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FALLGIRLS
 Classical and Contemporary
Social Theory
Series Editor: Stjepan G. Mestrovic, Texas A&M University, USA

Classical and Contemporary Social Theory publishes rigorous scholarly work that
re-discovers the relevance of social theory for contemporary times, demonstrating
the enduring importance of theory for modern social issues. The series covers
social theory in a broad sense, inviting contributions on both ‘classical’ and
PRGHUQWKHRU\WKXVHQFRPSDVVLQJVRFLRORJ\ZLWKRXWEHLQJFRQ¿QHGWRDVLQJOH
discipline. As such, work from across the social sciences is welcome, provided
WKDW YROXPHV DGGUHVV WKH VRFLDO FRQWH[W RI SDUWLFXODU LVVXHV VXEMHFWV RU ¿JXUHV
and offer new understandings of social reality and the contribution of a theorist or
VFKRROWRRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRILW7KHVHULHVFRQVLGHUVVLJQL¿FDQWQHZDSSUDLVDOV
of established thinkers or schools, comparative works or contributions that discuss
DSDUWLFXODUVRFLDOLVVXHRUSKHQRPHQRQLQUHODWLRQWRWKHZRUNRIVSHFL¿FWKHRULVWV
or theoretical approaches. Contributions are welcome that assess broad strands
of thought within certain schools or across the work of a number of thinkers, but
always with an eye toward contributing to contemporary understandings of social
issues and contexts.
 Fallgirls
Gender and the Framing of Torture at Abu Ghraib

RYAN ASHLEY CALDWELL

Soka University of America, USA
First published 2012 by Ashgate Publishing

Published 2016 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2012 Ryan Ashley Caldwell

Ryan Ashley Caldwell has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be
LGHQWL¿HGDVWKHDXWKRURIWKLVZRUN

All rights
The Open reserved. No part
Access version ofof this
this bookavailable
book, may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
at www.taylorfrancis.com, has beenin made
any
form or byunder
available any electronic,
a Creative mechanical, or other means,Commercial-No
Commons Attribution-Non now known or hereafter invented,
Derivatives 4.0 license.
including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system
Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Caldwell, Ryan Ashley.
Fallgirls : gender and the framing of torture at Abu
Ghraib.
1. Abu Ghraib Prison. 2. Prisoners of war--Abuse of--
Iraq. 3. Iraq War, 2003- --Prisoners and prisons,
American. 4. Iraq War, 2003- --Participation, Female.
5. United States--Armed Forces--Women. 6. Trials
(Military offenses)--United States. 7. Courts martial and
courts inquiry--United States. 8. England, Lynndie--
Trials, litigation, etc. 9. Harman, Sabrina--Trials,
litigation, etc. 10. Women soldiers in mass media.
11. Torture in mass media.
I. Title
956.7'04431-dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Caldwell, Ryan Ashley.
Fallgirls : gender and the framing of torture at Abu Ghraib / by Ryan Ashley Caldwell.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4094-2969-2 (hbk)
1. Abu Ghraib Prison. 2. Prisoners of war--Abuse of--Iraq. 3. Iraq War, 2003--Psychological
aspects. 4. Torture--Iraq. 5. Women and war--United States. 6. Control (Psychology)
7. Women in war. 8. Feminist theory. I. Title.

DS79.76.C346 2011
956.7044'37--dc23
2011040756
ISBN 9781409429692 (hbk)
Fall.girl (noun . slang)
1. A fallgirl is a person of feminine gender who is used as a scapegoat or easy
victim to take the blame for someone else’s actions. 2. An individual said to “take
the fall” in terms of responsibility for another’s exploits.
 For my mother.

And, in loving memory of

Joseph Morton Ransdell
and Stuart Jay Hysom.

I truly miss you both.

 Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Abbreviations xi
/LVWRI6LJQL¿FDQW3HUVRQQHO   [LLL
6HULHV(GLWRU¶V3UHIDFH   [Y
3UHIDFH   [L[

Prologue: So What Really Happened at Abu Ghraib? 1

Defense Counsel’s Opening Statements 23

1 It was not Lucifer Achieved: Zimbardo, Women, and Abu Ghraib 31

Testimony of Captain Donald J. Reese, U.S. Army, Sabrina Harman

Courts-Martial 49

2 Abu Ghraib and the “Rationalization” of Rationality: Uses of the

Masculine and Feminine Symbolic Narrative 57

Testimony of Major David DiNenna, U.S. Army, Sabrina Harman

Courts-Martial 81

3 The Abuse was Reported: Parsonian Gender Roles and Abu Ghraib
7UDQV¿JXUDWLRQV   

Evidence: Sabrina Harman’s Letter to Kelly Bryant, Sabrina Harman

Courts-Martial 111

 7KH6LJQL¿FDQFHRI,GHQWLW\6LPXODFUDDQG*HQGHU+\SHUUHDOLW\
American Military and the Case of Abu Ghraib 113

