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A C.l.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-90-8790-423-4 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-90-8790-424-1 (hardback)
ISBN: 978-90-8790-425-8 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers.

P.O. Box 21858, 300 I AW
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All Rights Reserved © 2008 Sense Publishers

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
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 For my father, Donald Walter Phillips, who lives defiantly and truthfully.
With courage, I have faced Lacan and I have learned.

For my mother, Flora Riddick Phillips, who models grace and conviction.
With fortitude, I will always be a teacher.

I.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement.. ................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

CHAPTER 1: Lacan as Psychoanlayst and Teacher. ....... . . ........... . . . . . . . . . ........ 1

Lacan's Historical Context . .. ............................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 3

Lacan and Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 6
Lacan as Teacher/Performer ........................ ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 8
The Theoretical Premise of This Book ............... . ................. ....... 13

CHAPTER 2: Mirroring: Reflectivity, Identity, and Subjectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 15

The Mirror Stage .

. . . .......................... .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Alienating Identity: Situational and Material Reflectivity .................. 18
The Subject and the "I" .......................................................... 21
The Decentered Subject ........... . . . . ......... . . . . . . ........................... 26
The Subject and Democratic Education ............ ........................... 29

CHAPTER 3: Speaking the Self: Literal and Figurative Implications

For Identity .... ....................................... ............................. 31

Narratives and Myths ............ ................... . ............................ 31

Speech and Language . . . . . . .. . ....................... . ........................... 32
Empty Speech and Full Speech .................. . .
. ............................ 34
Written Text.. . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
The Four Discourses ................ . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
Metaphors ................................... . ..................................... 40
Lacan, Language, and Cultural Studies .................. . .................... 42

CHAPTER 4: Lacan as Clinical Practioner .......................................... ... 49

Situating the Self in Psychoanalysis . . . . . . ........................ . ............ 51

To Cure or Not to Cure: That is the Question ............................. . ... 53
The Relationship between Analyst and Analysand ............ . ...... . ...... 55
The Clinical Practitioner and Education ........................ . . . . . . . . . . ..... 56

vii

j
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5: Jouissance: Postmodern, Post-structural, and Post-formal

Thinking: ls it Whatever Gets You Off? . . . . . . .................................... . . . . ..... 63

Postmodern ism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Curriculum ......... . , . ....... .......................... ........................... 67
Post-structuralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Post-formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 74

CHAPTER 6: Lacan enacted: Truth & Reconciliation, Curriculum

& Pedagogy ...... . . . . . . . . ................... . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Truth & Reconciliation . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Education as Work: Challenging the Notion of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 82
Geographic Education and its Relevance to Curriculum
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
..

Constructing a Curriculum of Authentic Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 89

Care theory, Spirituality, & Curriculum: Can We Really Teach
Children to Care? .
... ............................................................... .... . 92
Critical Pedagogy: A Post-Formal Lacanian Curriculum? ....................... 97

References ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... JO I

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To Joe Kincheloe for illuminating moments of clarity in the vast ambiguity of

Lacan.

To Richard Allen for his formatting of the manuscript.

To Lindsay Dunham for her careful proorreading. Any errors which remain are
entirely my own.

To my mom, for listening and engaging in dialogue with me about Lacan.

To my husband, Bratis D. Roseboro, for making life possible while reading and
writing Lacan.

To my girls, Ciera Joi and Maya Jasmin, for making life so wonderful despite
Lacan.

ix
I
I
I' '
 CHAPTER I

LACAN AS PSYCHOANLAYST AND TEACHER

INTRODUCTION

As with any work, I find it necessary to situate myself before beginning. I am an

