Europe

Europe is a continent[t] located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere

Europe
and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic
Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean
Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe shares the landmass of
Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Asia and
Africa.[10][11] Europe is commonly considered to be separated from
Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the
Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the waterway
of the Bosporus Strait.[12]

Europe covers about 10.18 million km2 (3.93 million sq mi), or 2% of

Earth's surface (6.8% of land area), making it the second-smallest
continent (using the seven-continent model). Politically, Europe is
divided into about fifty sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest
and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising
15% of its population. Europe had a total population of about 745
million (about 10% of the world population) in 2021; the third-largest
after Asia and Africa.[2][3] The European climate is affected by warm
Atlantic currents, such as the Gulf Stream, which produce a temperate
climate, tempering winters and summers, on much of the continent.
Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable
producing more continental climates.

European culture consists of a range of national and regional cultures, Area 10,180,000 km2
which form the central roots of the wider Western civilisation, and (3,930,000 sq mi)[1] (6th)[a]
together commonly reference ancient Greece and ancient Rome, Population 745,173,774 (2021; 3rd)[2][3]
particularly through their Christian successors, as crucial and shared
Population 72.9/km2 (188/sq mi) (2nd)
roots.[13][14] Beginning with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in
density
476 CE, Christian consolidation of Europe in the wake of the
Migration Period marked the European post-classical Middle Ages. GDP (PPP) $33.62 trillion (2022 est; 2nd)[4]
The Italian Renaissance, radiating from Florence, spread to the rest of GDP $24.02 trillion (2022 est; 3rd)[5]
the continent a new humanist interest in art and science which led to (nominal)
the modern era. Since the Age of Discovery, led by Spain and GDP per $34,230 (2022 est; 3rd)[c][6]
Portugal, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with capita
multiple explorations and conquests around the world. Between the HDI 0.845[7]
16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times
the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of
Religions Christianity (76.2%)[8]

Asia. No religion (18.3%)[8]

Islam (4.9%)[8]
The Age of Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the
Other (0.6%)[8]
Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically and
economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of Demonym European
the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Countries Sovereign (44–50)
Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, De facto (2–5)
cultural and social change in Western Europe and eventually the Dependencies External (5–6)
wider world. Both world wars began and were fought to a great Internal (3)
extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European
Languages Most common:
dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet
Union and the United States took prominence and competed over Russian · German · English ·
dominance in Europe and globally.[15] The resulting Cold War French · Italian · Spanish ·
divided Europe along the Iron Curtain, with NATO in the West and Polish · Ukrainian · Romanian ·
the Warsaw Pact in the East. This divide ended with the Revolutions Dutch · Serbo-Croatian
of 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the dissolution of the Soviet Time zones UTC−1 to UTC+5
Union, which allowed European integration to advance significantly. Largest cities Largest urban areas:
Moscow · Istanbul[b] · Paris ·
European integration is being advanced institutionally since 1948
London · Madrid · Essen-
with the founding of the Council of Europe, and significantly through
Düsseldorf · Saint Petersburg ·
the realisation of the European Union (EU), which represents today
Milan · Barcelona · Berlin[9]
the majority of Europe.[16] The European Union is a supranational
political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation and UN M49 code 150 – Europe
is based on a system of European treaties.[17] The EU originated in 001 – World
Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the a. ^ Figures include only European portions of
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of its members transcontinental countries. [n]
have adopted a common currency, the euro, and participate in the b. ^ Includes Asian population. Istanbul is a
European single market and a customs union. A large bloc of transcontinental city which straddles both Asia and
countries, the Schengen Area, have also abolished internal border and Europe.
immigration controls. Regular popular elections take place every five
c. ^ "Europe" as defined by the International
years within the EU; they are considered to be the second-largest
Monetary Fund.
democratic elections in the world after India's. The EU is the third-
largest economy in the world.

Name
The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their
northernmost province, which bears the same name today. The principal river there
– Evros (today's Maritsa) – flows through the fertile valleys of Thrace,[18] which
itself was also called Europe, before the term meant the continent.[19]

In classical Greek mythology, Europa (Ancient Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē) was a

Phoenician princess. One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek
elements εὐρύς (eurús) 'wide, broad', and ὤψ (ōps, gen. ὠπός, ōpós) 'eye, face,
countenance', hence their composite Eurṓpē would mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad
of aspect'.[20][21][22][23] Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the
reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it.[20] An
Reconstruction of an early world map alternative view is that of Robert Beekes, who has argued in favour of a pre-Indo-
made by Anaximander of the 6th European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield
century BCE, dividing the known a different toponym than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of
world into three large landmasses, Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in
one of which was named Europe
ancient Macedonia.[24]

There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to a Semitic term for west, this being
either Akkadian erebu meaning 'to go down, set' (said of the sun) or Phoenician 'ereb 'evening, west',[25] which is at the
origin of Arabic maghreb and Hebrew ma'arav. Martin Litchfield West stated that "phonologically, the match between
Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor",[26] while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic
languages improbable.[24]

Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example,
uses the word Ōuzhōu ( 歐洲 欧洲
/ ), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name Ōuluóbā zhōu ( 歐羅巴洲
) (zhōu
means "continent"); a similar Chinese-derived term Ōshū ( 欧州 ) is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the
Japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō ( 欧州連合 ), despite the katakana Yōroppa ( ヨーロッパ
) being more
commonly used. In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name Frangistan ("land of the Franks") is used casually
in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa.[27]

Definition

Contemporary definition
Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries[u]
Key: blue: states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia; green: countries not geographically in Europe, but closely
associated with the continent

Arctic Ocean Franz Josef Land (Rus)

Baffin Bay
Greenland (Dk) Svalbard (Nor)

Barents Sea
Greenland Sea

Iceland

Norwegian
Sea
Far. (Dk)
Finland
North
Atlantic Norway
Ocean Sweden Estonia
Russia
Baltic
IoM North Sea Latvia Kazakhstan
Ireland Sea Denmark Lithuania
United Belarus
Celtic Kingdom Nether.
Sea Belg. Germany Poland
Channel Caspian
Is. Lux. Czech Ukraine
Sea
Rep.Slovakia
Bay of France Moldova
Biscay Switz- AustriaHungary Georgia Azer.
erlandLiech. Romania
Slo. Black Armenia
CroatiaSerbia
Andorra Mon. S. Mar. Bosnia Sea
Portugal Adr- Bulgaria
Ligurian Italyiatic Mont. Kos.
Spain Sea Vat. Sea N. Mac. Turkey
Alb.
Gulf of Greece
Cádiz Gib. (UK)
Strait of GibraltarMediterranean Sea
Aegean
Sea Cyprus
Malta

The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century. Europe is taken to be
bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-east are usually taken
to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the south-east, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea,
and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.[28]

Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe,
while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America, although politically belonging to Denmark.
Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to Anatolia (or
Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically and it is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island
of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well.[29] "Europe", as used
specifically in British English, may also refer to Continental Europe exclusively.[30]

The term "continent" usually implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or almost completely
surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the
border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity, but
always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an
unknown distance east and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion
of any mountain ranges. Cartographer Herman Moll suggested in 1715 Europe
was bounded by a series of partly-joined waterways directed towards the Turkish
straits, and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the
Arctic Ocean. In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres
to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent
compared to any clear-cut definition of the term "continent".

