SEQUENCES AND SERIES:

A sequence is a set of numbers or quantities connected by a definite law. Each of

the numbers in the sequence is called a term.
Examples of sequences are shown below:
(i) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,…
(ii) 1, 4 ,9 ,16 ,25,…
(iii) 1 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 7 , 11,….
Example 1:
Find the next three terms in the sequence 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 ,…,….,…. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 11,13,15]
Example 2:
Find the next three terms in the sequence 5 , 10 , 20 , 40,…,….,…. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 80,160,320]
THE 𝒏𝒕𝒉 TERM OF A SEQUENCE:
This is the term that represents the general expression of the series.
Example 3:
The 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of a series is given by 4𝑛 − 1. Write down the first four terms.
SOLUTION:
𝑈𝑛 = 4𝑛 − 1
Therefore, 𝑈1 = (4 × 1) − 1 = 3.
𝑈2 = (4 × 2) − 1 = 7, 𝑈3 = (4 × 3) − 1 = 11 and 𝑈4 = (4 × 4) − 1 = 15.The first
four terms of the sequence are 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟓.
Example 4:
Find the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of the sequence 1 ,3, 5, 7,..
SOLUTION:
The constant term between consecutive term is 2 and the first term is 1.
This gives 𝑈𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1.
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
(i) Find the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of the sequence 1 , 4 , 9 , 16,.. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝒏𝟐 ].
(ii) Find the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of the sequence 5 , 10 , 15, 20,.. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝟓𝒏].
(iii) Find the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of the sequence 2, 6, 10, 14,.. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝟒𝒏 − 𝟐].
A finite sequence contains only a finite number of terms e.g The page of a book.
An infinite sequence is unending. For example the set of natural numbers
1
 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P):
When a sequence has a constant difference between successive terms, it is called
an arithmetic progression (A.P). The first term is 𝒂 and the common difference is 𝒅.
Examples of arithmetic progressions are shown below:
(i) 1+4+7+10+13+…
(ii) 3+5+7+9+11+13+…
(iii) 2+7+12+17+22+…
The 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of an A.P is given by 𝑼𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅.
𝒏
The sum of the first 𝒏 terms of an A.P is given by 𝑺𝒏 = {𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅}.
𝟐
Example 5:
The seventh term of an A.P is 29 and the eleventh is 54. Find the first term, the
common difference and the sixteen term.
SOLUTION:
From, 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑.
We have 𝑈7 = 𝑎 + (7 − 1)𝑑. This gives 29 = 𝑎 + 6𝑑…(i)
Also, 𝑈11 = 𝑎 + (11 − 1)𝑑. This gives 54 = 𝑎 + 10𝑑…(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) gives 𝑑 = 6.25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = −8.5.

From, 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, we have From 𝑈16 = −8.5 + (16 − 1)6.25.

This gives 𝑈16 = 85.25
Therefore, the first term is −𝟖. 𝟓, the common difference is 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 and the sixteenth
term is 𝟖𝟓. 𝟐𝟓.
Example 5.1
2𝑎𝑐 𝑏
If 𝑎−1 , 𝑏 −1 , 𝑐 −1 , 𝑑 −1 are in A.P, prove that 𝑏 = and find in terms of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐.
𝑎+𝑐 𝑑
SOLUTION:
The common difference 𝑏 −1 − 𝑎−1 = 𝑐 −1 − 𝑎−1 is the same.
1 1 1 1 2 1 1
This gives − = − and simplifies to = + . If we get the LCM and further
𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎
simplify this gives us
2 𝑎+𝑐 2𝑎𝑐
= ; from which we shall have 𝑏 = .
𝑏 𝑎𝑐 𝑎+𝑐

2
 2 1 1
Also 𝑐 −1 − 𝑏 −1 = 𝑑 −1 − 𝑐 −1 , and we get − = ……(i)
𝑐 𝑏 𝑑
2𝑏 𝑏
Multiply equation (i) by 𝑏 gives −1= .
𝑐 𝑑
2𝑎𝑐 2 2𝑎𝑐 𝑏
Let us substitute 𝑏 = , to get ×( ) − 1 = 𝑑.
𝑎+𝑐 𝑐 𝑎+𝑐
4𝑎 𝑏 4𝑎−(𝑎+𝑐) 𝑏
This gives us −1= Or = .
𝑎+𝑐 𝑑 𝑎+𝑐 𝑑
3𝑎−𝑐 𝑏
This finally yields to = .
𝑎+𝑐 𝑑
𝒃 𝟑𝒂−𝒄
Therefore, =
𝒅 𝒂+𝒄
Example 6:
The 7𝑡ℎ term of an A.P is 22 and the 12𝑡ℎ is 37. Find the first term, the common
difference and the sum of the first 10 terms.
SOLUTION:
From, 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑.
We have 𝑈7 = 𝑎 + (7 − 1)𝑑. This gives 22 = 𝑎 + 6𝑑…(i)
Also, 𝑈12 = 𝑎 + (12 − 1)𝑑. This gives 37 = 𝑎 + 11𝑑…(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) gives 𝑑 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 4.
𝒏 𝟏𝟎
From, 𝑺𝒏 = {𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅}. We get 𝑺𝟏𝟎 = {(𝟐 × 𝟒) + (𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏)𝟑}. 𝑺𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓
𝟐 𝟐
Therefore, the first term is 𝟒, the common difference is 𝟑 and the sum of the first 10
terms is 𝟏𝟕𝟓.
Example 7:
Three numbers are in A.P such that their sum is 9 and their product is 20.25.
Determine the three numbers.
SOLUTION:
Let the A.P be in the order (𝑎 − 𝑑) + 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑).
Adding the three numbers gives (𝑎 − 𝑑) + 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) = 9 Or 3𝑎 = 9. This gives
𝑎 = 3.
The product of the numbers is 𝑎(𝑎2 − 𝑑 2 ) = 20.25
We get 3(32 − 𝑑 2 ) = 20.25 . This simplifies to (32 − 𝑑 2 ) = 6.75 Or 9 − 6.75 = 𝑑 2 .
Therefore 𝑑 2 = 2.25 and this gives 𝑑 = ±1.5
The numbers are (3 − 1.5) + 3 + (3 + 1.5) 𝑜𝑟 1.5 + 3 + 4.5
Therefore, the three numbers are 𝟏. 𝟓, 𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟒. 𝟓
3
Example 8:
Find the number of terms of the series 5 + 8 + 11 + ⋯ which gives a sum of
1025. [𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟓]
Example 9:
Find the 9𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 16𝑡ℎ term of the series 2 + 7 + 12 + 17 + ⋯ [𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟒𝟐, 𝟕𝟕]
Example 10:
The 6𝑡ℎ term of an A.P is −5 and the 10𝑡ℎ is −21. Find the first term, the common
difference and the sum of the first 30 terms. [𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟏𝟓; −𝟒; −𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟎 ]
Example 11:
On commencing employment, a technician was paid a salary of 𝑠ℎ𝑠: 160,000 per
annum and received annual increments of 𝑠ℎ𝑠: 4,800. Determine his salary in the
9𝑡ℎ year and calculate the total he received in the first 12 years.
SOLUTION:
This is an A.P with 𝑎 = 160,000 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 4,800.
From 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑; we get 𝑈9 = (160,000) + (9 − 1)(4,800).
This gives 𝑈9 = 198,400.
𝒏 𝟏𝟐
From, 𝑺𝒏 = {𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅}. We get 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = {(𝟐 × 𝟏𝟔𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎) + (𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏)𝟒, 𝟖𝟎𝟎}.
𝟐 𝟐
𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐, 𝟐𝟑𝟔, 𝟖𝟎𝟎.
Therefore, his salary in the 9 year was 𝑠ℎ𝑠: 𝟏𝟗𝟖, 𝟒𝟎𝟎 and the total he received
𝑡ℎ