educational philosopher, a critical pedagogue who specializes in cultural studies. I
am not a psychoanalyst. When I first encountered Lacan, it was as a doctoral
student and the class was one in feminist theory. While this may seem like a
strange place to have encountered Lacan (a man whom some feminists love to
hate); it was a unique place, one that piqued my interest. And so, I continued
reading only to discover that his writing was, at best, slippery, and, at worst,
maddening. My competitiveness would not let him undo me and, eventually, I
began to see Lacan's writings as mysteries with alternate endings. For me, this has
been and remains a learning process, one in which I rely upon the deep body of
knowledge already produced by psychoanalytic students of Lacan.
Because Lacan considered himself a Freudian, he extensively studied Freud's
topography (mapping) of the ego (rational self), id (pleasure seeking unconscious
drive) and the superego (moral/ethical preconscious drive). Lacan was also,
however, a student of structural linguistics and wed his psychoanalytic theory with
language theory. Reality, for Lacan, existed within language. To understand Lacan
then is to accept that we are who we are because of language and, because language
has form and structure, we are inherently bound to/by that structure. With his
psychoanalytic and linguistic theories, Lacan captured human relations in linguistic
space, at the intersection of thought, speech, and the written word.
It is here that I entered Lacanian theory with interest. As an educator committed
to the creation of democratic classroom spaces, spaces in which students are
engaged in personally meaningful learning experiences, I craved a way to bridge
the divide between the personally meaningful and the intellectual. Though I never
see the two as mutually exclusive, I have endured countless accountability measures
and standardized testing procedures which embrace only the intellectual and ignore
the emotional or affective. With Lacan's analysis of identity and language, I found
a new educative space, one which hinges in the theoretical nexus between
psychoanalysis, structural linguistics, and critical pedagogy. In this space, I explore
the connections between identity, language, and education.
As a critical pedagogue, I challenge the presumption that what we do in schools
is, in fact education. Any number of other terms might apply - compulsory attending
or banking - but it is not educating in the spirit of the term. Educating can not be
reduced to proficiency scores on standardized tests, tests which measure one's
ability to regurgitate or guess effectively rather than one's ability to critically
 ,,

11 CHAPTER I

I
I'
problem solve. In a more specific sense, I believe that education should be
democratic in process and content. How and what we learn should connect to the
founding principles of American government-life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. Educating should be about creating spaces in which children learn to
live organic and productive lives. It should be about creating spaces in which
children learn to define freedom and learn to practice living as free and conscientious
members of a larger community. And, finally, it should be about creating spaces in
which children learn happiness in the spiritual and unselfish sense of the word, a
happiness that reflects and speaks to their learning to live as integrated human
beings.
This does not mean that I believe democratic education is "content free," that
somehow children need not learn to read, write, or multiply. Rather, I believe and
hope that democratic education is intrinsically integrated; that whatever is studied
(whether that is science, music, drama, art, or history) always connects to children's
lived experiences in some way. Equally important, my .vision of democratic
education demands that teachers engage with students as learning professionals,
respectful of the knowledge students bring and cognizant of teaching as an intrinsic
and extrinsic process. It is a process that requires us, as educators (or future
educators) to examine ourselves as we also examine our students and the social and
cultural environments in which we live.
Jn this context, I use Lacan's theories as a springboard for a different educational
discourse, one that forces us to assess inward rather than outward. To move beyond
the linear nature of schools, a context exacerbated by developmental psychologists
like Piaget and Erikson who theorized that we can understand children's development
in stages, I argue that Lacan's theories allow us to holistically educate - to teach
cognizant of the relationship between interior and exterior spaces, between the
unspoken and the heard.
Using this context, I have organized this book purposefully with specific
emphasis on Lacan's work as a teacher and less focus on the evolution of his
theories. Since I am foregrounding the concepts of identity, language, and democratic
education, I frame the chapters around the Lacanian theories that specifically relate
to those subjects. I must caution here that I do this because this is an introductory
level text and because my emphasis is on Lacan's theoretical relationship to
education. Any psychoanalyst who is a sincere student of Lacan would (with
good reason) argue that, to truly engage with Lacan, one would need to study the
evolution of his theoretical thought from the beginning of his career until then end
because Lacan, like most theorists, spent his entire life developing, revising, and
reclaiming certain ideas. For this reason, there are few theoretical points that
remain unchanged throughout his career. It is precisely this instability which makes
Lacan so compelling as an educator - he spends his entire life learning and
teaching.
In chapter one, I situate Lacan historically and theoretically. His identity
theories, understood in conjunction with nationalist and imperialist tendencies
which pervaded Europe during the I930's and I940's as well as the global social
unrest of the 1960' s, provide the basis for my discussion of the self in relation, the