The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West cultural,
linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp
dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow
any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water. Turkey is
generally considered a transcontinental country divided entirely by water, while
Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly divided by waterways. France, the
Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also transcontinental (or more properly,
intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land
areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other continents Definitions used for the boundary
separated from Europe by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories between Asia and Europe in different
periods of history.
south of the Mediterranean Sea—namely, Ceuta and Melilla—which are parts of
Africa and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention,
Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been
completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents.

History of the concept

Early history
The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē as a geographic term is in the Homeric Hymn
to Delian Apollo, in reference to the western shore of the Aegean Sea. As a name
for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BCE by
Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and
A medieval T and O map printed by
Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni River on the territory of Georgia) Günther Zainer in 1472, showing the
in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century three continents as domains of the
BCE.[31] Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown sons of Noah – Asia to Sem (Shem),
persons into three parts—Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the Nile and the Europe to Iafeth (Japheth) and Africa
Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the to Cham (Ham)
River Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia.[32]
Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer
Strabo at the River Don.[33] The Book of Jubilees described the continents
as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as
stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it
from Northwest Africa, to the Don, separating it from Asia.[34]

The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern
usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as
Posidonius,[35] Strabo,[36] and Ptolemy,[37] who took the Tanais (the
modern Don River) as the boundary.
Depiction of Europa regina ('Queen Europe') in
The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of 1582
continental divisions. However, following the fall of the Western Roman
Empire, the culture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the
Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of "Europe".[38] The term "Europe" is first used for a cultural
sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the
Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world.

A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural
condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast
with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the
Alpine regions and northern and central Italy.[39][40] The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian
Renaissance: Europa often figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar, Alcuin.[41] The transition of Europe to
being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of Europe being affected by cultural considerations in
the East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman, and Russian influence. Such questions were affected by
the positive connotations associated with the term Europe by its users. Such cultural considerations were not applied to the
Americas, despite their conquest and settlement by European states. Instead, the concept of "Western civilization" emerged
as a way of grouping together Europe and these colonies.[42]

Modern definitions
The question of defining a precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in the
Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of Muscovy began to
include North Asia. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th
century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two
continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary
following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of
Azov and the Don (ancient Tanais). But maps produced during the 16th to
18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the
Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined
with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not described in any detail A New Map of Europe According to the
by the ancient geographers. Newest Observations (1721) by Hermann Moll
draws the eastern boundary of Europe along
Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern part of the Don River flowing south-west and the
the Ob River and the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the Ob, as Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers flowing north.
components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the boundary
between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all
the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map
that was easier to read. However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers as
the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who
were beginning to move away from the idea of water boundaries as the
only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia.

Four years later, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first to
depart from the classical Don boundary. He drew a new line along the
Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy
Syrt (the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural Rivers), then north
and east along the latter waterway to its source in the Ural Mountains. At 1916 political map of Europe showing most of
Moll's waterways replaced by von
this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as
Strahlenberg's Ural Mountains and
boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways.
Freshfield's Caucasus crest, land features of
Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along Ural Mountains a type that normally defines a subcontinent
rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers.[43] This
was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the convention that
would eventually become commonly accepted. However, this did not come without criticism. Voltaire, writing in 1760
about Peter the Great's efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole boundary question with his claim that
neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part of Europe.[38] Since then, many modern
analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder have declared that they see little validity in the Ural Mountains as a
boundary between continents.[44]
The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The
1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as
Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary
followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified c. 1773 by a German
naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea,[45][46] and subsequently
was proposed as a natural boundary between continents.

By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga,
the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the
Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a "controversy"
in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the "best
possible", citing support from various "modern geographers".[47]

In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early
as 1906.[48] In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between the Europe and
Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then
following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych Depression,[49] thus
placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe.[50] The Flora Europaea adopted a boundary along
the Terek and Kuban rivers, so southwards from the Kuma and the Manych, but still with the Caucasus entirely in
Asia.[51][52] However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest,[53] and this
became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some
20th-century maps.

Some view the separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: "In physical, cultural and
historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country.
[...]."[54]

History

Prehistory
During the 2.5 million years of the Pleistocene, numerous cold phases called
glacials (Quaternary ice age), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in
Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to
100,000 years. The long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and
shorter interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode
of the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.[56] Earth is currently in an
interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene.[57]
Last Glacial Maximum refugia, c.
Homo erectus georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is 20,000 years ago
the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe.[58] Other hominin Solutrean culture
remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Epigravettian culture[55]
Spain. [59] Neanderthal man (named after the Neandertal valley in Germany)
appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in the
territory of present-day Poland[60]) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years ago,[61] with their final
refuge being the Iberian Peninsula. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who appeared
in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago.[62] Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000
years earlier than previously thought.[63] The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo Mochi (Italy),
Geissenklösterle (Germany) and Isturitz (France).[64][65]

The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of
settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced
by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East.[66] It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube
and the Rhine (Linear Pottery culture), and along the Mediterranean coast (Cardial culture). Between 4500 and 3000 BCE,
these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the
north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In Western
Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements
but by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and
megalithic tombs.[67] The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition
from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. During this period giant megalithic
monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge, were
constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe.[68][69] Paleolithic cave paintings from
Lascaux in France (c. 15,000 BCE)
The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct
lineages:[70] Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from populations associated
with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture;[55] Neolithic Early European Farmers
who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago;[71]
and Yamnaya Steppe herders who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian
steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of Indo-European migrations
5,000 years ago.[70][72] The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in Greece
with the Minoan civilisation on Crete, the first advanced civilisation in Europe.[73] Stonehenge in the United Kingdom
(Late Neolithic from 3000 to 2000
The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around
BCE)
1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age.[74] Iron Age colonisation by the
Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age
Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is
sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games.[75]

Classical antiquity
Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western
democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece.[76] The
Greek city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political unit of classical
Greece.[76] In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system
of government in Athens.[77] The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the
late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated
many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under
Aristotle, Socrates and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in
The Parthenon in Athens (432 BCE)
dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer;[78] in drama
with Sophocles and Euripides; in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in
science with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes.[79][80][81] In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek
city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered
a pivotal moment in world history,[82] as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the
seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation.

Greece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics, language,
engineering, architecture, government and many more key aspects in western
civilisation.[76] By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy and over the following
two centuries it conquered Greece and Hispania (Spain and Portugal), the North
African coast, much of the Middle East, Gaul (France and Belgium) and Britannia
(England and Wales).

Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century BCE, the
Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean Basin and
Western Europe by the turn of the millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27
BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire. The two centuries that
Animation showing the growth and
followed are known as the pax romana, a period of unprecedented peace,
division of Ancient Rome (years CE)
prosperity and political stability in most of Europe.[83] The empire continued to
expand under emperors such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who spent
time on the Empire's northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes.[84][85] Christianity was legalised by
Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution. Constantine also permanently moved the capital of
the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) which was renamed Constantinople in his honour in
330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE and in 391–392 CE, the emperor
Theodosius outlawed pagan religions.[86] This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity
is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of
Athens in 529 CE;[87] or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century CE. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire
was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.[88]

Early Middle Ages

During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long
period of change arising from what historians call the "Age of
Migrations". There were numerous invasions and migrations
amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks,
Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars and, later on, the Vikings,
Pechenegs, Cumans and Magyars.[83] Renaissance thinkers such as
Petrarch would later refer to this as the "Dark Ages".[89]
Europe c. 650
Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard
and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from
this very few written records survive and much literature,
philosophy, mathematics and other thinking from the classical
period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were
preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire.[90]