Testimony of Stjepan G. Mestrovic, Expert Witness in Sociology,

Sabrina Harman Courts-Martial 133

5 The Fallgirls of Abu Ghraib: Feminist Analyses and the

Importance of Context 145
viii Fallgirls

6 Conversations with Sabrina Harman, Summer 2007 169

Closing Statement of the Defense Counsel, Sabrina Harman

Courts-Martial, Captain Patsy Takemura, May 17, 2005,
Fort Hood, Texas 181

Sworn Statements 187

Bibliography 199
Index 209
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 List of Figures

P.1 Abu Ghraib Prison 3

P.2 Abu Ghraib prison cell 5
2.1 The outside of Abu Ghraib at night with lights 63
2.2 Detainee nicknamed “The Claw” 73
3.1 Harman giving stitches and providing instrumental care 108
 )HPDOHVROGLHULQ,UDTZLWKELNLQLDQGULÀH   
4.2 Harman tattoo, “rotten apple 6” 130
 *UDI¿WLLQ,UDT   
5.2 Harman with Iraqi family 148
5.3 Children in Iraq 148
5.4 Harman with women and children 149
5.5 “Sabrina! Sabrina!” 150
5.6 Harman and Iraqi female friend 151
5.7 “Maternal Sabrina” 152
5.8 Military Intelligence Interrogation Shed, Abu Ghraib, Iraq 160
6.1 Harman with family 172
6.2 Harman with family and children 173
6.3 Children in Iraq 174
6.4 Harman and some of her friends in Iraq 179
 List of Abbreviations

ACLU American Civil Liberties Union

BIAP/BIOP Baghdad International Airport
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CID Criminal Investigative Division
CJTF-7 Combined Joint Task Force-7
CPA Coalition Provisional Authority
DADT “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
DFAC Dining Facility
EPW Enemy Prisoner of War
FM Field Manual
Gitmo Guantanamo Bay, Cuba
HMMWV Humvee motor vehicle
,&2 ,UDTL&RUUHFWLRQDO2I¿FHUV
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICRP Theater Interrogation and Counter-Resistance Policies
IR Internment Resettlement
JAG Judge Advocate General
MEDVAC Medical Evacuation
MI Military Intelligence
MKTS Military Knowledge and Testing Standard
MP Military Police
MPI Military Police Investigator
MRE Meal Ready-to-Eat
1&2 1RQ&RPPLVVLRQHG2I¿FHU
OGA Other Governmental Agencies
2,& 2I¿FHULQ&KDUJH
PSD Personal Security Detail
PT Physical Training
PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
ROT Record of Trial
SHA32 Sabrina Harman Article 32 Hearing, Camp Victory Base, Iraq
SHCM Sabrina Harman Courts-Martial, Fort Hood, TX
UCMJ Uniform Code of Military Justice
 /LVWRI6LJQL¿FDQW3HUVRQQHO

“Rotten Apples” from the Military Police

‡ &RUSRUDO&KDUOHV*UDQHUQG030LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU1&2RIQLJKW
shift for 1A (10 years in prison, released after six and a half years on August
6, 2011).
‡ 3ULYDWH,YDQ/)UHGHULFNQG030LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU1&2,&IRU
night shift at the hard site (eight years prison, released October 2007).
‡ 6SHFLDOLVW-HUHP\6LYLWVQG030LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU RQH\HDUSULVRQ
‡ 6SHFLDOLVW6DEULQD+DUPDQQG030LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU WKUHHPRQWKV
prison).
‡ Private First Class Lynndie England (three years prison).
‡ 6HUJHDQW-DYDO'DYLVQG030LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU VL[PRQWKVSULVRQ 
‡ 6SHFLDOLVW0HJKDQ$PEXKOQG030LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU GLVFKDUJHG 

“Rotten Apples” from the Military Intelligence

‡ Specialist Armin Cruz, 325th Military Intelligence Battalion (sentenced to

one year).
‡ Specialist Roman Krol, 325th Military Intelligence Battalion (sentenced to
10 months).

Whistleblowers

‡ Sergeant Ken Davis, 372nd Military Police Company.

‡ Specialist Joseph Darby, 372nd Military Police.

Commanders at Abu Ghraib and in Iraq

‡ Captain Donald J. Reese, Company Commander at Abu Ghraib, 372nd MP.

