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Design and Evaluation of a Raw Water Treatment Chamber using Locally

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

Design and Evaluation of a Raw Water Treatment

Chamber using Locally Available Materials

Awofadeju, Ayinde Samuel Akanni, Ayotunde Oluyemisi.

Department of Civil Engineering, Osun State Polytechnic, Department of Civil Engineering, Osun State Polytechnic,
Iree. Iree.
Osun State, Nigeria Osun State, Nigeria

Abstract - Viable technology has to be developed to meet I. INTRODUCTION

the increasing demand for quality water particularly in
The quality of drinking water is a powerful environmental
thickly populated, industrialized and economically viable
determinant of health. Assurance of drinking water safety is
society. In this research work, Periwinkle shells, Palm
a foundation for the prevention and control of various types
kernel shells, and Coconut shells were used to design a
of water borne diseases. Water resources have been the most
filter bed with Periwinkle shell of 0.20m size of a nut
exploited natural system since man strode on earth. On the
shell and 65m depth, a Palm kernel shell of 0.25m size of
other hand population growth, increasing living standard,
nut shell and 65m depth and a Coconut shell of 0.35m
wide spheres of human activities and industrialization have
size of the nut shell and 30m depth was used for raw
resulted in greater demand of good quality water particularly
water treatment for rural communities. The coconut
in thickly populated, industrialized and economically viable
shells and palm kernel shell were separated from their
society. Viable technology has to be developed to meet the
materials, dried out under sun for 12 hours, while the
increasing demand for quality water.
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periwinkle shell was sorted out to remove those that
have spoilt. The obtained dry shells were crushed to The quality of water depends upon its origin and
desired size, washed, drain excess water, dry in an oven history. Many factors however, produce variations in the
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and sieve manually in a mechanical sieve shaker. Acidity quality of water obtained from the same type of source.
test, sieve analysis, flow rate test and water analysis were Climate, geographical and geological conditions all play
carried out to determine the suitability of this local important role in determining water quality [1]. Many rural
material to treat water for drinking. The result of the areas today have been abandoned due to difficulties in
acidity test showed that the palm kernel shells and treatment of raw water, higher standards of quality water
coconut shells met the specification and suitable to be and increasing population, with greater hazards from lapse
used for filter bed material but that of periwinkle failed in purification as well as higher costs of treatment.
to meet the recommended specification i.e its weight is
Water treatment is aim at removing undesirable
less than10% of the original weight. The results showed
chemical materials and biological contaminants from
the filter water sample meet the WHO’s standards
contaminated water. Water treatments can also be designed
requirement and zero CFU/100ml for the total coliforms
for variety of other purposes, including meeting the
and E.coli. Flow rate of the effluent water from the
requirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical and
design nut shell filtration chamber yield an average of
industrial application. Water is also treated to remove
30l/hr, which means that the nut shell filter could
pathogens that can be harmful to human health. Quality
provide an adequate supply of drinking water for a
water is essential for all social-economic development and
typical household in the rural area. Based on the result
for maintaining healthy ecosystems in rural areas.
of the study, the effective removal of total coliforms,
reduction of turbidity and high flow, the nut shells In most rural areas visited the water available is not
filtration chamber could be recommended as a suitable for human consumption especially surface water
technology to be adopted on large scale treatment of due to the activities of man by allowing waste from
water in rural area. dumpsites, fertilizers in agricultural fields as well as waste
from soak away and pit latrines to migrates through the soils
Keywords: Filtration, Underdrain, Coliform, Acidity, Flow
to the surface and groundwater [2]. It is therefore necessary
rate
to improve the quality of water and render it attractive and
safe enough for human consumption
Simple techniques has been developed which can
be used to treat water in rural areas such as alum, sieving,
storage, solar disinfection and using filter bed designs with