While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman

traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the
predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, also
Charlemagne's empire in 814: Francia, Tributaries
known as the Byzantine Empire. During most of its existence, the
Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural and
military force in Europe. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal code
that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the Christian
church under state control.[91]

From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due to the
protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into
historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor. In the mid-7th
century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region.[92] Over the next centuries
Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily and parts of southern Italy.[93] Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of
the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia was brought under Muslim rule—save for small areas in the north-west (Asturias) and
largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding
Umayyad Caliphate. The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced
their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732,
which ended their northward advance. In the remote regions of north-western Iberia and the middle Pyrenees the power of
the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt. It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias, Leon and
Galicia were laid and from where the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start. However, no coordinated attempt
would be made to drive the Moors out. The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power
struggles. As a result, the Reconquista took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos,
Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim
invaders.
During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of
various tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over
Western and Eastern Europe, respectively.[94] Eventually the Frankish tribes
were united under Clovis I.[95] Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the
Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was
anointed "Holy Roman Emperor" by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the
founding of the Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the
German principalities of central Europe.[96] Viking raids and division of the Frankish
Empire at the Treaty of Verdun in 843
East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption
of Christianity (c. 1000 CE). The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia
spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a
series of armed conflicts with East Francia. Further south, the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th
century and adopted Christianity: the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire) and the
Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia). To the East, Kievan Rus' expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the
largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of
state.[97][98] Further East, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into
Russia several centuries later.[99]

High and Late Middle Ages

The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages,
followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500.

During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant growth,
culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century. Economic growth, together with the
lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the development of major
commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas. The growing
wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a
leading role in the European scene.

The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the
social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the Early The maritime republics of
Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe.[102] A struggle for influence between medieval Italy reestablished
the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of Magna Carta and the contacts between Europe,
establishment of a parliament.[103] The primary source of culture in this period came Asia and Africa with extensive
trade networks and colonies
from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the
across the Mediterranean, and
Church was responsible for education in much of Europe.[102] had an essential role in the
Crusades.[100][101]
The Papacy reached the height of its power during
the High Middle Ages. An East-West Schism in
1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in
the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman
Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying
Jerusalem and the Holy Land.[104] In Europe itself, the Church organised the
Inquisition against heretics. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Reconquista concluded with
the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-
western peninsula.[105]

In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the
Tancred of Sicily and Philip II of
France, during the Third Crusade Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest
(1189–1192) city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately
400,000.[106] The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert, and was
weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth
[107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115] Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261,
Crusade. Byzantium fell in
1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire.[116][117][118]

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the
Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to
the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the
Rus' state to the south and east.[119] Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were
overrun by the Mongols.[120] The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were mostly
Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the
Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and
ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries.[121][122]
After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged
in the 14th century: Moldavia and Walachia. Previously, these territories were under the
successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans.[123] From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the
Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest
state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and eventually becoming the Tsardom
of Russia. The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, The sacking of Suzdal by
steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. Batu Khan in 1238, during
the Mongol invasion of
The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Europe (1220s–1240s)
Middle Ages.[124] The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The
population of France was reduced by half.[125][126] Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95
famines,[127] and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period.[128] Europe was devastated in the mid-14th
century by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million
people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at the time.[129]

The plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by
Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased
persecution of Jews, beggars and lepers.[130] The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying
virulence and mortalities until the 18th century.[131] During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across
Europe.[132]

Early modern period

The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence,
and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a new humanism was
accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic
knowledge from monastic libraries, often translated from Arabic into
Latin.[133][134][135] The Renaissance spread across Europe between the
14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music, and
the sciences, under the joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Roman
Catholic Church and an emerging merchant class.[136][137][138] Patrons in
Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in
Rome, funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, The School of Athens by Raphael (1511):
Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.[139][140] Contemporaries, such as Michelangelo and
Leonardo da Vinci (centre), are portrayed as
Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the classical scholars of the Renaissance.
Western Schism. During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon
and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism
was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's spiritual authority had suffered greatly.[141] In the 15th century, Europe started
to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers. Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in
exploring the world.[142][143] Exploration reached the Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic and the southern tip of Africa.
Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East linking the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans in 1498. The Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached Asia westward across the
Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in a Spanish expedition, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the globe, completed by
the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano (1519–1522). Soon after, the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing large global
empires in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania.[144] France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building
large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas and Asia. In 1588, a Spanish armada failed to invade
England. A year later England tried unsuccessfully to invade Spain, allowing Philip II of Spain to maintain his dominant
war capacity in Europe. This English disaster also allowed the Spanish fleet to retain its capability to wage war for the next
decades. However, two more Spanish armadas failed to invade England (2nd Spanish Armada and 3rd Spanish
Armada).[145][146][147][148]

The Church's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation in

1517 when German theologian Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses
criticising the selling of indulgences to the church door. He was
subsequently excommunicated in the papal bull Exsurge Domine in 1520
and his followers were condemned in the 1521 Diet of Worms, which
divided German princes between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths.[150]
Religious fighting and warfare spread with Protestantism.[151] The plunder
of the empires of the Americas allowed Spain to finance religious
persecution in Europe for over a century.[152] The Thirty Years War (1618–
1648) crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, Habsburg dominions in the centuries
killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population.[153] In the aftermath of following their partition by Charles V, Holy
the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe.[154] Roman Emperor. The principal military base
The defeat of the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 marked the of Philip II in Europe was the Spanish road
stretching from the Netherlands to the
historic end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.[155]
Duchy of Milan.[149]
The 17th century in Central and parts of Eastern Europe was a period of
general decline;[156] the region experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-
year period between 1501 and 1700.[157] From the Union of Krewo (1385) east-central Europe was dominated by the
Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The hegemony of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had
ended with the devastation brought by the Second Northern War (Deluge) and subsequent conflicts;[158] the state itself
was partitioned and ceased to exist at the end of the 18th century.[159]

From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars
from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves.[160] Further east, the Nogai Horde and
Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine for hundreds of years,
until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia).

The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention and
scientific development.[161] Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries
were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Isaac Newton.[162] According to Peter Barrett, "It is widely accepted that 'modern
science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of
the natural world."[133]

18th and 19th centuries

The Seven Years' War brought to an end the "Old System" of alliances in Europe. Consequently, when the American
Revolutionary War turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of
European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.[163]

The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the 18th century promoting scientific and reason-
based thoughts.[164][165][166] Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in France resulted
in the French Revolution, and the establishment of the First Republic as a result of which the monarchy and many of the
nobility perished during the initial reign of terror.[167] Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French
Revolution, and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of
Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo.[168][169] Napoleonic
rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution,
including that of the nation state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French
models of administration, law and education.[170][171][172] The Congress of
Vienna, convened after Napoleon's downfall, established a new balance of power
in Europe centred on the five "Great Powers": the UK, France, Prussia, Austria
and Russia.[173] This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848,
during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. The national boundaries within
These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative elements and few Europe set by the Congress of
reforms resulted.[174] The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation Vienna
state, from smaller principalities. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was
formed; 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from
smaller principalities.[175]