‡ 0DMRU'DYLG'L1HQQD6XSSO\2I¿FHUDQGLQFKDUJHRISULVRQHURSHUDWLRQV
at Abu Ghraib.
‡ Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez, the General who was Commander of
all military units in Iraq.
‡ Major General Barbara Fast, in charge of Military Intelligence in Iraq.
xiv Fallgirls

‡ Major General Geoffrey Miller, the General who was Commander of

Guantanamo and who came to Abu Ghraib in order to “Gitmoize” the prison
in the fall of 2003.
‡ Colonel Thomas Pappas, Brigadier Commander, one of the disputed
Commanders at Abu Ghraib.
‡ Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Jordan, one of the disputed Commanders at Abu
Ghraib.
‡ Lieutenant Colonel Jerry Phillabaum, one of the disputed Commanders at
Abu Ghraib.
‡ &DSWDLQ&DURO\Q:RRGRQHRIWKH,QWHOOLJHQFH2I¿FHUVDW$EX*KUDLEZKR
came from Afghanistan.
‡ Colonel (former Brigadier General) Janis Karpinski, in charge of all of the
prisons in Iraq.

Other Military Police and Military Intelligence at Abu Ghraib

‡ Staff Sergeant Ivan L. Frederick, 372nd Military Police, Senior NCO night
VKLIWDW$EX*KUDLE WHVWL¿HGDJDLQVWRWKHUVIRUWKHSURVHFXWLRQ 
‡ 6SHFLDOLVW0DWWKHZ.:LVGRPQG0LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU
‡ Sergeant Robert F. Jones, 372nd Military Police (Wisdom’s Immediate
superior).
‡ Specialist Israel Rivera, 325th Military Intelligence Battalion (testimony in
exchange for immunity).
‡ 0DVWHU6HUJHDQW%U\DQ/LSLQVNLQG0LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHU
‡ 6HUJHDQW+\GUXH-R\QHUQG0LOLWDU\3ROLFH2I¿FHULQFKDUJHRIWKHGD\
shift at Abu Ghraib.
 Series Editor’s Preface

Most people think they know all that there is to know about the Abu Ghraib torture
scandal: the “bad apples” (referring to a handful of allegedly corrupt soldiers)
allegedly had fair trials; they went to jail for allegedly committing acts of torture;
and as far as the public, law, and academia are concerned—the case is closed. But
as my friend and colleague in philosophy, Professor John McDermott is fond of
saying: “The world does not speak in Aristotelian clarity.” Clarity is dangerous,
because it closes the doors of perception. Genuine perception of an event or an
issue must include the elements which lie on the fringes of consciousness and on
the peripheries of what is seemingly known. Dr. Ryan Ashley Caldwell researched,
analyzed, and wrote this book on Abu Ghraib in the spirit McDermott describes,
as he was, and remains one of her mentors. McDermott’s approach is a remnant
of a distinguished tradition in philosophy and sociology that dates back to the late
1880s, the era of William James, Emile Durkheim, and other classical theorists
who laid the groundwork for discovering and re-discovering the social world. My
own mentor, David Riesman, similarly advised his students that the social world
as well as social theory must be re-discovered continuously.
This is because the bulk of our “discoveries” about the social world and
VRFLDO LVVXHV LQ WKLV RXU K\SHUPRGHUQ DJH DUH EDVHG XSRQ ¿UVW LPSUHVVLRQV
which are disseminated by the information media and the Internet more quickly
and thoroughly than previous generations could have imagined. Discussions are
thereby closed before they have a chance to be opened. The moment that the White
House labeled the accused soldiers in the Abu Ghraib drama as “rotten apples”—
the designation that made its way around the world in a matter of seconds—their
fates were sealed, and the full horizon of possible explanations for the scandal
was closed with the exclusive focus on them, and not their superiors or their
social environment. One must re-discover the original truths, which the media’s
“discovery” of the scandal obfuscated for generations to come. Thus, Dr. Caldwell
analyzes court documents and the ROT for the accused soldiers. This seemingly
obvious step in the research process—to examine the actual, sworn testimonies
of the accused and of witnesses—is not obvious at all. It is shocking that in our
digitalized, information-laden age, there is no central repository in existence for
the ROT. By law, the ROT are public documents, but are not truly accessible
WRWKHSXEOLF7KHSXUSRUWHGO\SXEOLF527DUHH[WUHPHO\GLI¿FXOWWRREWDLQ'U
Caldwell was a member of the defense teams of two of the soldiers charged in the
Abu Ghraib scandal, Sabrina Harman and Lynndie England. In this role, she had
access to them and to other witnesses, as well as their attorneys, their trials, and
xvi Fallgirls