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

locally available materials [3]. Filtration process of raw The sifter crushed nut shells were washed with a boiled
water treatment has long been considered as a good method water to remove the clay and organic matter that adhered to
and technology for raw water treatment. In rural areas, the grains of the nut shells and latter dried in an oven. The
studies show that continually operated filters are able to finished products are shown in fig. 1. in this specify order of
remove pathogenic organisms from untreated water with a Periwinkle shells, Palm kernel shell and Coconut shells
high efficiency rate. In general, filters can reduce the total
bacteria count (faecal and non-faecal organisms) by a factor
of 103 to 104, and faecal bacteria (mainly E. coli) by a
factor of 102 to 103 [4].
Slow sand filtration medium of operation was the
adopted medium because slow sand filtration medium of
operation was found by it cleaning technology that it
purifies water without creating any additional sources of
environment contamination and by its advanced high rate of Fig. 1. Crushed nut shells (Periwinkle shells, Palm kernel shells and
filtration, its simplicity, and its low cost advantage, easy to Coconut shells) respectively.
operate, minimal maintenance requirement, and success in
removing pathogenic micro-organism which makes it 2) Tests Applied on Sample
attractive option for rural communities and developing
nations[5]. Sieve analysis, specific gravity and acidic test were
carried out on the filter materials to determine the
This study is to design a filter bed for raw water treatment in performance of the layer of the filter media.
rural communities using locally available materials. It A) Sieve Analysis
ensures that the construction, operation and maintenance of
a filter bed are taking into consideration during the Sieve analysis was performed by shaking 500g of
evaluation of locally available materials as an alternative for weighed dried crushed nut shells for each of the shell and
raw water treatment in rural area. The study also passed them through a series of batch of standard sieves of
recommends simple technology for raw water treatment in known finer aperture sizes (B.S sieves) for about 10minutes
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rural area and specifies the right material for the design of a with a mechanical sieve shaker [6][7]. The mass of the
filter bed, for its optimal utilization. shells retained on each sieve was measured and this enables
the cumulative percentage by mass of the nut shells to be
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS plotted against the relevant aperture sizes. The sieves used
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A. Materials were specifically selected for analyzing the nut shells for the
nut shells filter. The nut shell size distribution curve
In this research work, periwinkle shells, palm generated was used to determine the effective size d10 and
kernel shells, and Coconut shells are the main local d60 and subsequently Cu(d60/d10) was calculated which is the
materials for the media that was considered. These materials coefficient of uniformity. The values of d10 and Cu were then
were obtained from a local market called Oyigbo market in compared with Center for Affordable Water and Sanitation
Lagos State, South Western part of Nigeria. The Coconut Technology (CAWST)’s recommended ranges for filtration
shells and Palm kernel shells were separated from their [8].
materials, dried out under sun for 12 hours, while the
Periwinkle shell was sorted out to remove those that have b) Specific Gravity
spoilt. The finest and thickest grains of the nut shells were The specific gravity (Gs) was measured in
removed to maintain good porosity in the bed without laboratory using a standard density bottle. The known
affecting the successful elimination of bacteria and viruses. weight of the oven dried nut shells (periwinkle shells, palm
The nut shells were free of any clay or organic content. The kernel shells and coconut shells) was put into different
raw water used was taken from a stream at Iree, one of the volumetric flask and was topped up with distilled water.
rural areas in Osun State and stored inside a covered bucket. According to [9], Gs for finer filter media should be
B. Methods between the ranges of 1.8 to 2.0 for the second layer
between ranges of 1.6 to 1.8 for the coarse filter media
1) Preparation of Nut Shells between 0.9 to 1.96.
The obtained dry shells were crushed into desired C) Acidic test
sizes by a pestle and mortar and with a sledge hammer. The
obtained nut shells were further crushed with a machine in Most raw water is acidic in nature and contain
order to get a uniform size. The crushed nut shells were substantial amount of salt which makes it of almost
finally passed through sifter of 4.00mm, 2.00mm, importance to determine the efficiency of a filter media in
0.0638mm to 0.038mm holes to eliminate pieces of wood, term of strength and durability [10]. 50g of weighed crushed
stones and other inorganic materials. nut shells were impregnated into sulphuric acid and
hydrochloric acid for 24 hours and were brought out after