In parallel, the Eastern Question grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–
1774). As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard their strategic
and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The Russian Empire stood to benefit from the decline, whereas the
Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests. Meanwhile,
the Serbian Revolution (1804) and Greek War of Independence (1821) marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in
the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913.[176] Formal recognition of the de facto independent
principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the 18th
century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and implementation of new
technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the rise of a
new working class.[177] Reforms in social and economic spheres followed,
including the first laws on child labour, the legalisation of trade unions,[178] and
the abolition of slavery.[179] In Britain, the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed,
which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities.[180] Europe's
population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.[181]
The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the Great Famine of Ireland,
Marshall's Temple Works (1840); the
caused death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people.[182] In the 19th Industrial Revolution started in Great
century, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to various European colonies Britain.
abroad and to the United States.[183] The industrial revolution also led to large
population growth, and the share of the world population living in Europe reached
a peak of slightly above 25% around the year 1913.[184][185]

20th century to the present

Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the
20th century. The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918. It
started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the
Yugoslav nationalist[186] Gavrilo Princip.[187] Most European nations were
drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France,
Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy,
Map of European colonial empires
Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-
throughout the world in 1914
Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The war left more
than 16 million civilians and military dead.[188] Over 60 million European
soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.[189]

Russia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the
communist Soviet Union,[190] leading also to the independence of many former Russian governorates, such as Finland,
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as new European countries.[191] Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and
broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially
ended the First World War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it
placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions.[192] Excess
deaths in Russia over the course of the First World War and the Russian Civil War
(including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million.[193] In
1932–1933, under Stalin's leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet
authorities contributed to the second Soviet famine which caused millions of
deaths;[194] surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do
forced labour. Stalin was also responsible for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which Map depicting the military alliances
of the First World War in 1914–1918
the NKVD executed 681,692 people;[195] millions of people were deported and
exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[196]

The social revolutions sweeping through Russia also affected other European
nations following The Great War: in 1919, with the Weimar Republic in Germany
and the First Austrian Republic; in 1922, with Mussolini's one-party fascist
government in the Kingdom of Italy and in Atatürk's Turkish Republic, adopting
the Western alphabet and state secularism. Economic instability, caused in part by
debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in
Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929,
brought about the worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis,
Serbian war efforts (1914–1918) cost social instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed
the country one quarter of its throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler in power of what became Nazi
population.[197][198][199][200][201] Germany.[202][203]

In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal
of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and
Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany following the
Anschluss. Later that year, following the Munich Agreement signed by Germany, France,
the United Kingdom, and Italy, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, which was a part of
Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of
Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by
Germany and the Slovak Republic. At the time, the United Kingdom and France preferred
a policy of appeasement.

With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the
Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which allowed
the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany invaded
Nazi Germany began the Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war
devastating Second World on Germany on 3 September, opening the European Theatre of the Second World
War in Europe by its leader,
War.[204][205][206] The Soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell
Adolf Hitler. Here Hitler, on
the right, with his closest
soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and, on
ally, the Italian dictator 30 November, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastating Winter War for
Benito Mussolini, in 1940. the Red Army.[207] The British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but
their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off
from Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into
Denmark. The Phoney War continued.

In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August,
Germany had begun a bombing offensive against the United Kingdom but failed to convince the Britons to give up.[208] In
1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.[209] On 7 December 1941 Japan's attack on Pearl
Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire, and other allied forces.[210][211]

After the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual
fallback. The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank battle in history, was the last major German offensive on the
Eastern Front. In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a new front
against Germany. Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending the Second World War in
Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with
60 million dead across the world.[212] More than 40 million people in Europe had
died as a result of the Second World War,[213] including between 11 and 17 million
people who perished during the Holocaust.[214] The Soviet Union lost around
27 million people (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all Second World
War casualties.[215] By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more than
40 million refugees.[216][217][218] Several post-war expulsions in Central and
Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20 million people.[219]
The "Big Three" at the Yalta
The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the Conference in 1945; seated (from the
eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After the Second World War the map left): Winston Churchill, Franklin D.
of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two blocs, the Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin
Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later
called by Winston Churchill an "Iron Curtain". The United States and Western
Europe established the NATO alliance and, later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw Pact.[220]
Particular hot spots after the Second World War were Berlin and Trieste, whereby the Free Territory of Trieste, founded in
1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The Berlin blockade in 1948 and 1949 and the
construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were one of the great international crises of the Cold War.[221][222][223]

The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred
on nuclear proliferation. At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after the First World War, gradually
resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.[15]

In the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity movement in
Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system. The opening of the Iron
Curtain at the Pan-European Picnic then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at
the end of which the Eastern bloc, the Warsaw Pact and other communist states
collapsed, and the Cold War ended.[225][226][227] Germany was reunited, after the
symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern
Europe were redrawn once more.[228] This made old previously interrupted
cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as
Flag of Europe, adopted by the
Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest and Trieste were now again in the centre of Council of Europe in 1955 as the flag
Europe.[202][229][230][231] for the whole of Europe[224]

European integration also grew after the Second World War. In 1949 the Council
of Europe was founded, following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill, with the idea of unifying Europe[16] to achieve
common goals. It includes all European states except for Belarus, Russia,[232] and Vatican City. The Treaty of Rome in
1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the goal of a unified
economic policy and common market.[233] In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community, and Euratom formed
the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a parliament, court and central
bank, and introduced the euro as a unified currency.[234] Between 2004 and 2013, more Central European countries began
joining, expanding the EU to 28 European countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political
centre of power.[235] However, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a June 2016
referendum on EU membership.[236] The Russo-Ukrainian conflict, which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated
when Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee
crisis in Europe since the Second World War[237] and the Yugoslav Wars.[238]

Geography
Europe makes up the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.[28] It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other
continent or subcontinent.[239] Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west
and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.[240] Land relief in Europe shows great variation within
relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high
Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern
plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great
European Plain and at its heart lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also
exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the
islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut
spine of Norway.

This description is simplified. Subregions such as the Iberian Peninsula and the
Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central
Map of populous Europe and
Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that
surrounding regions showing
complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain and Ireland are physical, political and population
special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean that is counted characteristics, as per 2018
as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the
mainland until rising sea levels cut them off.

Climate
Europe lies mainly in the temperate climate zone of the northern hemisphere,
where the prevailing wind direction is from the west. The climate is milder in
comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the
influence of the Gulf Stream, an ocean current which carries warm water from the
Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic ocean to Europe.[241] The Gulf Stream is
nicknamed "Europe's central heating", because it makes Europe's climate warmer
and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm Biomes of Europe and surrounding
water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow regions:
across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean. tundra alpine tundra taiga
montane forest
Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of Aveiro is 16 °C (61 °F), temperate broadleaf forest
mediterranean forest temperate
while it is only 13 °C (55 °F) in New York City which is almost on the same
steppe dry steppe
latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and
Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January
temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (14 °F) higher than those in Calgary and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher
than average temperatures in Irkutsk.[241]

The large water masses of the Mediterranean Sea, which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are also
of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the Sahara desert to the Alpine arc in its
northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea near Trieste.[242]

In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards
the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of
average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th latitudes. None of them is
located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea.
 Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for Europe[243]

Temperatures in °C
Coldest Hottest Annual
Location Latitude Longitude
month month average

Reykjavík 64 N 22 W 0.1 11.2 4.7

Umeå 64 N 20 E −6.2 16.0 3.9

Oulu 65 N 25.5 E −9.6 16.5 2.7

Arkhangelsk 64.5 N 40.5 E −12.7 16.3 1.3

Lerwick 60 N 1W 3.5 12.4 7.4

Stockholm 59.5 N 19 E −1.7 18.4 7.4

Helsinki 60 N 25 E −4.7 17.8 5.9

Saint Petersburg 60 N 30 E −5.8 18.8 5.8

Edinburgh 55.5 N 3W 4.2 15.3 9.3

Copenhagen 55.5 N 12 E 1.4 18.1 9.1

Klaipėda 55.5 N 21 E −1.3 17.9 8.0

Moscow 55.5 N 30 E −6.5 19.2 5.8

Isles of Scilly 50 N 6W 7.9 16.9 11.8

Brussels 50.5 N 4E 3.3 18.4 10.5

Kraków 50 N 20 E −2.0 19.2 8.7

Kyiv 50.5 N 30 E −3.5 20.5 8.4

Bordeaux 45 N 0 6.6 21.4 13.8

Venice 45.5 N 12 E 3.3 23.0 13.0

Belgrade 45 N 20 E 1.4 23.0 12.5

Astrakhan 46 N 48 E −3.7 25.6 10.5

Coimbra 40 N 8W 9.9 21.9 16.0

Valencia 39.5 N 0 11.9 26.1 18.3

Naples 40.5 N 14 E 8.7 24.9 15.9

Istanbul 41 N 29 E 5.5 23.4 13.9
[244]It is notable how the average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures, drop
from the west to the east. For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the year, although
Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south.