:1
1.
 LACAN AS PSYCHOANLAYST AND TEACHER

convergence or divergence of self and group identities. Lacan's historical location

socializes his theory; it gives us a context for the development of his theories of the
self and language. Also in this chapter, I outline Lacan's Freudian roots and his work
(some might say escapades) as a clinical practitioner. In chapter two, I introduce
Lacan's concept of the mirror stage. Simply put, Lacan argued that infants would,
at some point between the ages of six and eighteen months, come to recognize
themselves in the mirror (or in reflection)'; they would realize that the baby in the
mirror is not some other child. I will explore this concept of identity formation with
attention to the ways in which mirroring and reflexivity continually shape the self
identities we create. Chapter 3 discusses Lacan's interpretation of language and his
application of it in his teaching and writing. In this chapter, I work with Lacan's
idea that language, with its inconsistency and fallibility, shapes our existence. Here
I am equally concerned with Lacan's theorizing about language and his use of it.
In his theory, he connects with structuralism, but in his speaking and writing, he
persistently pushes the limits of language struggling to find new discursive spaces.
Here, I will consider Lacan's attempts to find new language a metaphor for the
struggles faced by teachers and students in trying to find common discourse, a
discourse that mediates between the worlds of home and school.
Finally, in Chapters four, five, and six I will examine Lacan as a clinical practitioner
within postmodern, post-structural, and post-formal theories. All of these theories
speak to identity formation and subjectivity; they re-conceptualize the self/other
nexus and deconstruct the notion that the self is stable and singular. These theories,
considered in parallel to Lacan, stimulate further questioning of intersections
between group and self identities. Chapter five thus negotiates the influence of
postmodern, post-structural, and post-formal theories on education. Chapter six ends
with a negotiation of several critical questions. Can the invented be the inventor?
If so, how must we redefine identity in that context? What are the implications for
democratic public education? How might a paradigm shift in identity definition
and/or developmental theory possibly reshape pedagogy? How might such a shift
reframe the ways we do and think curriculum? And, how might such a shift uncover
different language, a discourse that embraces children as competent and whole
human beings rather than deficient and disconnected parts?

LACAN'S HISTORICAL CONTEXT

In 1901, Alfred Lacan and Emilie Baudry gave birth to their first child, Jacques­
Marie Emile Lacan. It was the tum of the century in France, a time when the
nation's Catholic constituency pushed for government to reflect and represent that
Catholic heritage. In the midst of this fervour, anti-semitism rose and Jewish
citizens found themselves at the center of a national debate which pitted Catholics
against Jews. One case, in particular, reflected the sentiment of the era-the
Dreyfus affair. When, in 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French
army was charged with providing military information to Germany, conflict
erupted between representatives of the French republic, top level military officers
and Catholic officials. Despite finding evidence to prove Dreyfus' innocence, the

3
[•

'I CHAPTER I

military refused to release Dreyfus. By 1899, the president of France pardoned

Dreyfus but he could not return to Paris until 1906. By this time (and after
witnessing the involvement of Catholic priests in the attacks against Dreyfus), the
government had passed legislation which called for the separation of church and
state. Into this highly charged political climate Lacan entered the world. His
family, a prosperous Roman Catholic merchant family, established themselves in