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

the time from the acid and reweighed. The two weights i.e. TABLE 1. DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR DIFFERENT FILTER
before soaked into acid and after and results were recorded. Layer Types of nut Effective sizes (mm) Height
The loss in the weight of the soaked crushed nut shells must shells depth
not be less than 10% of the nut shells before soaked in acid (mm)
were compared together. Filter Filter Filter
A B C
3) Filter Bed Design
Upper Fine 0.15 0.18 0.20 65
A multimedia filter bed was adopted consisting of periwinkle
three layers of periwinkle shells as filter media of fine nut shells
shells followed by a transition layer of palm kernel shells as
coarse nut shells and an under drain layer of coconut shells Second Coarse palm 0.20 0.25 0.25 65
at the bottom. The depth and grading of the nut shells were (middle) kernel shells
determined. Three different effective sizes of each nut shells
filter media were arranged in a filter chamber and were Lower Gravel coconut 0.69 0.40 0.35 30
labelled as filter A, B, and C to determine the effectiveness shells
of each and their flow rate.
The improvised filter chamber consists of two
plastic buckets inserted into each other as shown in fig.2.
The bottom of the upper bucket is perforated to allow water a) Flow rate test
to pass through when the nut shells are arranged in layers
The flow rate test was performed to ascertain the
and the bucket below has a tap to collect the filtered water.
delivery rate of portable water to a rural household. The raw
water was carefully poured on top of the filter chamber in a
circular motion to promote even distribution through the
depth of the filter bed and to avoid damage to the upper
layer or the biological layer of the filter media. The filtration
process continues until the raw water completely passed
through the filter chamber. The filtered water was collected
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as shown in figure 2. and the result obtained from each filter
was compared to optimum flow rate for a filter.
4) Water analysis
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The filtered water samples were collected using two

sterile 250ml plastic bottles. For each filter design the
plastic bottles were filled with water up to 200ml leaving
some spaces to allow shaking before analysis. The collected
Fig. 2. An improvised filter media chamber samples were delivered to Osun State Water Corporation,
Ede laboratory for analysis within 2hrs of collection.
Table 1. below shows analysis on the ranges of
a) Physiochemical analysis
effective size of each nut shells that was used for each layer
of the nut shells filter and it also specifies the height (depth) The water samples were analysed for temperature,
of the nut shells layers. colour, odour and taste, turbidity, P H, conductivity, total
dissolve solid, total alkalinity, manganese, iron, nitrate,
copper and fluoride.
b) Bacteriological analysis
The Bacteriological characteristic of the filtered
water was determined using multiple tube fermentation
method (most probable number) for enumeration of both
total coliform count and differential Escherichia coli count.
Lauryl Tryptose Broth (LTB) along with fermentation tubes
(Durham tubes) was used. A serial dilution of the water
sample to be tested was made and inoculated into LTB
growth media. Sample was then incubated at 35oC for 48hrs
for the presumptive test for total coliform count. After, the
positive tubes were transferred to Brillant green lactose bile
broth (confirmation test) and incubated for 48hrs at 350C,
the growth or gas production confirmed the presence of
coliform[12]

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The nut shell distribution analysis curve generated from the
results of sieve analysis is as shown in figure 3.
A. Results of tests on filter material
Table 2.shows the results of the sieve analysis on
the materials which were considered for this research work.

TABLE 2. RESULT OF SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FILTER MATERIALS.

Shell

Sieze size Periwinkle Palm Kernel Coconut

Sieve Diameter Mass % % Mass % % Mass % %

No (mm) retained( retai passi retained retain passing retained retain passing
g) ned ng (g) ed (g) ed

30 0.475 2.0 0.4 99.6 137.50 27.50 72.25 144.50 24.08 75.92

44 0/353 6.50 1.3 98.3 56.50 11.30 61.2 280. 46.06 29.86

52 0.251 14.00 2.8 95.5 28.40 5.68 55.52 146.5 7.75 22.11

72 0.211 50.50 10.1 85.4 89.10 17.82 39.7 58.5 9.75 12.36

85 0.178 108.50 21.7 63.7 180.00 36.00 1.7 64.5 10.75 1.61

100 0.152 203.00 40.6 23.1

120 0.124 9.00 1.8 21.3

150 0.104 21.0 4.2 17.1

170 0.089 13.5 2.6 14.5

200 0.076 16.5 3.3 11.2

Pan 29.0
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Total 472.5 491.5 594

Mass of dry periwinkle Mass of dry palm kernel + dish Mass of dry coconut shell + dish
shells + dish = 500g = 500g = 600g
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Mass washed sample = 500 - Mass washed sample = 500 - Mass washed sample = 500-491.5
472.5 = 27.5g 491.5 = 8.5g = 8.5g