Climate change
Climate change has resulted in an increase in temperature of
2.3 °C (2022) in Europe compared to pre-industrial levels.
Europe is the fastest warming continent in the world.[246]
Europe's climate is getting warmer due to anthropogenic activity.
According to international climate experts, global temperature
rise should not exceed 2 °C to prevent the most dangerous
consequences of climate change; without reduction in greenhouse
gas emissions, this could happen before 2050.[247][248] Climate
change has implications for all regions of Europe, with the extent
and nature of impacts varying across the continent. Impacts on
European countries include warmer weather and increasing
frequency and intensity of extreme weather such as heat waves,
bringing health risks and impacts on ecosystems. European
countries are major contributors to global greenhouse gas
emissions, although the European Union and governments of
several countries have outlined plans to implement climate
change mitigation and an energy transition in the 21st century, the
European Green Deal being one of these. The European Union
commissioner of climate action is Frans Timmermans since 1
December 2019.[249] Increase of average yearly temperature in selected
cities in Europe (1900–2017)[245]

Geology
The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic
Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion
years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia shield, the three together leading to
the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the
supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica
(as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting
around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years
ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining
with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around
190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the
widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia
itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian
continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable
time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species. From around Surficial geology of Europe
50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual
shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's
present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago.[250]

The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the
continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary.[251] Europe's most significant feature is the
dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging
from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the
Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian Mountains and the
mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic
Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea.
The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica and so may be regarded geologically as the "main
continent", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various
other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient microcontinent
Avalonia.

Flora
Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's
animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and
activities of humans. With the exception of Fennoscandia and northern
Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe,
except for various national parks.

The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest. The conditions
for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North
Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe has a warm but mild
climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges
Land use map of Europe with arable
also affect the conditions. Some of these, such as the Alps and the Pyrenees,
farmland (yellow), forest (dark green),
pasture (light green) and tundra, or bogs, in
are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water
the north (dark yellow) from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south–north (Scandinavian
Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls
primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests
grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe
have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused
disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.

Possibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest.[252] It

stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although over
half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of
deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such
as the broadleaf and mixed forests, taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed
rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western
Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and
many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture
plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest,
because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land,
but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which Floristic regions of Europe and neighbouring
require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of areas, according to Wolfgang Frey and
natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, while in its Western Rainer Lösch
Russia its 5–10%. The European country with the smallest percentage of
forested area is Iceland (1%), while the most forested country is Finland
(77%).[253]

In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in
central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce–pine–birch forest; further north
within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the
Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress
is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east–
west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends westwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary
and traverses into taiga to the north.

Fauna
 Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of humans
affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many
parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been
hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the
Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are
endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However,
deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and
further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less
inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear
Biogeographic regions of Europe and lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia and Russia; a small
bordering regions number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.),
but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised
because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, polar bears may be
found on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second-largest predator in Europe
after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in
pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.).

Other carnivores include the European wildcat, red fox and arctic fox, the golden
jackal, different species of martens, the European hedgehog, different species of
reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, as well as
different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey).

Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and
mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the mountains,
marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of insects, such as the
small tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity.[256]
Once roaming the great temperate
Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora forests of Eurasia, European bison
now live in nature preserves in
is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in European seas are
Białowieża Forest, on the border
zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, between Poland and
fish, dolphins and whales. Belarus.[254][255]

Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's Bern

Convention, which has also been signed by the European Community as well as non-European states.

Politics
The political map of Europe is substantially derived from the re-
organisation of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. The
prevalent form of government in Europe is parliamentary democracy,
in most cases in the form of Republic; in 1815, the prevalent form of
government was still the Monarchy. Europe's remaining eleven
monarchies[257] are constitutional.

European integration is the process of political, legal, economic (and

in some cases social and cultural) integration of European states as it
has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the Council of Europe
since the end of the Second World War. The European Union has A clickable Euler diagram[file] showing the
been the focus of economic integration on the continent since its relationships between various multinational
foundation in 1993. More recently, the Eurasian Economic Union has European organisations and agreements

been established as a counterpart comprising former Soviet states.

27 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area and 20 of
the monetary union Eurozone. Among the smaller European organisations are the Nordic Council, the Benelux, the Baltic
Assembly and the Visegrád Group.

The least democratic countries in Europe are Belarus, Russia and Turkey in 2024 according to the V-Dem Democracy
indices.[258]

List of states and territories

This list includes all internationally recognised sovereign countries falling even partially under any common geographical
or political definitions of Europe.
 Population
Area
Arms Flag Name Population density Capital Name(s) in official language(s)
(km2)
(per km2)

Albania 28,748 2,876,591 98.5 Tirana Shqipëria

Andorra la
Andorra 468 77,281 179.8 Andorra
Vella

Armenia[j] 29,743 2,924,816 101.5 Yerevan Հայաստան (Hayastan)

Austria 83,858 8,823,054 104 Vienna Österreich

Azerbaijan[k] 86,600 9,911,646 113 Baku Azərbaycan

Belarus 207,560 9,504,700 45.8 Minsk Беларусь (Belaruś)

Belgium 30,528 11,358,357 372.06 Brussels België/Belgique/Belgien

Bosnia and Bosna i Hercegovina/Боснa и

51,129 3,531,159 68.97 Sarajevo
Herzegovina Херцеговина

Bulgaria 110,910 7,101,859 64.9 Sofia България (Bǎlgariya)

Croatia 56,594 3,871,833 68.4 Zagreb Hrvatska

Cyprus[d] 9,251 1,170,125 123.4 Nicosia Κύπρος (Kýpros)/Kıbrıs

Czech
78,866 10,610,947 134 Prague Česko
Republic

Denmark 43,094 5,748,796 133.9 Copenhagen Danmark

Estonia 45,226 1,328,439 30.5 Tallinn Eesti

Finland 338,455 5,509,717 16 Helsinki Suomi/Finland

France[g] 547,030 67,348,000 116 Paris France

Georgia[l] 69,700 3,718,200 53.5 Tbilisi საქართველო (Sakartvelo)

Germany 357,168 82,800,000 232 Berlin Deutschland

Greece 131,957 10,297,760 82 Athens Ελλάδα (Elláda)