after 12 years was 𝒔𝒉𝒔: 𝟐, 𝟐𝟑𝟔, 𝟖𝟎𝟎.

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS (G.P):

This is a series which has a constant ratio between successive terms. The constant
ratio is called the common ratio 𝒓 and first term is 𝒂.
Examples of geometric progressions are shown below:
(i) 1 + 4 + 16 + 64 + ⋯
(ii) 5 + 10 + 20 + 40 + ⋯
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a G.P id given by 𝑼𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 .
𝑟 𝑛 −1
The sum of the first 𝒏 terms of a G.P is given by 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 1 or
𝑟−1
1−𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 1.
1−𝑟

4
Example 12.
The first term of a G.P is 4 and the 6𝑡ℎ term is 128. Determine the common ratio,
8𝑡ℎ and 11𝑡ℎ terms.
SOLUTION:
𝑎 = 4 and from 𝑼𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 , we have 𝑈6 = 4𝑟 5 . This gives 4𝑟 5 = 128.
We get 𝑟 5 = 32; from which 𝑟 = 2.
From , 𝑼𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 , we get 𝑼𝟖 = 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟕 or 𝑼𝟖 = 𝟓𝟏𝟐.
Also, 𝑼𝟏𝟏 = 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟏𝟎 or 𝑼𝟏𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟔.
Therefore, the common ratio is 2, 𝟖𝒕𝒉 term is 512 and 𝟏𝟏𝒕𝒉 term is 4096.
Example 13.
The 5𝑡ℎ term of a G.P is 162 and the 8𝑡ℎ term is 4374. Determine the common
ratio, first term and the sum of the first 14 terms of the series.
SOLUTION:
From 𝑼𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 , we have 𝑈5 = 𝑎𝑟 4 . This gives 𝑎𝑟 4 = 162….(i)
Also 𝑈8 = 𝑎𝑟 7 . This gives 𝑎𝑟 7 = 4374….(ii)
Divide (ii) by (i) gives 𝑟 3 = 27, from which we get 𝑟 = 3.
Substitute 𝑟 = 3 in (i) gives 𝑎 = 2.
From
𝑟 𝑛 −1 314 −1
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 (
𝑟−1
), we shall have 𝑆14 = 2 ( 3−1
). This gives 𝑆14 = 4782968.
Therefore the common ratio is 3 , the first term is 𝟐 and the sum of the first
14 terms is 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟔𝟖.
Example 13.1
In a G.P the sum of the second term and third term is 6 and the sum of the third
and fourth term is -12. Find the first term and the common ratio.
SOLUTION:
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 6…………………(i)

𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 = −12…………….(ii)
Divide (ii) by (i) gives

5
𝑎𝑟(1+𝑟) −12
= and this gives 𝑟 = −2.
𝑎𝑟 2 (1+𝑟) 6

Put 𝑟 = −2 in (i) to get 𝑎(−2) + 𝑎(−22 ) = 6.

This simplifies to −2𝑎 + 4𝑎 = 6 𝑂𝑟 2𝑎 = 6. This gives 𝑎 = 3.
Therefore, the first tem 𝒂 = 𝟑 and the common ratio 𝒓 = −𝟐.
Example 13.2:
The second and third terms of a G.P are 24 and 12(𝑏 + 1) respectively. Find b if the
sum of the first three terms of the progression is 76.
SOLUTION:
𝑎𝑟 = 24 … … . … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑎𝑟 2 = 12(𝑏 + 1) … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Divide (ii) by (i) gives

𝑎𝑟 2 12(𝑏+1) (𝑏+1)
= and this gives 𝑟 = .
𝒂𝒓 24 2
(𝑏+1) 48
Substitute 𝑟 = in (i) gives 𝑎 =
2 (𝑏+1)
48
Now 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 76 Or + 24 + 12(𝑏 + 1) = 76.
(𝑏+1)
48
Let 𝑡 = 𝑏 + 1 , and this gives + 24 + 12𝑡 = 76.
𝑡
This simplifies to 12𝑡 2 − 52𝑡 + 48 = 0.
4
This is a quadratic equation which can be solved to give 𝑡 = 3 𝑂𝑟 .
3
4 1
From 𝑡 = 𝑏 + 1, when 𝑡 = 3,we get 𝑏 = 2 and when 𝑡 = ,we get 𝑏 = .
3 3
𝟏
Therefore, 𝒃 = 𝑶𝒓 𝟐.
𝟑
Example 13.3:
The amplitude of the firs oscillation of a pendulum is 150 . If the amplitude of each
succeeding oscillation is 0.89 of the amplitude of the preceding oscillation, find
after how many oscillations the amplitude will first be less than 10 .
SOLUTION:
𝑎 = 150 and 𝑟 = 0.89
1
Now, 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 < 10 . This gives 150 (0.89)𝑛−1 < 10 and simplifies to 0.89𝑛−1 <
15
Or 0.89 𝑛−1
< 15 .−1