I
the food business by selling and trading in rum, brandy, and coffee. By 1907,
Lacan's parents had given birth to three more children, Raymond (who lived for
' just two years), Madeleine, and Marc-Marie. Between 1907 and 1919, Lacan had
I attended school at the College Stanislas and he had begun to study medicine.
I
'
' By 1927 Lacan was in clinical training for psychiatry and within the next three
years, he had written six neurological studies based on psychiatric cases. He
continued his clinical training in other venues, including the Paris Police Special
Infirmary for the Insane and the Hospital Henri Rouselle. For the next ten years,
until 1937, Lacan's career began to blossom as he continued writing and publishing
I
I
his work. He did not go without his own share of troubles, however; in I 936, when
'
he presented a paper on the mirror stage, he left abruptly after being interrupted by
an audience member and, in 1938, he spent considerable time re-writing an article
because editors complained that it was too obscure. In his personal life, Lacan
faced additional troubles. After marrying Marie-Louise Blondin in 1934 and
having three children with her, Lacan had another child with Sylvia Makles­
Bataille. He and Marie-Louise divorced soon afterwards and the events of World
War I I soon overshadowed his personal trials.
During the war, the Societe psychoanalytique de Paris ceased all official activity
and Lacan traveled to Britain for a little over a month. During his time in Britain,
he studied with British psychiatrists and evaluated their wartime psychiatric
practice. Over the next forty years, Lacan would continue his clinical practice,
introducing psychoanalytic sessions of variable length (a practice that was
condemned by the Societe psychoanalytique de Paris). During his lifetime, he met
and developed friendships with a variety of great thinkers including the Surrealist
theorist/writer Andre Breton, the artists Salvador Dali, and Pablo Picasso, the
existentialist Jean-Paul Satre, the phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty,
anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, psychoanalyst Carl Jung, French Communist
philosopher Louis Althusser, and German philosopher Martin Heidegger. When he
died on September 9 at the age of 8 I , Lacan had inspired, provoked, and
challenged thousands of people who had attended his public seminars at St. Anne's
in Paris or students who attended one of his seminars at the Ecole normale supercure,
rue d'Ulm or at the law faculty at the place du Pantheon.
He had witnessed the ravaging of his country in two world wars, the mani­
pulation of his government by Germans in World War II, the resistance movement
led by Charles de Gaulle during that same war, student strikes in the late I 960's,
I. and the coalescence of an international feminist movement in the early I 970's. His
presence in the international arena had even personally touched some American
students in 1966 when he visited six universities including Harvard, M IT, and
Columbia and in I 975 when he visited Yale, Columbia, and M IT. He was a teacher

4
 LACAN AS PSYCHOANLA YST AND TEACHER

who believed that history shaped psychoanalysis. Lacanian psychoanalyst and

translator Bruce Fink (2004) says, "According to Lacan, the relationship between
history and psychoanalysis is a very intimate one indeed, psychoanalysis having
taken as its first task to fill the gaps in the subject's history and to probe the
unusual temporality in the subject's history-the past being what is repressed"
(p. 42). If then the subject's history is repressed, then it represents part of the
unconscious (the id) and operates like a text that the psychoanalyst and analysand
(psychiatric patient or subject) must learn to read.
For as much as Lacan was a practicing psychoanalyst, he also believed that
studying the history of psychoanalysis would reveal some truth about the nature
of human existence. Since Lacan is critical of psychoanalysts who claimed
psychoanalysis could be entirely curative, he hoped that evaluating the history of
psychoanalysis would lead him towards some greater understanding of how to
change the direction of the field itself. He wanted to examine the idea "that the
evolution and transformations of analytic experience teach us about the very nature
of this experience insofar as it is also a human experience that is hidden from itself'
(Seminar I, 32/24). His theoretical connection between the field of psychoanalysis
and history becomes even more important as we consider its implications for social
history or, as Lacan himself would frame it, the social unconscious. Lacan's theory
would suggest that, if we perceive of history as part of the unconscious, then we
psychologically repress that history and that the psychoanalytic process will help
us learn to read and engage with those repressed memories.
Lacan sought, through his study of ego psychology and object relations, to
traverse a critical impasse in the history of psychoanalysis. Many psychoanalytic
theorists of the late 1930's and early 1940's, most notably Anna Freud (daughter of
Freud), had studied in great detail Freud's initial explanation of ego psychology.
Freud had argued that the ego did not come into being as separate from the id
(unconscious). Some of these psychoanalytic theorists chose to ignore Freud's
initial characterization of the ego as a part of the unconscious. They took Anna
Freud's emphasis of the ego as proof positive that the ego was worthy of separation,
worthy of study as a distinct entity. These theorists claimed that their discarding of
Freud's initial explanation was simply a synchronization of his concepts but, in
doing so, they ignored the importance of analyzing the historical development of
Freud's rationale. In fact, Lacan took them to task for failing to appreciate the
tension between Freud's claim that the ego could control a subject's actions while
it also stemmed from the unconscious (Fink, 2004).
Because Lacan valued the historical evolution of psychoanalytic theory, he
brought back Freud's idea that the ego's birthplace is in the unconscious. He
studied the ego in the unconscious or, in his words, the "subject of the unconscious."
With this restoration/repositioning of the subject to the unconscious, Lacan
effectively de-centered the ego. His revitalization of the contradictions in Freud's
theory (namely, that the ego controlled actions but that the ego was not, at least
initially, distinct from the unconscious-the subject of the unconscious controls
actions), brought forth a litany of psychoanalytic debate. Fink (2004) argues that,
both Lacan and the Anna Freudian group (those who ignored Freud's claim that the