Hungary 93,030 9,797,561 105.3 Budapest Magyarország

Iceland 103,000 350,710 3.2 Reykjavík Ísland

Ireland 70,280 4,761,865 67.7 Dublin Éire/Ireland

Italy 301,338 60,589,445 201.3 Rome Italia

Қазақстан/Казахстан
Kazakhstan[i] 148,000 17,987,736 6.49 Astana
(Qazaqstan/Kazakhstan)

Latvia 64,589 1,907,675 29 Riga Latvija

Liechtenstein 160 38,111 227 Vaduz Liechtenstein

Lithuania 65,300 2,800,667 45.8 Vilnius Lietuva

Luxembourg
Luxembourg 2,586 602,005 233.7 Lëtzebuerg/Luxemburg/Luxembourg
City

Malta 316 445,426 1,410 Valletta Malta

 Moldova[a] 33,846 3,434,547 101.5 Chișinău Moldova

Monaco 2.020 38,400 18,713 Monaco Monaco

Montenegro 13,812 642,550 45.0 Podgorica Crna Gora/Црна Гора

Netherlands[h] 41,543 17,271,990 414.9 Amsterdam Nederland

North Северна Македонија (Severna

25,713 2,103,721 80.1 Skopje
Macedonia Makedonija)

Norway 385,203 5,295,619 15.8 Oslo Norge/Noreg/Norga

Poland 312,685 38,422,346 123.5 Warsaw Polska

Portugal[e] 92,212 10,379,537 115 Lisbon Portugal

Romania 238,397 18,999,642 84.4 Bucharest România

Russia[b] 3,969,100 144,526,636 8.4 Moscow Россия (Rossiya)

San Marino 61.2 33,285 520 San Marino San Marino

Serbia[f] 88,361 7,040,272 91.1 Belgrade Srbija/Србија

Slovakia 49,035 5,435,343 111.0 Bratislava Slovensko

Slovenia 20,273 2,066,880 101.8 Ljubljana Slovenija

Spain 505,990 48,692,804 97 Madrid España

Sweden 450,295 10,151,588 22.5 Stockholm Sverige

Switzerland 41,285 8,401,120 202 Bern Schweiz/Suisse/Svizzera/Svizra

Turkey[m] 23,764 84,680,273 106.7 Ankara Türkiye

Ukraine[s] 603,628 42,418,235 73.8 Kyiv Україна (Ukraina)

United
244,820 66,040,229 270.7 London United Kingdom
Kingdom

Vatican City 0.44 1,000 2,272 Vatican City Città del Vaticano/Civitas Vaticana

Total 50 10,180,000[n] 743,000,000[n] 73

Within the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international recognition.
None of them are members of the UN:

Area Population density

Symbol Flag Name Population Capital
(km2) (per km2)

Abkhazia[p] 8,660 243,206 28 Sukhumi

Kosovo[o] 10,908 1,920,079 159 Pristina

Northern Cyprus[d] 3,355 313,626 93 Nicosia (northern part)

South Ossetia[p] 3,900 53,532 13.7 Tskhinvali

Transnistria[a] 4,163 475,665 114 Tiraspol

Several dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or close to Europe. This includes
Åland (an autonomous county of Finland), two autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark (other than Denmark
proper), three Crown Dependencies and two British Overseas Territories. Svalbard is also included due to its unique status
within Norway, although it is not autonomous. Not included are the three countries of the United Kingdom with devolved
powers and the two Autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a unique degree of autonomy, are not largely
self-governing in matters other than international affairs. Areas with little more than a unique tax status, such as the Canary
Islands and Heligoland, are also not included for this reason.

Population
Sovereign Area
Symbol Flag Name Population density Capital
state (km2)
(per km2)
Akrotiri and Dhekelia UK 255 7,700 30.2 Episkopi Cantonment

Åland Finland 1,580 29,489 18.36 Mariehamn

Bailiwick of Guernsey[c] UK 78 65,849 844.0 St. Peter Port

Bailiwick of Jersey[c] UK 118.2 100,080 819 Saint Helier

Faroe Islands Denmark 1,399 50,778 35.2 Tórshavn

Gibraltar UK 6.7 32,194 4,328 Gibraltar

Greenland Denmark[r] 2,166,086 55,877 0.028 Nuuk

Isle of Man[c] UK 572 83,314 148 Douglas

Svalbard Norway 61,022 2,667

Economy
As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on
Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under
management with over $32.7 trillion compared to North America's
$27.1 trillion in 2008.[259] In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest
region. Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-
third of the world's wealth. It was one of several regions where wealth
surpassed its precrisis year-end peak.[260] As with other continents,
Europe has a large wealth gap among its countries. The richer states
tend to be in the Northwest and West in general, followed by Central
Europe, while most economies of Eastern and Southeastern Europe
are still reemerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union and the
breakup of Yugoslavia. GDP (PPP) per capita of European countries in
2024
The model of the Blue Banana was designed as an economic >$60,000 $50,000 – $60,000
geographic representation of the respective economic power of the
$40,000 – $50,000 $30,000 – $40,000
regions, which was further developed into the Golden Banana or Blue
$20,000 – $30,000 $10,000 – $20,000
Star. The trade between East and West, as well as towards Asia,
which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars, new
borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989. In addition,
there is new impetus from the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative across
the Suez Canal towards Africa and Asia.[261]

The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states, comprises the largest single economic area in the
world. Nineteen EU countries share the euro as a common currency. Five European countries rank in the top ten of the
world's largest national economies in GDP (PPP). This includes (ranks according to the CIA): Germany (6), Russia (7), the
United Kingdom (10), France (11) and Italy (13).[262]

Some European countries are much richer than others. The richest in terms of nominal GDP is Monaco with its
US$185,829 per capita (2018) and the poorest is Ukraine with its US$3,659 per capita (2019).[263]

As a whole, Europe's GDP per capita is US$21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund assessment.[264]

GDP (nominal, Peak Year)

Rank Country Peak Year
millions of USD

European Union[265] 19,226,235 2008

1 Germany 4,591,100 2024

2 United Kingdom 3,495,261 2024

3 France 3,130,014 2024

4 Italy[266] 2,408,655 2008

5 Russia[267] 2,292,470 2013

6 Spain 1,647,114 2024

7 Netherlands 1,142,513 2024

8 Turkey 1,113,561 2024

9 Switzerland 938,458 2024

10 Poland 44,623 2024

GDP (PPP, Peak Year)

Rank Country Peak Year
millions of USD

European Union[268] 26,308,203 2024

1 Germany 5,686,531 2024

2 Russia 5,472,880 2024

3 United Kingdom 4,029,438 2024

4 France 3,987,911 2024

5 Turkey 3,831,533 2024

6 Italy 3,347,103 2024

7 Spain 2,516,376 2024

8 Poland 1,800,540 2024

9 Netherlands 1,329,039 2024

10 Romania 823,586 2022

Economic history

Industrial growth (1760–1945)

Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism.[269] From Britain, it gradually spread
throughout Europe.[270] The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th
century,[271] and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by the First World War,
but by the beginning of the Second World War, they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing
economic strength of the United States. The Second World War, again, damaged much of Europe's industries.

Cold War (1945–1991)

After the Second World War the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin,[272]
and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades.[273]
Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by
the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from
pre-war levels by the 1950s.[274] France also staged a remarkable comeback
enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of
Franco, also recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic
growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle.[275] The
majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the control of the Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989
Soviet Union and thus were members of the Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance (COMECON).[276]

The states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount of aid
by the United States under the Marshall Plan.[277] The western states moved to
link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and increasing cross
border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those
states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the Cold
War. Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding
members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy
led to it overtaking the UK as Europe's largest economy.