6
Applying logarithms on both sides gives
(𝑛 − 1) log10 (0.89) = − log10 (15)
And
log10 15
(𝑛 − 1) = −
log10 0.89
We get 𝑛 − 1 = 23.238 and we get 𝑛 = 24.238.
Therefore, the number of terms as 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟓.
Example 14:
If shs:250,000 is invested at a compound interest of 6% per annum, determine
(a) The value after 15 years
(b) The time, correct to the nearest year , it takes to reach shs:750,000
SOLUTION:
𝑟 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 +
100
) .
But 𝑃 = 𝑠ℎ𝑠: 250,000 ; 𝑟 = 6
6 15
Now, from 𝑼𝟏𝟓 = 250,000 (1 + ) , and this gives 𝑼𝟏𝟓 = 𝟓𝟗𝟗, 𝟏𝟑𝟗. 𝟓
100
𝑯𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒔: 𝟓𝟗𝟗, 𝟏𝟑𝟗. 𝟓
6 𝑛
Also 250,000 (1 + ) = 750,000. This simplifies to 1.06𝑛 = 3
100
Applying logarithms on both sides gives 𝑛 log 1.06 = log 3.
log 3
This gives 𝑛 = and we get 𝑛 = 18.85
log 1.06
Therefore 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟗 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔.

7
Example 15:
A drilling machine is to have 6 speeds ranging from 50 rev/min to 750 rev/min. If
the speeds form a G.P, determine their values each correct to the nearest whole
number.
SOLUTION:
The first term 𝑎 = 50 and 50𝑟 5 = 750. This gives 𝑟 5 = 15; from which 𝑟 = 1.7188
Second term 𝑼𝟐 = 𝒂𝒓. This gives𝑼𝟐 = 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟖 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟗𝟒
Third term 𝑼𝟑 = 𝒂𝒓𝟐 . This gives𝑼𝟑 = 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟕𝟕
Fourth term 𝑼𝟒 = 𝒂𝒓𝟑 . This gives𝑼𝟒 = 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟑 = 𝟐𝟓𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝟖
Fifth term 𝑼𝟑 = 𝒂𝒓𝟒 . This gives𝑼𝟓 = 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟒 = 𝟒𝟑𝟔. 𝟑𝟓
Sixth term 𝑼𝟑 = 𝒂𝒓𝟓 . This gives𝑼𝟔 = 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟓 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎
Hence , correct to the nearest whole number; the 6 speeds of the drilling machine
are:
𝟓𝟎 , 𝟖𝟔 , 𝟏𝟒𝟖 , 𝟐𝟓𝟒 , 𝟒𝟑𝟔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒗/𝒎𝒊𝒏.
ARITHMETIC MEAN:
The arithmetic mean of two numbers P and Q means inserting a number A
between P and Q such that P, A, Q are in A.P.
This means that the common difference 𝑑 = 𝐴 − 𝑃 𝑜 𝑟 𝑑 = 𝑄 − 𝐴.
𝑃+𝑄
Therefore 𝐴 − 𝑃 = 𝑄 − 𝐴. And this gives 𝐴 = .
2
Example16:
Insert three arithmetic means between 8 and 18.
SOLUTION:
Let the numbers be 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶.
We shall have our A.P as 8 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 18.
Our first term 𝑎 = 8 and 𝑎 + 4𝑑 = 18.
This gives 8 + 4𝑑 = 18, from which 𝑑 = 2.5.
Now , 𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴 = 8 + 2.5. We get 𝐴 = 10.5.
Also, 𝐵 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐵 = 8 + 5. We get 𝐵 = 13.
And 𝐶 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐶 = 8 + 7.5. We get 𝐶 = 15.5
The arithmetic means are 10.5,15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 17.5

8
GEOMETRIC MEAN:
The geometric mean of two number P and Q is a number A such that 𝑃 + 𝐴 + 𝑄
form a G.P.
𝐴 𝑄
The common ratio can be written as = . This gives 𝐴 = √𝑃𝑄.
𝑃 𝐴
Example 17:
Insert four numbers between 5 and 1215.
SOLUTION:
Our G.P is 5 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷 + 1215. Now since 𝑎 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟 5 = 1215.
We shall have 5𝑟 5 = 1215 or 𝑟 5 = 243 and this gives 𝑟 = 3.
Now , 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴 = 5 × 3. We get 𝐴 = 15.
Also, 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐵 = 5 × 32 . We get 𝐵 = 45.
Also, 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐶 = 5 × 33 . We get 𝐶 = 135
And , 𝐷 = 𝑎𝑟 4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷 = 5 × 34 . We get 𝐷 = 405
SUM TO INFINITY:
1−𝑟 𝑛
For the series 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 has its sum 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ( ).
1−𝑟
If 𝑟 lies between −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 i.e |𝑟| < 1 assuming that 𝑟 𝑛 approaches zero as
𝑎
𝑛 increases, hen the sum to infinity of the series is .
1−𝑟
𝑎
𝑆∞ = .
1−𝑟
Example 17:
1 1 1 1
Find the sum to infinity of the series 1 + + + + +⋯
2 4 8 16
SOLUTION:
1
This is a G.P with 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑟 =
2
𝑎 1 1
From 𝑆∞ = , we get 𝑆∞ = 1 . This gives 𝑆∞ = 1 and simplifies to 𝑆∞ = 2
1−𝑟 1−
2 2

The sum to infinity of the above series is 𝟐.

9
Example 17.1:
The sum to infinity of a G.P is 4 and the second term is 1. Find the first term,
common ratio and the fourth term.
SOLUTION:

𝑎
= 4. This gives 𝑎 = 4(1 − 𝑟) …..(i)
1−𝑟
Also 𝑎𝑟 = 1……(ii).
1 4−4𝑟
Divide (i) by (ii) to get = . This simplifies to 4𝑟 − 4𝑟 2 = 1 or 4𝑟 2 − 4𝑟 + 1 = 0
𝑟 1
1
which is a quadratic equation and can be solved to give 𝑟 = .
2
1 1
Substitute 𝑟 = in (ii) gives 𝑎 ( ) = 1 and we get 𝑎 = 2.
2 2
1 3 1
The fourth term 𝑈4 = 𝑎𝑟 3 = 2 × ( ) and 𝑈4 = .
2 4
𝟏 𝟏
Therefore, the first term is 2 , the common ratio is and the fourth term is .
𝟐 𝟖
Example 17.2:
Express 0.454545 recurring as a fraction.
SOLUTION:
45 45 45
0.45454545 = + + + ⋯ ..
100 10000 1000000