5
 CHAPTER I

ego was a part of the unconscious), had valid interpretations of Freud's theory; the
theory was complicated and contradictory. Fink illuminates for us the importance
of Lacan re-reading of Freud to the evolution of psychoanalytic thought. Fink says,
What we can say is that, historically speaking, Hartman's reading was sterile
and unproductive. It led to very little in the way of a renewal of research and
theorization, whereas Lacan's led to a huge increase in both (like a good
interpretation in the analytic setting, it generated a lot of new material). We
can also say that Lacan's approach gave a considerable impetus to practice
(p. 45).
In contrast, theorists like Heinz Hartman used Freud to perpetuate developmental
psychology, a concept rooted in the belief that children moved through cognitive
stages. Lacan not only disputed developmental psychology, he also claimed that it
was antithetical to the spirit of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis could potentially
illuminate much more complicated, contextualized, relational human development;
to reduce it to simplistic linear stages would divorce psychoanalysis from its
infinite possibility as a method of reading/re-reading the subject.

LACAN AND PHILOSPHY

Lacan studied Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, Marx, Hegel, Kant, Descartes, Aristotle,

I Plato, Pascal, Newton, Hegel, and numerous others. His interest in and engagement
with philosophy spanned different philosophical traditions and disciplines from
'I science to humanities to mathematics and linguistics. Lacan uses philosophy as a
point of departure and contention, one in which he elaborates on the nature of truth
and reality, knowledge and ethics. In his seminar, "Beyond the Reality Principle,"
he went so far as to say, "For while I consider it legitimate to privilege the historical
method in studying facts of consciousness, I do not use it as a pretext to elude the
intrinsic critique that questions their value" (Ecrits, 74). He went on to conclude
that, if we traced the historical evolution of psychology, we would discover that
many psychoanalysts claiming to have some new interpretation were really
borrowing from philosophy (Ecrits, 74). And, in this borrowing, many compared
psychology to science and claimed to have arrived at some new truth or some new
explanation of reality. Lacan, in fact, critiqued the prior association of psychology
with exact science because, as he said, "truth in its specific value remains foreign
to science: science can be proud of its alliances with truth; it can adopt the
phenomenon and value of truth as its object; but it cannot in any way identify truth
as its own end" (Ecrits, 79).
For Lacan, truth was a matter of representation. It was a matter of what could be
captured by language. The question of language was one that, according to Lacan,
prevented science from claiming "the search for truth" as its main goal. To
illustrate his point, Lacan uses an example,
Can we say that scientists wonder if the rainbow is true? All that matters to
them is that this phenomenon is communicable in some language (the
condition of the intellectual order), that it be reportable in some form (the

I !

