanding the text in question,
whether original (source) or translated (target), is not only a question
2 Introduction

of vocabulary and the grammar, but also a question of assessing

the nature of the situation; accessing and understanding what is
implied or referred to, in what way, by whom and so on. This is the
focus of Translating Cultures. Interestingly, Bassnett is also equally
a Comparative Literatures scholar, and hence equally at home
discussing cultural translation, which occurs in literature when novels
are written by what Indian-​born author Salman Rushdie (1991:17)
called “translated men”. In this case, the ‘translation’ is to do with the
intralingual usurping of the colonial language by a subject of coloni-
alism for a post-​colonial readership.
Our focus here is on interlingual communicating of meanings
across language and cultural divides. Hence translation is understood
as Intercultural Communication, an often-​used epithet; for example,
in 2012 by the International Federation of Translators to promote
International Translation Day. The simple question is, what is the ‘cul-
tural’ that affects communication in translation?
The aim of this book, then, is to answer this question, and in so
doing to put some rigour and coherence into this fashionable word.
It explains what translators, interpreters and other mediators should
know about the cultural factor and its importance in communication,
translation and interpretation. As such, it aims to provide the con-
text of culture marginalized or missing in books or courses focussing
on either translation theory or translation practice, and to provide an
understanding of translation theory and practice for those working in
intercultural communication. Most importantly, in clarifying ‘culture’,
it aims to raise awareness of its role in constructing, perceiving and
translating reality.
This book, then, should serve as a framework for interpreters and
translators (both actual and potential) working between any languages,
and also for those working or living between cultures who wish to
understand more about their intercultural successes and frustrations.
The book is divided into three main parts:

Part I: Framing culture: the culture-​bound mental map of the world

Part II: Shifting frames: translation and mediation in theory and
practice
Part III: The array of frames: communication orientations.

Framing culture: the culture-​bound mental map of

the world
Part I outlines the complexity of translation, and shows how even
simple technical language can easily create problems that Google
Translate cannot cope with, given its limited analysis and understand­
ing of context. Differences across languages, as will be seen, often
 Introduction 3

have their roots in differences across a variety of contexts, ranging

from those of the immediate situation to those involving culture. We
begin by discussing how the concepts of context, community and cul-
ture have been approached.
We then move on to organizing ‘culture’ ‒ and approaches to
teaching it ‒ into one unifying framework of Logical Levels, which will
then form the backbone of the book itself. Throughout this book, cul-
ture is perceived as a system for making sense of experience. A basic
presupposition is that this organization of experience is never an
objective representation of ‘reality’. It is instead a simplified and
distorted model that makes sense to one group of people but should
not be expected to be universal. So, cultures act as frames within which
external signs or ‘reality’ are interpreted. Logically then, we should not
expect that the language used to express these culture-​bound models
of reality may be directly translatable. We then discuss how and in
what ways those who interpret and translate should intervene on the
text, and the subtly separated roles of the translator/​interpreter and
the cultural mediator.
Part I concludes with an in-​depth analysis of how individuals per-
ceive, catalogue and construct reality, and how this perception is
communicated through language. The approach is interdisciplinary,
taking ideas from Anthropology, such as Gregory Bateson’s Logical
Typing and meta-​message theories; Bandler and Grinder’s Meta-​Model
theory; Sociolinguistics; Speech Act Theory; Sperber and Wilson’s
Relevance Theory; and Hallidayan Functional Grammar.

Shifting frames: translation and mediation in theory

and practice
Part II begins with a discussion of the strategies a translator, interpreter
or cultural mediator needs to adopt to account for culture-​bound
frames. It includes a brief overview of how culture has been associated
with translation. Translation itself, following Nida (1976:65), is here
viewed as “essentially an aspect of a larger domain, namely, that of
communication”. Steiner (1975:47) in his aptly titled book After
Babel takes an even wider view of translation: “inside or between
languages, human communication equals translation”. Hence, trans-
lation is discussed within the wider context of communication.
This stance entails making the basic differences in translation
theory clear. Either translation is principally an activity of transfer-
ring or converting text from one language to another, or as we pro-
pose, a service with the aim of ensuring communication for people
who do not have the necessary language skills. We focus on a number
of procedures (such as chunking and use of the Meta-​Model) designed
to account for and mediate the context of culture and (re)frame the
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