45 1
This is a G.P with 𝑎 = and 𝑟 =
100 100
45
45 99
We can get its sum to infinity as 𝑆∞ = 100
1 . This gives 𝑆∞ = ( ) ÷ (100).
1− 100
100
45 5
And gives 𝑆∞ = Or
99 11
𝟓
Therefore, 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟒𝟓𝟒𝟓 recurring as a fraction is .
𝟏𝟏
Example 17.3:
Express 0.0777 recurring as a fraction.
SOLUTION:
7 7 7
0.0777 = + + + ⋯ ..
100 1000 10000

7 1
This is a G.P with 𝑎 = and 𝑟 =
100 10
10
 7
7 9
We can get its sum to infinity as 𝑆∞ = 100
1 . This gives 𝑆∞ = ( ) ÷ (10).
1− 100
10
7
And gives 𝑆∞ =
90
𝟕
Therefore, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟕 recurring as a fraction is .
𝟗𝟎

Example 17.4:
Express 0.72222 recurring as a fraction.
SOLUTION:
7 2 2 2 2
0.7222 = + + + + + ⋯ ..
10 100 1000 1000 100000
7 2 2 2 2
0.7222 = +[ + + + +]
10 100 1000 1000 100000
2 1
This is a G.P with 𝑎 = and 𝑟 =
100 10
2
2 9
We can get its sum to infinity as 𝑆∞ = 100
1 . This gives 𝑆∞ = ( ) ÷ (10).
1− 100
10
2
And gives 𝑆∞ =
90
7 2
0.7222 = +
10 90

63 2 65 13
0.7222 = + = =
90 90 90 18
𝟏𝟑
Therefore, 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟐𝟐 recurring as a fraction is .
𝟏𝟖

TRIAL QUESTIONS:
Express the following recurring decimals as fractions:
5
(a) 0.55555 … … [𝐴𝑛𝑠: ]
9
6
(b) 0.545454 … … [𝐴𝑛𝑠: ]
11

11
LIMITING VALUES:
These are values that a sequence approaches as the input approaches some value.
Example 18:
5𝑛+3
Find the limiting value of as 𝑛 → ∞.
2𝑛−7
SOLUTION:
We cannot substitute 𝑛 = ∞ in the above expression since ∞ is not an ordinary
number.
Instead, we divide each term in the numerator and denominator by 𝑛.
3
5+
This gives us 𝑛
7 .
2−
𝑛
3
5𝑛+3 5+
Now lim ( ) = lim ( 𝑛
7 ).
𝑛→∞2𝑛−7 𝑛→∞ 2−
𝑛
3 7
As 𝑛 → ∞, → 0 and → 0.
𝑛 𝑛
3
5+ 5+0 5
We get lim ( 𝑛
7 ) = 2−0 = 2
𝑛→∞ 2−
𝑛
𝟓𝒏+𝟑 𝟓
Therefore, the limiting value of as 𝒏 → ∞ is .
𝟐𝒏−𝟕 𝟐
Example 18.1:
𝑥 2 +5𝑥−4
Find the limiting value of as 𝑥 → ∞.
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
SOLUTION:
We cannot substitute 𝑥 = ∞ in the above expression since ∞ is not an ordinary
number.
Instead, we divide each term in the numerator and denominator by 𝑥.
5 4
1+ − 2
This gives us 𝑥 𝑥
3 1 .
2− + 2
𝑥 𝑥
5 4
𝑥 2 +5𝑥−4 1+ − 2
Now lim ( 2 ) = lim ( 𝑥 𝑥
3 1 ).
𝑥→∞2𝑥 −3𝑥+1 𝑥→∞ 2− + 2
𝑥 𝑥
3 3 4 1
As 𝑥 → ∞, → 0 , →0, → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 →0
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥2
5 4
1+ − 2 1+0−0 1
We get lim ( 𝑥 𝑥
3 1 ) = 2−0+0 = 2
𝑥→∞ 2− + 2
𝑥 𝑥
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙−𝟒 𝟏
Therefore, the limiting value of as 𝒙 → ∞ is .
𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙+𝟏 𝟐
12
 2𝑛2 +4𝑛−3 2
TRIAL QUESTION: Find the limiting value of as 𝑛 → ∞. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: ]
5𝑛2 −6𝑛+1 5

SUMMATION OF SERIES:
The series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ . +𝑛 is an A.P with first term 𝑎 = 1 and common
difference 𝑑 = 1.
𝑛
We can get its sum from 𝑆𝑛 = {2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}.
2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
This gives 𝑆𝑛 = {2 + (𝑛 − 1)1} and we get 𝑆𝑛 = {2 + 𝑛 − 1} Or 𝑆𝑛 = {𝑛 + 1}.
2 2 2
𝑛
Therefore, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ . +𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1).
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)
This can be summarized as ∑𝑛1 𝑟 = .
2
We can also prove that:
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
∑𝑛1 𝑟 2 = and ∑𝑛1 𝑟 3 = { }
6 2
Example18.2:
Find the sum of the series ∑51 𝑛(3 + 2𝑛).
SOLUTION:

∑𝑛1 𝑟(3 + 2𝑟) = ∑𝑛1(3𝑟 + 2𝑟 2 ) ..

This gives ∑𝑛1 𝑟(3 + 2𝑟) = 3 ∑𝑛1 𝑟 + 2 ∑𝑛1 𝑟 2. .

𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)

=3× +2× .
2 6
9𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
=
6
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
= {9 + 4𝑛 + 2}
6
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(4𝑛 + 11)
=
6
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(4𝑛 + 11)
∑ 𝑟(3 + 2𝑟) =
6
1
And

13
 5
5(5 + 1)[(4 × 5) + 11]
∑ 𝑟(3 + 2𝑟) =
6
1
We shall have
5
5(6)(31)
∑ 𝑟(3 + 2𝑟) = = 155
6
1
Therefore, ∑𝟓𝟏 𝒏(𝟑 + 𝟐𝒏) = 𝟏𝟓𝟓.
Example 18.3:
Find an expression for ∑𝑛1 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) and hence evaluate for ∑94 𝑟(𝑟 + 3)
SOLUTION:

∑𝑛1 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = ∑𝑛1(𝑟 2 + 3𝑟) ..

This gives ∑𝑛1 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = ∑𝑛1 𝑟 2 + 3 ∑𝑛1 𝑟.

𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)

= +3× .
6 2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) + 9𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
=
6
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
= {2𝑛 + 1 + 9}
6
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 10)
=
6
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 5)
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) =
3
1
And
9 9 3

∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) − ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3)

4 1 1
We shall have
9
9(10)(14) 3(4)(8)
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = −
3 3
4

14
 9

∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = 420 − 32
4
9

∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = 388
4

Therefore, ∑𝟗𝟒 𝒓(𝒓 + 𝟑) = 𝟑𝟖𝟖.

Example 18.4:
Obtain an expression for ∑𝑛𝑟=1(2𝑟 2 − 1).
Use your result above to sum up the series 1 + 7 + 17 + 31 + ⋯ + 799.
SOLUTION:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) = ∑(2𝑟 2 ) − ∑ 1
𝑟=1 1 1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) = 2 ∑(𝑟 2 ) − ∑ 1
𝑟=1 1 1
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) = 2 [ ]−𝑛
6
𝑟=1
𝑛
2𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) − 6𝑛
∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) =
6
𝑟=1
𝑛
2𝑛(2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 1 − 3)
∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) =
6
𝑟=1
𝑛
𝑛(2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 − 2)
∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) =
3
𝑟=1
This can be simplified as
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 2)(2𝑛 − 1)
∑(2𝑟 2 − 1) =
3
𝑟=1
Now 𝑈𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1 and we shall have 2𝑛2 − 1 = 799 from which 𝑛 = 20.
2

𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎(𝟐𝟐)(𝟑𝟗)
∴ 𝟏 + 𝟕 + 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟑𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝟕𝟗𝟗 = ∑(𝟐𝒓𝟐 − 𝟏) = = 𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟎.
𝟑
𝒓=𝟏

15
Example 19:
Find the sum of the series 𝑆𝑛 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2.
SOLUTION
𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛1(2𝑛 − 1)2 . On removing the brackets, we get
𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛1(4𝑛2 − 4𝑛 + 1) .
This later gives 𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛1(4𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛1(4𝑛) + ∑𝑛1(1).
And 𝑆𝑛 = 4 ∑𝑛1(𝑛2 ) − 4 ∑𝑛1(𝑛) + ∑𝑛1(1).
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)
We shall have 𝑆𝑛 = 4 { }− 4{ } + 𝑛.
6 2
4𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)−12𝑛(𝑛+1)+6𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = .
6
2𝑛(4𝑛2 + 6𝑛 + 2 − 6𝑛 − 6 + 3)
𝑆𝑛 =
6
2
2𝑛(4𝑛 + 6𝑛 + 2 − 6𝑛 − 6 + 3)
𝑆𝑛 =
6
𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
3
𝒏(𝟒𝒏𝟐 −𝟏)
Therefore, ∑𝒏𝟏(𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)𝟐 = .
𝟑
Example 19.1.1
Evaluate: ∑𝑛0(𝑟 + 5)
SOLUTION:
𝑛

∑(𝑟 + 5) = 5 + 6 + 7 + ⋯ + (𝑛 + 5).
0
𝑛 𝑛

∑(𝑟 + 5) = 5 + ∑(𝑟 + 5).

0 1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(𝑟 + 5) = 5 + ∑(𝑟) + ∑(5).

0 1 1
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
∑(𝑟 + 5) = 5 + + 5𝑛
2
0

16
 𝑛
10 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 10𝑛
∑(𝑟 + 5) =
2
0

𝑛
𝑛2 + 𝑛 + 10𝑛 + 10
∑(𝑟 + 5) =
2
0
𝒏
(𝒏 + 𝟏)(𝒏 + 𝟏𝟎)
∑(𝒓 + 𝟓) =
𝟐
𝟎

TRIAL QUESTION:
Evaluate ∑41(2𝑛 + 𝑛3 ). [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 120]

Example 19.1:
1
Express in partial fractions . Hence find the sum to infinity of the series
𝑟(𝑟+1)
1
∑∞
𝟏 .
𝑟(𝑟+1)

SOLUTION:
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = + . We shall get 1 = 𝐴(𝑟 + 1) + 𝐵𝑟.
𝑟(𝑟+1) 𝑟 (𝑟+1)

Put 𝑟 = 0, gives 1 = 𝐴; and if we put 𝑟 = −1, we shall have 1 = −𝐵 Or 𝐵 = −1.

1 1 1
Therefore ≡ − .
𝑟(𝑟+1) 𝑟 (𝑟+1)

𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
1 1 1
∑ =∑ −∑ .
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

𝒏
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ = ( + + + + ⋯+ ) − ( + + + ⋯+ + )
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 1 2 3 4 𝑛 2 3 4 𝑛 𝑛+1
𝟏

17
 𝒏
1 1
∑ =1−
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑛+1
𝟏
As 𝑛 → ∞, we shall have
∞
1 1
∑ =1− =1−0
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) ∞+1
𝟏
𝟏
Therefore, ∑∞
𝟏 = 𝟏.
𝒓(𝒓+𝟏)

Example 19.2:
If 𝑈𝑟 = log10 𝑟, show that ∑10 10
1 𝑈𝑟 = ∑1 log10 𝑟 = log10 (3628800).
SOLUTION:
10

∑ log10 𝑟 = log10 1 + log10 2 + log10 3 + ⋯ + log10 8 + log10 9 + log10 10.

1

10

∑ log10 𝑟 = log10 {1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8 × 9 × 10}.

1
10

∑ log10 𝑟 = log10 (3628800).

1

18
CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT SERIES:
A series in which the sum 𝑆𝑛 of the n terms of the series tends to a definite value as
𝑛 → ∞ is called a convergent series.
If 𝑆𝑛 does not tend to a definite value as 𝑛 → ∞ , the series is divergent.
Example 20:
1 1 1
To what sum does the series 1 + + + +⋯ converge.
3 9 27
SOLUTION:
1
This is a G.P with first term 𝑎 = 1 and common ratio 𝑟 = .
3
1 𝑛
1−𝑟 𝑛 1−( )
From 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ( ), we shall have 𝑆𝑛 = 1 ( 3
1 ),
1−𝑟 1−
3
1 𝑛
1−( ) 3 1 𝑛 3 1
This gives 𝑆𝑛 = ( 2
3
) Or 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (1 − (3) ). This simplifies to 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (1 − 3𝑛 ).
3
3 3
As 𝑛 → ∞, we shall have lim 𝑆𝑛 = (1 − 0) = .
𝑛→∞ 2 2
Example 20.1:
1 1 1 1 1 1
Is the series 1 + + + + + … + convergent or divergent.
2 3 4 5 6 𝑛
SOLUTION:
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑆𝑛 = 1 + + + + + … + .
2 3 4 5 6 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
The series can be written as 1 + + { + } + { + } …
2 3 4 5 6
𝑆∞ = ∞.
This series is divergent.