l
 LACAN AS PSYCHOANLAYST AND TEACHER

condition of the experimental order), and that it be possible to insert into the
chain of symbolic identifications with which their science unifies the
diversity of its own object (the condition of the rational order) (Ecrits, 79).
What is communicable through language is, perhaps, our best representation of
what is true. Lacan's combination of historical method, psychoanalytic inquiry, and
structural linguistics would come together to push the question of truth even
further. His re-reading of Freud would lead him to question the relationship
between truth, the unconscious, and language.
Lacan's interest in the unconscious, or the subject of the unconscious, leads him
to suggest that there is a part of the unconscious that will remain forever unknown
despite the best efforts of psychoanalysis. The unconscious represents that which
cannot be directly explained through language. Unconscious thought may enter the
world through language, but it does so in indirect, convoluted ways. With the help
of psychoanalysis, a subject may begin to interpret unconscious desires that
manifest themselves through speech, action, or dreams in various ways, but even
psychoanalysis cannot explain/define the unconscious in precise ways. In fact,
Lacan specifically says,
There is often a passage in even the most thoroughly interpreted dream which
has to be left obscure; this is because we become aware during the work of
interpretation that at that point there is a tangle of dream-thoughts which
cannot be unraveled and which moreover adds nothing to our knowledge of
the content of the dream. This is the dream's naval, the spot where it reaches
down into the unknown (SE 5, p. 525/Shepherdson, 2003, p. I I 7).
Because Lacan wed his theory to structural linguistics, he believed that
representation, reality, what is known, is tied to language. Psychoanalysis, as a
method of interpretation dependent upon the spoken word, was bound by language.
And because language had/has limits, psychoanalysts would always find themselves
limited in their ability to interpret the unconscious.
For Lacan, there were three realms of knowing - the real, the symbolic, or the
imaginary orders. Psychoanalysts study the symbolic order, that which is represented
by discourse. The real is that part of the universe that we cannot capture in/through
language. And the imaginary represents a Hegelian intersubjectivity, an under­
standing of one's self. Lacan visually represents the relationship between the
real, the imaginary and the symbolic with a triangle. Each side of the triangle is
connected by directional arrows with arrows pointing from the real to the imaginary
to the symbolic to the real. The real is located in the bottom right corner, the
imaginary is the top and the symbolic is located in the lower left corner. The right
side of the triangle represents reality, the left side represents truth, and the bottom
side represents semblance (83). The imaginary is the locus of the ego and, as such,
a mediator between the symbolic and the real. Lacan believes that there will always
be an unknown part of the unconscious, a part that escapes definition in language.
His theories reflect a constant engagement with the complexity and obscurity of the
unconscious.

7
 CHAPTER I

With his emphasis on the unconscious and his return to Freudian psychology,
Lacan called attention to the ego (sell). But for Lacan, the juxtaposition of the ego
with the unconscious makes the ego much less stable - it is a site of murkiness
rather than a site of coherence. Lacan called into question our ability to know
ourselves. He does not follow the Cartesian logic "I think, therefore I am,"
because, for Lacan, much of what we think is beyond our ability to translate into
language. Even further, Lacan did not believe that thought presupposed being.
Rather, he argued that "being," as a subject defined by language, determined one's
thought. In this case, the subject is not merely an "I" or the ego. It is the "speaking
being" that is the subject. Through the symbolic order of language, the subject
coalesces and comes forth (Ecrits & Campbell, 2004).
For this reason, the Lacanian subject is not a material, physical entity. It
represents, instead, a relationship between words or, to be more specific, a
relationship between the meanings of words (a concept I will explore later, in
chapter 4). The subject does not merely "know" her/himself. Rather, s/he represents
what is known through language. S/he is created by the unconscious and language,
two factors that set limits and offer possibilities. Here again, we must return to
Lacan as historical psychoanalytic practitioner. If bound by language and if language
is constituted in time and in relationship, then the subject represents an intersection
of the past and the future. Thus, the Lacanian subject is temporal, connected in
complex ways to the realm of the Imaginary (the sell), the Real (the unspeakable),
and the Symbolic (language).
If we return to the question of "what is real" and "what is true?", then we must
translate Lacan's theory of the subject into a question of epistemology and cognition.
As Campbell (2004) says, "For Lacan, the question 'how do I know?' entails another
1,; question: 'who am !?"' (p. 3 I ). How and when we learn to frame these questions
becomes a critical point in the development of the ego or, in other words, in our
developing self awareness. This developing self awareness entices Lacan and
marks the significance of psychoanalytic practice. Through the psychoanalytic
process, Lacan envisions the development of the knowing subject, a subject
capable of recognizing its unconscious desires (even if these desires cannot be
translated initially) and temporality; the psychoanalytic process is a dialectic one in
which the analysand (person being analyzed) comes to understand her/himself as
incomplete. To know one's self is to recognize one's mobility in language- if we
are defined by and within language, then we are subject to the many detours of
language.