to precious information such as the ROT which eluded the media and society’s
opinion-makers.
I shall not review here the genuine discoveries Dr. Caldwell makes and shares
in this book. What is striking is her curiosity, scrupulous attention to detail, and
sensitivity to what various actors actually said about the abuse, command climate,
and social climate at Abu Ghraib—as well as how they said what they said. The
facts she lays out challenge existing preconceptions which have been frozen into
dogma: The court-martialed female soldiers did not strike anyone, and did not
torture anyone. They were convicted mainly for taking and posing in photographs,
under the direction of male superiors. In sum, the convicted female soldiers were
the “fallgirls” or scapegoats for abuse that was orchestrated at the White House and
E\ODZ\HUVKLJKUDQNLQJRI¿FHUVDQGLQWHOOLJHQFHSHUVRQQHOLQWKHVWUDWRVSKHUHRI
the chain of command above them. These real architects of the evils at Abu Ghraib
will most likely never be charged with any crimes.
Worse yet, the center versus the periphery of the Abu Ghraib saga have been
inverted. The government and the media would have one believe that the fallgirls,
and other low-ranking soldiers at Abu Ghraib, were at the center of the abuse,
while the high-level architects remained passive, helpless, and unknowing on the
fringes of the story. The truth is that the seemingly peripheral and high-ranking
characters in this story are the real protagonists and bear the real responsibility not
only for the abuse, but for creating the dysfunctional social climate at Abu Ghraib
which led to and maintained the abuse.
In addition to documenting the full, contextual account of what happened
at Abu Ghraib—including the fringes, margins, and periphery of the received
story—Dr. Caldwell re-discovers the social theories necessary to comprehend
what happened at Abu Ghraib. One should keep in mind that social scientists
do not hold a monopoly on theories for explaining events. Lawyers, journalists,
politicians and other professional groups all draw upon or develop theories to
explain this and other events. Indeed, the prosecution and defense attorneys had
their own, opposing theories at the Abu Ghraib trials regarding key concepts such
as choice, responsibility, procedure, and so on. Lawyers routinely concoct ad hoc
sociologies and psychologies of their own, which would never be accepted without
discussion in academia. Dr. Caldwell’s unique contribution in this volume falls
under the broad umbrella of theories known as feminism and gender studies—
DQGPRUHVSHFL¿FDOO\KRZWKHVHWKHRULHVLPSDFWHGOHJDODQGRWKHUWKHRULHV6KH
looks to the neglected margins and periphery of social theory for concepts which
could capture the complexity of the Abu Ghraib drama in a meaningful way.
Thus, she begins with the nearly forgotten distinction made by Talcott Parsons
between instrumental, goals-means functions (ascribed to males) and expressive
functions (ascribed to females). Most contemporary feminists seem to assume that
this is a sexist distinction which no longer applies to contemporary society. But
Dr. Caldwell argues convincingly that this distinction still operates in the U.S.
military, and thereby opens up new vistas for understanding. A brief summary of
her discoveries would be that the fallgirls were exploited by the male commanders
 6HULHV(GLWRU¶V3UHIDFH xvii

precisely because they were female, and would thereby heighten the shame
experienced by male Iraqi inmates at Abu Ghraib. She calls this the instrumental
use of expressive torture.
In her analysis as a whole, she invents many new concepts to capture the
twisted use of homoerotic, sexual, and gender-based, expressive themes in
LQVWUXPHQWDO UDWLRQDO JRDOPHDQV WHFKQLTXHV 7KH VLJQL¿FDQFH RI KHU QHZ
theoretical perspective is that the sexual perversion at Abu Ghraib can no longer
be dismissed as the aberrant behavior of a few individuals. Rather, this climate of
perversion was the product of carefully-crafted interrogation “techniques” which
aimed at the misuse of gender, expressive functions, and sexuality for the purposes
of torture. Additionally, Dr. Caldwell walks the reader through other peripheries of
social thought, including that of Michel Foucault, Judith Butler, Jean Baudrillard,
among others, in an attempt to understand the spectacle of Abu Ghraib.
'U&DOGZHOO¶VERRNLVWKH¿UVWLQ$VKJDWH¶V&ODVVLFDODQG&RQWHPSRUDU\6RFLDO
Theory Series. It is an exemplar of the kind of sociological theorizing which put
VRFLRORJ\RQWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOPDSLQWKH¿UVWSODFH,WLVWKHVRFLRORJ\RIGLVFRYHU\
QRWRIOLIHOHVVSURSRVLWLRQVLQWHQGHGIRUK\SRWKHVLVWHVWLQJDQG³IDOVL¿FDWLRQ´'U
Caldwell seeks the truth about Abu Ghraib, and in the process, demonstrates that
this truth is complex, ambiguous, and deserving of our attention and discussion.
The reader should be prepared for discoveries in this book which will be surprising
and disturbing, as all discoveries are.

Stjepan G. Mestrovic, Texas A&M University

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