19
COMPARISON TEST:
A series of n positive integers is convergent if its terms are less than the
corresponding terms of a positive series that is known to be convergent.
The series is divergent if its terms are greater than the corresponding terms of a
series which is convergent.
Example 21:
1 1 1 1 1
Test the series 1 + + + + …+ + .
22 33 44 55 𝑛𝑛
SOLUTION:
1 1 1 1 1
We compare this series with 1 + + + + …+ + which is convergent.
22 23 24 25 2𝑛
We then compare corresponding terms after the first two terms.
1 1 1 1 1 1
We can see that < , < , < and so on. The series is convergent.
33 23 4 4 24 55 5
D’Alembert’s ratio test:
Let 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 + 𝑈3 + ⋯ + 𝑈𝑛 be a series of positive terms.
𝑈𝑛+1
(i) If lim < 1, the series converge.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1
(ii) If lim < 1, the series diverge.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1
(iii) If lim = 1, the result is inconclusive.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
Example 22:
Use D’Alembert’s ratio test to confirm whether the series
1 3 5 7
+ + + +⋯ is convergent or not.
1 2 22 23
SOLUTION:
We decide on the pattern of the series and write down the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and the next
term.
2𝑛−1 2𝑛+1
𝑈𝑛 = and 𝑈𝑛+1 = .
2𝑛−1 2𝑛

𝑈𝑛+1 2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 − 1
= ( 𝑛 ) ÷ ( 𝑛−1 )
𝑈𝑛 2 2
This gives
𝑈𝑛+1 1 2𝑛 + 1
= ( )
𝑈𝑛 2 2𝑛 − 1
20
 1
𝑈𝑛+1 1 2𝑛+1 1 2+
𝑛
lim = lim ( ) = lim 2 ( 1 ).
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛 2 2𝑛−1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2−
𝑛
1 2+0 1
This gives lim ( ) = ,
2 2−0 2
𝑛→∞
𝑈𝑛+1
Since lim < 1, the series is convergent.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
Example 22.1:
Use D’Alembert’s ratio test to confirm whether the series
1 2 22 23 24
+ + + + +⋯ is convergent or not.
5 6 7 8 9
SOLUTION:
We decide on the pattern of the series and write down the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and the next
term.
2𝑛−1 2𝑛
𝑈𝑛 = and 𝑈𝑛+1 = .
𝑛+4 𝑛+5
𝑈𝑛+1 2𝑛−1 2𝑛
=( )÷( )
𝑈𝑛 𝑛+4 𝑛+5
This gives
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑛+4
= 2( )
𝑈𝑛 𝑛+5
4
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑛+4 1+
𝑛
lim = lim 2 ( ) = lim 2 ( 5 ).
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+5 𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛
1+0
This gives lim 2 ( ) = 2.
𝑛→∞ 1+0
𝑈𝑛+1
Since lim > 1, the series is divergent.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
Example 22.2:
Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which the following series is absolutely convergent.
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
− + − + +⋯
2.5 3. 52 4. 53 5. 54 6. 55
SOLUTION:
We decide on the pattern of the series and write down the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and the next
term.
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑈𝑛 = (𝑛+1).5𝑛 and 𝑈𝑛+1 = .
(𝑛+2).5𝑛+1

21
 𝑈𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛
=[ ÷
] [ ]
𝑈𝑛 (𝑛 + 2). 5𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1). 5𝑛
This gives
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑥
= ( )
𝑈𝑛 𝑛+2 5
1
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑥 1+ 𝑥
lim = lim ( ) = lim ( 𝑛
2 ) 5.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+2 5 𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛
1
1+ 𝑥 𝑥
This gives lim ( 𝑛
2 )5 = 5.
𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1
For absolute convergence, lim | | < 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
𝑥
The series is convergent when | | < 1, i.e for |𝑥| < 5.
5
The range of values of 𝒙 for absolute convergence is −𝟓 < 𝒙 < 𝟓.
Example 22.3:
Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which the following series is absolutely convergent.
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
+ + + +⋯
1.2 2.3 3.4 4.5
SOLUTION:
We decide on the pattern of the series and write down the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and the next
term.
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑈𝑛 = and 𝑈𝑛+1 = .
𝑛(𝑛+1) (𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛
=( )÷( )
𝑈𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑛
This gives = ( )𝑥
𝑈𝑛 𝑛+2
𝑈𝑛+1 𝑛 1
lim = lim ( ) 𝑥 = lim ( 2 ) 𝑥.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+2 𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛

1
This gives lim ( ) 𝑥 = 𝑥.
2
𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1
For absolute convergence, lim | | < 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛

The series is convergent when |𝑥| < 1, i.e for |𝑥| < 1.
The range of values of 𝒙 for absolute convergence is −𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟏.
22
TRIAL QUESTION:
Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which the following series is absolutely convergent.
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
+ + + +⋯ [𝑨𝒏𝒔: − 𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟏]
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 4.5.6

MACLAURIN’S SERIES:
𝑥2 𝑥3
It states that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯.
2! 3!
The series holds provided 𝑓(0) ≠ ∞ and 𝑓 ′ (0). 𝑓 ′′ (0). 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯ ≠ ∞. The series
must be convergent as well.
Example 23:
Using Maclaurin’s series, find the first four (non- zero) terms for the function
𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥.
SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, 𝑓(0) = cos 0 = 1.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = − sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − cos 0 = −1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = cos 0 = 1

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 𝑣𝑖 (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑣𝑖 (0) = 1.

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 , 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯.
2! 3!
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟔
We get 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝟏 − + − .
𝟐! 𝟒! 𝟔!

23
Example23.1:
(a) Determine the first five term for the series ln(1 + 𝑥) and ln(1 − 𝑥)
respectively.
1+𝑥
(b) Use the series for ln(1 + 𝑥) and ln(1 − 𝑥) to determine the series for ln ( )
1−𝑥
and hence evaluate ln 3 correct to 4 decimal places.
SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + 𝑥), 𝑓(0) = ln 1 = 0.