LACAN AS TEACHER/PERFORMER

To re-read Lacan with the discourse of democratic education demands that we

attune ourselves to his pedagogy. How did he teach? How do his writings represent
his theoretical and clinical processes as well as his style? It is clear from Lacan's
life and work that he preferred oratory. His constant travails with writing, his
reluctance to publish his work, and his belief in the limits of language combined to
make him more than a little suspicious of the written word. In writing he felt

8
 LACAN AS PSYCHOANLA YST AND TEACHER

confined and worried that people would read his theories as static rather than
malleable. Fink (2004) best summarizes Lacan's privileging of his teaching over
his writing. He says,
But writing, even this kind of writing, has its dangers too: The reader might
be inclined to take a given text as a system or a doctrine and pick it apart, or
'deconstruct' it ... This is dangerous to Lacan for at least two reasons: I ) His
work is declarative rather than demonstrative, and the reader is hard pressed
to find an argument in it to sustain any one particular claim .. 2) He has a
.

tendency to want to avoid being pinned down to any one particular

formulation of things ... (65).
He valued the interactive space of his seminars but this does not mean that he
necessarily valued interruption or contention. In his speaking and writing, he
sought to steer the listener's/reader's thoughts into a particular direction. In 1936,
when he was speaking at the Marienbad Congress, Ernest Jones (then president of
the London Psycho-analytic society and moderator of the Congress proceedings)
interrupted Lacan's talk as he was about ten minutes into his speech. After the
interruption, Lacan left abruptly and later refused to submit his paper for inclusion
in the conference proceedings ( Ecrits, 184). He then comments in "The instance of
the letter in the unconscious" that "writing is in fact distinguished by a prevalence
of the text in the sense that we will see this factor of discourse take on here-which
allows for the kind of tightening up that must, to my taste, leave the reader no other
way out than the way in, which I prefer to be difficult" (Ecrits, 493). Lacan, in his
writing, exercised more control over the evolution of his theories. For this reason,
he spent considerable time re-working his seminars, refining and reframing the
language, not necessarily to make it more precise, but to make it more resistant to
precision (Fink, 2004).
In other ways, Lacan wrote to purposefully elude explanation. His interest in
Surrealism, poetry, languages, and mathematics led him to use his writing as an
exploration in the presentation of reality. He would interchange terms, intersperse
his French with Latin and German, and frame his theoretical expositions as rhythmic
prose. In his 1955/56 essay, "The Freudian Thing," Lacan presents Truth as a
speaking "I," one that delivers an extensive speech. Rabate (2003) characterizes
Lacan's style as dense and maintains that his critics caricatured him as a "hamming
buffoon" even as they simultaneously admired his "personal openness, professional
rigor, and availability" (p. 5). Rabate goes on to say that Lacan's critics wondered
if Lacan was "a frustrated poet, a post-Heideggarian thinker progressing by opaque
epigrams, a psychoanalyst wishing to revolutionize a whole field of knowledge, or
just a charlatan?" (p. 5). I believe that Lacan embraced the idea of performativity in
teaching, that he looked for ways to teach that were radically different, and that,
ultimately, his more abstract performances represented his challenge to students.
He hoped that his performances would create definitive interest and engagement in
his seminars.
Lacan's allegiance to his students and disdain for higher level administrators
comes through repeatedly in his battles with Flaceliere, director of the Ecole

9
 CHAPTER I

nonnale supeieure, the International Psychoanalytic Association, and the Societe

psychoanalytic de Paris Gust to name a few). In a sense, Lacan used his role as
teacher/perfonner to encourage student resistance and political action. In describing
the cancellation ofLacan's seminar at the Ecole nonnale supeieure, Rabate says,
The last session of the seminar was devoted to scathing political remarks
denouncing the director's double game, which led to a chaotic sit-in in his
office, a fitting emblem of Lacan's conflicted relations with almost all
official institutions. Lacan, following more in the steps of Chainnan Mao,
who repeatedly used the younger generations as a weapon against the old
guard, than in those of de Gaulle, who had haughtily dismissed France as
ungovernable, was no doubt starting his own cultural revolution (p. 6).