Reunification (1991–present)
Eurozone (blue colour)
With the fall of communism in Central and
Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist
states underwent shock therapy measures to liberalise their economies and
implement free market reforms.

After East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West
Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of
East Germany, while the latter experienced sudden mass unemployment and
One of Kosovo's main economical plummeting of industrial production.
sources is mining, because it has
large reserves of lead, zinc, silver, By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe, comprising
nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and
the five largest European economies of the time: Germany, the United Kingdom,
bauxite.[278] Miners at the Trepča
France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the
Mines in Mitrovica, Kosovo in 2011.
Eurozone, replacing their national currencies by the euro.

Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recession in 2008.[279] It impacted much
of the region.[280] In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis[281] developed concerning some countries in Europe, especially
Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.[282] As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece, by the leading countries
of the Eurozone.[283] The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012. For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4%.[284]

Demographics
The population of Europe was about 742 million in 2023 according to UN estimates.[2][3] This is slightly more than one
ninth of the world's population.[v] The population density of Europe (the number of people per area) is the second highest
of any continent, behind Asia. The population of Europe is currently slowly decreasing, by about 0.2% per year,[286]
because there are fewer births than deaths. This natural decrease in population is reduced by the fact that more people
migrate to Europe from other continents than vice versa.

Southern Europe and Western Europe are the regions with the highest average number of elderly people in the world. In
2021, the percentage of people over 65 years old was 21% in Western Europe and Southern Europe, compared to 19% in
all of Europe and 10% in the world.[287] Projections suggest that by 2050 Europe will reach 30%.[288] This is caused by
the fact that the population has been having children below replacement level since
the 1970s. The United Nations predicts that Europe will decline its population
between 2022 and 2050 by −7 per cent, without changing immigration
movements.[289]

According to a population projection of the UN Population Division, Europe's

population may fall to between 680 and 720 million people by 2050, which would
be 7% of the world population at that time.[290] Within this context, significant
disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates. The average number of
children per female of child-bearing age is 1.52, far below the replacement Population growth in and around
Europe in 2021[285]
rate.[291] The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern
Europe as a result of emigration and low birth rates.[292]

Ethnic groups
Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct "peoples of Europe", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one
sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities.[293]

Migration
Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at nearly 87
million people in 2020, according to the International Organisation for
Migration.[294] In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of
1.8 million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population
growth.[295] In 2021, 827,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU member
state, an increase of about 14% compared with 2020.[296] 2.3 million immigrants
from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2021.[296]
Map showing areas of European
settlement (people who claim full
Early modern emigration from Europe began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers
European descent)
in the 16th century,[297][298] and French and English settlers in the 17th
century.[299] But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass
emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe.[300]

Today, large populations of European descent are found on every continent. European ancestry predominates in North
America and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the
other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins). Australia and New Zealand have
large European-derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of
Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the
White South Africans in South Africa. In Asia, European-derived populations, specifically Russians, predominate in North
Asia and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan.[301] Also in Asia, Europeans, especially the Spanish are an influential
minority population in the Philippines.[302][303]

Languages
Europe has about 225 indigenous languages,[304] mostly falling within three Indo-European language groups: the
Romance languages, derived from the Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language
came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages.[250] Slavic languages are mostly spoken in Southern, Central
and Eastern Europe. Romance languages are spoken primarily in Western and Southern Europe, as well as in Switzerland
in Central Europe and Romania and Moldova in Eastern Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in Western, Northern
and Central Europe as well as in Gibraltar and Malta in Southern Europe.[250] Languages in adjacent areas show
significant overlaps (such as in English, for example). Other Indo-European languages outside the three main groups
include the Baltic group (Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish and
Breton[250]), Greek, Armenian and Albanian.
A distinct non-Indo-European family of Uralic languages (Estonian, Finnish,
Hungarian, Erzya, Komi, Mari, Moksha and Udmurt) is spoken mainly in Estonia,
Finland, Hungary and parts of Russia. Turkic languages include Azerbaijani,
Kazakh and Turkish, in addition to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast
Europe (Balkan Gagauz Turkish, Bashkir, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-
Balkar, Kumyk, Nogai and Tatar). Kartvelian languages (Georgian, Mingrelian
and Svan) are spoken primarily in Georgia. Two other language families reside in
the North Caucasus (termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including
Chechen, Avar and Lezgin; and Northwest Caucasian, most notably including
Adyghe). Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official within the EU, while Distribution of major languages of
Basque is the only European language isolate. Europe

Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are

recognised political goals in Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities and the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for
language rights in Europe.

Religion
The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2% of Europeans considering
themselves Christians,[305][306] including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various
Protestant denominations. Among Protestants, the most popular are Lutheranism,
Anglicanism and the Reformed faith. Smaller Protestant denominations include
Anabaptists as well as denominations centered in the United States such as
Pentecostalism, Methodism, and Evangelicalism. Although Christianity originated in
the Middle East, its centre of mass shifted to Europe when it became the official
religion of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century. Christianity played a prominent
role in the development of the European culture and identity.[307][308][309] Today, a
bit over 25% of the world's Christians live in Europe.[310]
Religion in Europe
Islam is the second most popular religion in Europe. Over 25 million, or roughly 5%
according to the Global
of the population, adhere to it.[311] In Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, two Religious Landscape
countries in the Balkan peninsula in Southeastern Europe, Islam instead of
survey by the Pew Forum,
Christianity is the majority religion. This is also the case in Turkey and in certain parts
2016[8]
of Russia, as well as in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, all of which are at the border to
Asia.[311] Many countries in Europe are home to a sizeable Muslim minority, and Christianity (76.2%)
immigration to Europe has increased the number of Muslim people in Europe in No religion (18.3%)
recent years. Islam (4.9%)
Buddhism (0.2%)
The Jewish population in Europe was about 1.4 million people in 2020 (about 0.2% Hinduism (0.2%)
of the population).[312] There is a long history of Jewish life in Europe, beginning in Folk religion (0.1%)
antiquity. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Russian Empire had the Other religions (0.1%)
majority of the world's Jews living within its borders.[313] In 1897, according to
Russian census of 1897, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people,
which was 4.13% of total population. Of this total, the vast majority lived within the Pale of Settlement.[314] In 1933, there
were about 9.5 million Jewish people in Europe, representing 1.7% of the population,[315] but most were killed, and most
of the rest displaced, during The Holocaust.[316][312] In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in
Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia.[8]

Other religions practiced in Europe include Hinduism and Buddhism, which are minority religions, except in Russia's
Republic of Kalmykia, where Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion.
A large and increasing number of people in Europe are irreligious, atheist and agnostic. They are estimated to make up
about 18.3% of Europe's population currently.[8]

Major cities and urban areas

The three largest urban areas of Europe are Moscow, London and Paris. All have over 10 million residents,[317] and as
such have been described as megacities.[318] While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partly in Asia.
64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side. The next largest cities in order of population
are Madrid, Saint Petersburg, Milan, Barcelona, Berlin, and Rome each having over three million residents.[317]

When considering the commuter belts or metropolitan areas within Europe (for which comparable data is available),
Moscow covers the largest population, followed in order by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan, Ruhr Area, Saint
Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin.[319]

European megacities

Moscow London Paris

Istanbul[b]

Culture
"Europe" as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared
heritage of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and its cultures. The
boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of
Christendom (or more specifically Latin Christendom), as established or
defended throughout the medieval and early modern history of Europe,
especially against Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in
Europe.[320]

This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping indigenous

national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into Slavic, Latin
(Romance) and Germanic, but with several components not part of
either of these groups (notably Greek, Basque and Celtic). Historically,
special examples with overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin
(Romance) and Germanic, or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic
roots. Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional
cultures of Europe. Europe is often described as "maximum cultural Map purportedly displaying the European
diversity with minimal geographical distances". continent split along cultural and state borders as
proposed by the German organisation Ständiger
Different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the aim of Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN)
bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their
importance, such as the European Capital of Culture, the European
Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the European Capital of Sport.