1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 ′ (0) = =1
1+𝑥 1+0

1 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − (1+𝑥)2 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − (1+0)2 = −1

2 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = (1+𝑥)3 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = (1+0)3 = 2

6 6
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = − (1+𝑥)4 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = − (1+0)4 = −6

24 24
𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = (1+𝑥)5
, 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = (1+0)5 = 24

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 , 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯.
2! 3!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
We get 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙) = 𝒙 − + − + .
2 3 4 5
Alternatively,
𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 − 𝑥) = ln[1 + (−𝑥)].
We can substitute −𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ln(1 + 𝑥) and this gives
(−𝑥)2 (−𝑥)3 (−𝑥)4 (−𝑥)5
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧[𝟏 + (−𝒙)] = (−𝒙) − + − + .
2 3 4 5
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝒙) = −𝒙 − − − − .
2 3 4 5

24
 OR We get 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝒙) Using Maclaurin’s series usual.
𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 − 𝑥), 𝑓(0) = ln 1 = 0.
−1 −1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 ′ (0) = = −1
1−𝑥 1−0
1 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − (1−𝑥)2 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − (1−0)2 = −1

−2 −2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)3 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = (1−0)3 = −2
6 6
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = − (1−𝑥)4 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = − (1−0)4 = −6
−24 −24
𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)5
, 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = (1−0)5 = −24
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯.
2! 3!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
We get 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝒙) = −𝒙 − − − − .
2 3 4 5
1+𝑥
Now, ln ( ) = ln(1 + 𝑥) − ln(1 − 𝑥)
1−𝑥
1+𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
ln ( ) = [𝒙 − + − + ] − [−𝒙 − − − − ]
1−𝑥 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
1+𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
ln ( ) = 𝟐 (𝒙 + + + )
1−𝑥 3 5 7
1
Let us put 𝑥 = , to get,
2
1 1 3 1 5 1 7
1+ 𝟏 (2 ) (2 ) (2 )
ln ( 2 ) = 𝟐( + + + )
1 𝟐 3 5 7
1−
2
3
𝟏 1 1 1
ln ( 2 ) = 𝟐 ( + + + )
1 𝟐 8 × 3 32 × 5 128 × 7
2

3 2 𝟏 1 1 1
ln [ × ] = 𝟐 ( + + + )
2 1 𝟐 24 160 896
240 + 20 + 3
ln 3 = 𝟐 ( )
480
ln 3 = 𝟐(0.5490327)
ln 3 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟖𝟏 [𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝟒 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔]
25
 Example 23.2
Use Maclaurin’s series to determine the expansion of (3 + 2𝑡)4 .
SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝑡) = (3 + 2𝑡)4 , 𝑓(0) = (3 + 2(0))4 = 34 = 81.

𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 4 × 2(3 + 2𝑡)3 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = 8(3)3 = 216

𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 8 × 3 × 2(3 + 2𝑡)2 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 48(3)2 = 432

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑡) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 48 × 2 × 2(3 + 2𝑡)1 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 192(3)1 = 576

𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = 192 × 2(3 + 2𝑡)0 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = 384(3)0 = 384

𝑡2 𝑡3
From 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑡𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯, we shall have
2! 3!
𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡4
(3 + 2𝑡)4 = 81 + 𝑡 × 216 + × 432 + × 576 + × 384.
2 6 24
Therefore, (𝟑 + 𝟐𝒕)𝟒 = 𝟖𝟏 + 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒕 + 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒕𝟐 + 𝟗𝟔𝒕 + 𝟏𝟔𝒕𝟒 . 𝟑

TRIAL QUESTION:
Use Maclaurin’s series to determine the expansion of (2 + 𝑥)4 .

26
 TAYLOR’S SERIES:
Maclaurin’s series and Taylor’s series are very much alike in some respect.
𝑥2 𝑥3
Maclaurin’s series: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯.
2! 3!
ℎ2 ℎ3
Taylor’s series: 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯
2! 3!
Example24:
Express sin(𝑥 + ℎ) as a series of powers of ℎ and evaluate sin 440 correct to 5
decimal places.
SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 .

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 .

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥

𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = sin 𝑥.
ℎ2 ℎ3
From : 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯., we shall have
2! 3!
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟑 𝒉𝟒
∴ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙 + 𝒉) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙.
𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒!
𝟎 𝟎) 𝟎
∴ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟒𝟓 − 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟒
𝟎 𝟎
(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓 + (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝟓 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓𝟎
𝟐!
(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 𝟎
(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟒
− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝟓 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓𝟎 .
𝟑! 𝟒!
𝝅
Since sin 45 = cos 45 , and 𝟏 = 𝟏 ×
0 0 𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓
𝟏𝟖𝟎

𝟎 𝟎
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟒
∴ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟒 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓 [𝟏 − (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓) − + + .]
𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒!

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟒𝟎 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓𝟎 [𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟑𝟖]

∴ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟒𝟔𝟔 ( 𝟓 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔).

27
Example 24.1:
Find the first four terms in expansion of log 𝑒 sin(𝑥 + ℎ) in ascending powers of ℎ ,
hence find the value of log 𝑒 sin 310 to four places of decimals given that
log 𝑒 sin 2 = 0.69315 [𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒔].

SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 sin 𝑥

cos 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = cot 𝑥.
sin 𝑥

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 cot 𝑥

ℎ2 ℎ3
From: 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯., we shall have
2! 3!
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟑
log 𝑒 sin(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 + (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 ) + (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 cot 𝑥).
2
𝟐! 𝟑!
𝟐 2
𝒉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝟐 𝟑
∴ log 𝑒 sin(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − + 𝒉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 cot 𝑥.
𝟐 𝟑

log 𝑒 sin(300 + 10 ) = log 𝑒 sin 310

𝟎
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 300
𝟎
= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎 + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓) 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟑𝟎 −
𝟐
𝟐
+ (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 300 cot 300
𝟑

(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 300

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟏 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎 + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓) 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟑𝟎𝟎 −
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐
𝟐
+ (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 300 cot 300
𝟑

𝟏 𝝅
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 300 = 𝟒 , 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟓 and 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏 × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓
𝟐 𝟏𝟖𝟎

28
 0
𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐 × 4 𝟐
log 𝑒 sin 31 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 ( ) + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)(𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟓) − + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 × 4 × 1.73205
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑

(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐 × 4 𝟐
log 𝑒 sin 310 = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝟐 + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)(𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟓) − − (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 × 4 × 1.73205
𝟐 𝟑

(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟐 × 4 𝟐
log 𝑒 sin 310 = −𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏𝟓 + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)(𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟓) − + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓)𝟑 × 4 × 1.73205
𝟐 𝟑

log 𝑒 sin 310 = −𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟏

∴ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟏𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟏

TRIAL QUESTION:
Express cos(𝑥 + ℎ) as a series of powers of ℎ and evaluate cos 310 correct to 5
decimal places. [𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟏𝟗].