11
I
Lacan's role as teacher/perfonner depended on the collusion and support of his
' students. They had to believe in his re-reading of Freud as a necessary engagement
of psychoanalysis and they also had to believe in him as the proselytizer of the
"gospel." He goes so far as to say that because he returns to Freud's exposition of
iI 'I
' the unconscious and that the unconscious "tells the truth about truth," that he is
speaking the truth about Freud (Ecrits, 868). Lacan's reverence for Freud and his
claims to be speaking the truth about Freud indicate his profound wish to be
associated with Freud. He was indeed a Freudian and, in particular, one who staked
his career on students' bequeathing upon him the same sort of reverence he gave to
Freud.
As a teacher, Lacan reveled in being the point of reference and departure for his
students. He was a mediator, of sorts, in their conversation with Freudian theory,
psychoanalysis, and philosophy. He was, by all accounts, a dynamic mediator, one
who embraced the question of "style" in both his writing and his life. Rabate
(2003), once a student at the Ecole nonnale superieure, remembers that students
viewed Lacan with awe, an almost star-like worship. They spoke of him being
"driven to the school's entrance to emerge with a beautiful woman on his ann and
make his way up to the office of Louis Althusser . . . Lacan was known to draw
crowds from the city's select quarters, a medley of colorful intellectuals, writers,
artists, feminists, radicals, and psychoanalysts" (p. I ). He was, in this sense, a
public intellectual, one who inspired and provoked with his intellect and his
personality.
As a public intellectual, he remained connected to multiple communities as he
simultaneously rejected the hierarchy of certain institutions. Liu (2003) suggests
that Lacan emerged as a pop star post World War II precisely because of his
turbulent relationship with the International Psychoanalytic Association (from
which he was eventually excommunicated) and his theoretical conflicts with other
Freudians. Perhaps more importantly, Lacan became a public intellectual (in this
sense, one who was known by the public) as he manipulated various fonns of
telecommunications to spread his messages. As Liu (2003) describes, "Playing the
master on the airwaves allowed for Lacan to perfonn as both charlatan and
master-consider his perfonnance in Television: His analytic attitude seemed like a
posture of pure provocation of his more conservative colleagues" (p. 253). Through

10
 LACAN AS PSYCHOANLAYST AND TEACHER

media, Lacan spoke and he clearly expected for people to listen. Recast in
cinematic imagery, he could enact his theories for different audiences and, in so
doing, disseminate his re-reading of Freud. In truth, he could become the voice of
Freud.
Lacan also used his pedagogy and his access to radio to disrupt the political
climate of post World War II France. When the Ford Foundation rejected his
proposal to translate Ecrits into English, Lacan takes it not only as a personal
affront to his theoretical interpretation of Freud, he sees the foundation's rejection
as evidence of a much larger conspiracy on the part of America to shape/manipulate/
refashion intellectual thought across the world. Liu (2003) describes Lacan's use of
radio airwaves to voice his frustration at the rejection by the Ford Foundation by
commenting,
That he related the anecdote in a radio interview is all the more significant:
weird as he was, he understood radio's function as a super-egoic voice. Radio
transforms the voice into aural material that shakes us up because it seems to
be audible everywhere, all at once. Lacan is chiding the leftist movement for
its narvete: the demand for 'an immediate effect' is part of a fantasy of
political efficacy and critical resistance. He is warning his interlocutors that
American institutions have an invisible political effect on post-war intellectual
life, censoring and policing the translation of texts . . . (p. 258)
Even though the Ford Foundation was/is a philanthropic organization, Lacan called
into question its motives in a very public way. And while his immediate impetus
for charging the Ford Foundation with censorship may have been rooted in his
frustration at the rejection, his charge that the foundation was using its influence to
further a particular intellectual agenda would later come to light. According to Liu,
the publication of Frances Stoner Saunders' Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the
World of Arts and letters, signaled the emergence of American philanthropic
organizations into the political realm. These organizations were, according to Liu,
"engaged institutionally and ideologically with the Central Intelligence Agency in
the dissemination of an imperialist vision of post-war Europe, re-formed and re­
structured under American domination" (p. 258). Lacan recognized this American
imperialism as a cultural assault, an attempt to reconstruct French intellectual
thought.
For Lacan, television was not the only medium by which he taught the world.
Tape recorders consistently captured his voice as he gave his noted seminars.
Students, of all ages and dispositions, could listen to his voice repeatedly. The tape
recorder, in a sense, magnified Lacan's presence and rendered him safely stored to
the annals of history. As Liu (2003) adds, "Lacan's feedback loop was plugged into
the various low-tech media: the spontaneity and obscurity of his speech was
guaranteed by the transcription that was made for his eyes only. His audience had
to be all ears, or else smuggle in tape recorders of their own . . ." (p. 262). In these
recordings, Lacan emerged as both ruler and captive; he licensed the recording, a
recording which would confine his speech to reel/tape. In this confinement, people
would try to pin him down, to continuously playback his recorded voice in an

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