Sport
Sport in Europe tends to be highly organized with many sports having professional
leagues.

The origins of many of the world's most popular sports today lie in the codification
of many traditional games, especially in the United Kingdom. However, a
paradoxical feature of European sport is the extent to which local, regional and
national variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to
predominate.[321]

Social dimension Football is by far the most popular

sport in Europe. This picture shows
In Europe many people are unable to access basic social conditions, which makes Camp Nou in Barcelona before the
it harder for them to thrive and flourish. Access to basic necessities can be renovation works started.
compromised, for example 10% of Europeans spend at least 40% of household
income on housing. 75 million Europeans feel socially isolated. From the 1980s
income inequality has been rising and wage shares have been falling. In 2016, the richest 20% of households earned over
five times more than the poorest 20%. Many workers experience stagnant real wages and precarious work is common even
for essential workers.[322]

See also
Europe portal

Early modern Europe

Eurodistrict
European Games
European Union as a potential superpower
Euroregion
Financial and social rankings of sovereign states in Europe
Flags of Europe
Healthcare in Europe
List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)
List of European television stations
List of names of European cities in different languages
List of villages in Europe
Lists of cities in Europe
Modernity
OSCE countries statistics
Pan-European identity

Notes
A. Transnistria, internationally recognised as being a legal part of the Republic of Moldova, although de facto
control is exercised by its internationally unrecognised government which declared independence from
Moldova in 1990.
B. Russia is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its
population (80%) lives within its European part.[323] However, only the population figure includes the
entire state.
C. Guernsey, the Isle of Man and Jersey are Crown Dependencies of the United Kingdom. Other Channel
Islands legislated by the Bailiwick of Guernsey include Alderney and Sark.
D. Cyprus can be considered part of Europe or Western Asia; it has strong historical and sociopolitical
connections with Europe. The population and area figures refer to the entire state, including the de facto
independent part Northern Cyprus which is not recognised as a sovereign nation by the vast majority of
sovereign nations, nor the UN.
E. Figures for Portugal include the Azores and Madeira archipelagos, both in Northern Atlantic.
F. Area figure for Serbia includes Kosovo, a province that unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia
on 17 February 2008, and whose sovereign status is unclear. Population and density figures are from the
first results of 2011 census and are given without the disputed territory of Kosovo.
G. Figures for France include only metropolitan France: some politically integral parts of France are
geographically located outside Europe.
H. Netherlands population for November 2014. Population and area details include European portion only:
Netherlands and three entities outside Europe (Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, in the Caribbean)
constitute the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is the official capital, while The Hague is the
administrative seat.
I. Kazakhstan is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Central Asia (UN
region), partly in Eastern Europe, with European territory west of the Ural Mountains and Ural River.
However, only the population figure refers to the entire country.
J. Armenia can be considered part of Eastern Europe or Western Asia; it has strong historical and
sociopolitical connections with Europe. The population and area figures include the entire state,
respectively.
K. Azerbaijan is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Western Asia. A small
portion of its territory is located north of Greater Caucasus, considered part of Eastern Europe.[324]
However the population and area figures are for the entire state. This includes the exclave of the
Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and the region Nagorno-Karabakh that has declared, and de facto
achieved, independence. Nevertheless, it is not recognised de jure by sovereign states.
L. Georgia can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia; it has strong historical and sociopolitical
connections with Europe.[325] The population and area figures include Georgian estimates for Abkhazia
and South Ossetia, two regions that have declared and de facto achieved independence. International
recognition, however, is limited.
M. Turkey is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Western Asia (the Middle
East). Turkey has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.[326]
However, only the population figure includes the entire state.
N. The total figures for area and population include only European portions of transcontinental countries. The
precision of these figures is compromised by the ambiguous geographical extent of Europe and the lack of
references for European portions of transcontinental countries.
O. Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Its sovereign status is
unclear. Its population is July 2009 CIA estimate.
P. Abkhazia and South Ossetia, both of which can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia[327]
unilaterally declared their independence from Georgia on 25 August 1990 and 28 November 1991,
respectively. Their status as sovereign nations is not recognised by a vast majority of sovereign nations,
nor the UN. Population figures stated as of 2003 census and 2000 estimates, respectively.
Q. Nagorno-Karabakh, which can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia, unilaterally declared
its independence from Azerbaijan on 6 January 1992. Its status as a sovereign nation is not recognised by
any sovereign nation, nor the UN. Population figures stated as of 2003 census and 2000 estimates,
respectively.
R. Greenland, an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm, is geographically a part of the
continent of North America, but has been politically and culturally associated with Europe.
S. The Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic are internationally recognised as being a
legal part of Ukraine, although de facto control is exercised by governments which declared
independence from Ukraine in 2014.
T. Europe is normally considered its own continent in the English-speaking world, which uses the seven
continent model.[328][329] Other models consider Europe as part of a Eurasian or Afro-Eurasian continent.
See Continent § Number for more information.
U. The map shows one of the most commonly accepted delineations of the geographical boundaries of
Europe, as used by National Geographic and Encyclopædia Britannica. Whether countries are considered
in Europe or Asia can vary in sources, for example in the classification of the CIA World Factbook or that of
 the BBC. Certain countries in Europe, such as France, have territories lying geographically outside
Europe, but which are nevertheless considered integral parts of that country.
V. This number includes Siberia, (about 38 million people) but excludes European Turkey (about 12 million)

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326. FAO. "Inland fisheries of Europe" (http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/t0377e/t0377e27.htm). FAO. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20120126124249/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/t0377e/t0377e27.htm) from the
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December 2018 at the Wayback Machine places Georgia in Western Asia for statistical convenience [15]
(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017071122001
5/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm) 11 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine: "The
assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply
any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories." The CIA World Factbook
[16] (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
10204222544/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/) 4 February 2021 at the Wayback
Machine, National Geographic (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=as
ia&Rootmap=georgi&Mode=d&SubMode=w) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201211151904/htt
p://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=asia&Rootmap=georgi&Mode=d&Su
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328. "Europe" (https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/europe). Oxford Learner's
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and Its Peoples, Brief Edition. Vol. 1. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-91311-5.
Brown, Stephen F.; Anatolios, Khaled; Palmer, Martin (2009). O'Brien, Joanne (ed.). Catholicism &
Orthodox Christianity. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-106-2.
Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007). The Byzantine Economy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84978-4.
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Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840 (https://archive.or
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22379-9.

External links
Europe (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=Europe) web resources
provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Europe (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195686) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Europe: Human Geography (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/europe-human-geograph
y/) at the National Geographic Society
Europe (https://curlie.org/Regional/Europe) at Curlie
European Reading Room (https://www.loc.gov/rr/european/) from the United States Library of Congress
"Europe" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Europe). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 907–953.
The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online (http://www.columbiagazetteer.org/) Columbia University
Press
Historical Maps

Borders in Europe 3000BC to the present (http://geacron.com/home-en/?&sid=GeaCron747702) Geacron

Historical atlas
Online history of Europe in 21 maps (http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/index.html)

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