NUMERICAL INTEGRTATION USING MACLAURIN’S SERIES:

The approximate value of a definite integral can be found by expressing the
function as a power series using Maclaurin’s series and then integrating each
algebraic term in turn.
Example 25:
0.4
Evaluate ∫0.1 2𝑒 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 to three (3) significant figures.
SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑒 sin 𝜃 , 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 sin 0 = 1.

𝑓 ′ (𝜃) = cos 𝜃 𝑒 sin 𝜃 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = cos 0 𝑒 sin 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝜃) = cos 𝜃 × (cos 𝜃 𝑒 sin 𝜃 ) − sin 𝜃 𝑒 sin 𝜃 = , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = cos 0 × (cos 0 𝑒 sin 0 ) −
sin 0 𝑒 sin 0 = 1

𝜃2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 , 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑒 sin 𝜃 = 𝑓(0) + 𝜃𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0).
2!
𝜃2
𝑒 sin 𝜃 = 1 + 𝜃 +
2!

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 0.4 0.4 𝜃2
Now, ∫0.1 2𝑒 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫0.1 2 {1 + 𝜃 + } 𝑑𝜃
2
0.4 𝜃2 𝜃2 𝜃3 0.4
We get 2 ∫0.1 {1 + 𝜃 + } 𝑑𝜃 = 2 [𝜃 + + ]
2 2 6 0.1
0.4 0.42 0.43 0.12 0.13
And ∫0.1 2𝑒 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2 {[0.4 + + ] − [0.1 + + ]}
2 6 2 6
𝟎.𝟒
∴ ∫ 𝟐𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏 (𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔).
𝟎.𝟏
Example 25.1:
1 sin 𝜃
Evaluate ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝜃 to three (3) significant figures.
𝜃
SOLUTION:

𝑓(𝜃) = sin 𝜃, 𝑓(0) = sin 0 = 0.

𝑓 ′ (𝜃) = cos 𝜃 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = cos 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ′′′ (𝜃) = − cos 𝜃 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = − cos 0 = −1

𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝜃) = sin 𝜃 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 𝑣 (𝜃) = cos 𝜃 , 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = cos 0 = 1

𝜃2 𝜃3
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 , 𝑓(𝜃) = sin 𝜃 = 𝑓(0) + 𝜃𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯.
2! 3!
𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟓
We get 𝒇(𝜽) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝜽 − + .
𝟑! 𝟓!
1 sin 𝜃 11 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟓
Now, ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝜃 = ∫0 {𝜽 − + } 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 𝟔 𝟏𝟐𝟎
1 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟒 1
𝜃2 𝜃5
We get ∫0 {1 − + } 𝑑𝜃 = [𝜃 − 18 + 600]
𝟔 𝟏𝟐𝟎 0
𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟏 𝟏
∴ ∫𝟎 ( 𝜽 ) 𝒅𝜽 = 𝟏 − + = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟔 ( 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔).
𝟏𝟖 𝟔𝟎𝟎
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1
(i) Evaluate ∫0 √𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 to three (3) significant figures. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 0.53]
1
(ii) Evaluate ∫0 √𝑥 log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 to three (3) significant figures. [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 0.061]

30
LIMITING VALUES:
0
For limiting values when the indeterminate form (𝑖. 𝑒 ) exists as 𝑥 → 𝑎 , apply
0
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
L’Hopitals Rule which states that lim { } = lim {𝑔′(𝑥)} , provided 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
And continue to do so until a stage is reached when either the numerator and /or
denominator is not zero.
Example 26:
Use L’hopital’s rule to determine;
tan 𝑥 − 𝑥
lim { }
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥
SOLUTION:
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 gives
tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 tan 0 − 0 0
lim { }= =
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 0 − 0 0
Applying L’hopital’s rule gives
tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1
lim { } = lim { }
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 1

Substituting 𝑥 = 0 gives
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 0 − 1 0
lim { }= =
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 1 cos 0 − 1 0
Applying L’hopital’s rule gives
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥
lim { } = lim { }
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→0 − sin 𝑥
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 gives
2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 0 tan 0 0
lim { }= =
𝑥→0 − sin 𝑥 − sin 0 0
Applying L’hopital’s rule gives
2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
lim { } = lim { }
𝑥→0 − sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 − cos 𝑥
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 gives
2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 0 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 0𝑡𝑎𝑛2 0 2
lim { }= = = −2
𝑥→0 − cos 𝑥 − cos 0 −1

Therefore;
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙−𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 { } = −𝟐 Using L’Hopital’s Rule.
𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙−𝒙

31
Example 26.1:
Use L’hopital’s rule to determine;
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3
lim { }
𝑥→1 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1
SOLUTION:
Substituting 𝑥 = 1 gives
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 13 − 2(1)2 + 4(1) − 3 0
lim { }= =
𝑥→1 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 4(1)2 − 5(1) + 1 0
Applying L’hopital’s rule gives
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
lim { } = lim { }
𝑥→1 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 𝑥→1 8𝑥 − 5
Substituting 𝑥 = 1 gives
3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 3(1)2 − 4(1) + 4 3
lim { }= = =1
𝑥→1 8𝑥 − 5 8(1) − 5 3
Therefore;
𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥−3
𝐥𝐢𝐦 {
4𝑥 2 −5𝑥+1
} = 𝟏 Using L’Hopital’s Rule.
𝒙→𝟏

Example 26.2:
Use L’hopital’s rule to determine;
ln 𝑥
lim { 2 }
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
SOLUTION:
Substituting 𝑥 = 1 gives
ln 𝑥 ln 1 0
lim { 2 }= =
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 (1)2 − 1 0
Applying L’hopital’s rule gives
1
ln 𝑥 (𝑥 )
lim { } = lim { }
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥→1 2𝑥

Substituting 𝑥 = 1 gives
1 1
(𝑥 ) (1) 1
lim { }= =
𝑥→1 2𝑥 2×1 2
Therefore;
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 { } = 𝟐 , Using L’Hopital’s Rule.
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏

32
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
Use L’hopital’s rule to determine:
𝑥−sin 𝑥
(i) lim { } [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 0]
𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑥+sin 𝑥
(ii) lim { } [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 2]
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 +𝑥
𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4
(iii) lim { } [𝐴𝑛𝑠: −1]
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −7𝑥+6

33