The grain size distribution shows that the d10 of weight. If the periwinkle will want to be put into used as a
periwinkle was 0.106mm and the Cu was 1.6. The filter material it is suggested that it should be 45% greater
periwinkle has a nut shells filter material as the first layer than that of the other two materials so that it will last longer.
(fine grains) falls within the specified range of 0.10 - 2.00 All the three materials (periwinkle shells, palm kernel shells
which makes it suitable for its purpose. Palm kernels has d 10 and coconut shells) disintegrated on the action of H 2SO4.
of 0.18mm which falls within the specify range of 0.18mm – Any water containing strong acid will affect the
0.30mm and Cu of 1.97 which is within the specified range effectiveness of the filter media. Therefore the
of 1.75≤ 3. These values make the Palm kernel shell suitable recommended pH of water to be treated with this designed
as a good filter material for the design of the filter bed. The filter media is 8.5
Coconut shell has d10 of 0.240mm and Cu of 1.8. This shell TABLE 3. HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCL) TEST
was able to meet the require range of 0.20 – 0.40 which
makes it a satisfactory material for the filter media. The Samples Weight of Weight Initial Final
samples when Colour Colour
specify gravity of the three filter nut shell was calculated before in remove
with Periwinkle shell having 1.9, Palm kernel shell with 1.8 acid(g) from
and Coconut shell with 0.96. acid(g)

Two different types of acids were used on the filter Periwinkle 50 30 Brownish Brownish
shells white black
bed media and table 3. shows their reactions on the action
with HCl and H2SO4 and change in colour. The results show Palm kernel 50 46 Brownish Black
that the palm kernel shells and coconut shells met the shells black
specification and suitable to be used for filter bed media but Coconut 50 49.5 Brown Black
that of periwinkle fails to meet the recommended shells
specification i.e its weight is less than10% of the original

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

B. Result of Filter Bed Design three hours a day ( recommended amount of drinking water
is 7l per capita per day).
The flow rates of the filters ranged from about 5
l/hr to 10 l/hr and averaged of 7.5 l/hr. The flow rate result C. Result of Water Analysis
suggested that the nut shells filtration chamber is capable of
Table 4. summarizes the type and results of the
providing sufficient amount of drinking water to three to
test performed on water samples from each of the filter
three four of a household if the filter run for only two to
design.

TABLE 4. RESULTS OF PHYSIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

S/N Parameter Raw Filter A Filter B Filter C WHO

1 Appearance Not clear Not clear Clear Clear clear

2 Colour (TCU) 60 25.00 30.00 20.00 15TCU

3 Taste and odor Unobjectionable Unobjectionable Unobjectiona -

ble

4 pH at laboratory 7.40 6.60 6.60 6.60 6.5-8.5

5 Temp, (Oc) at 32.20 31.80 31.70 31.70 40

laboratory
6 Free carbon- - - - - -
dioxideCO2
7 Dissolved 4.0 4.0 3.9 0.3 -
Oxygen (mg/l)
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8 Total alkalinity 120.00 66.00 54.00 48 80
(mg/l)
9 Total hardness 188.00 188.00 76.00 144.00 500
(mg/l)
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10 Calcium 116.00 116.00 73.20 84.00 150

hardness (mg/l)
11 Calcium ions 46.40 46.40 28.80 33.60 -
(mg/l)
12 Magnesium 72.00 72.00 4.000 60.00 30-
Hardness (mg/l) 150
13 Magnesium ion 18.00 18.00 1.00 15.00 30-150
(mg/l)
14 Chloride ion 30.00 16.00 18.50 15.00 75
(mg/l)
15 Iron (mg/l) 0.100 0.080 0.064 0.060 0.3

16 Silica (mg/l) 11.30 2.700 2.160 3.600 -

17 Nitrate Ions 4.00 1.50 2.100 2.100 50

18 Nitrite nitrogen 0.903 0.337 0.474 0.474 0.2

19 Conductivity 297 365 399 298 1000

20 Flocculation 60.00 25.00 30.00 15.00 -

(ppm)
21 Carbonate 120.00 66.00 54.00 102.00 -
(mg/l)
22 Bicarbonate, 73.20 61.00 73.20 61.00 -
HCO-3 (mg/l)

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ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

pH was measured using a pH-probe. There was little with higher levels of source water turbidity. Iron is one of
significant change in the pH before and after filtration as the major metal present in the filter water samples and the
show in table 4. These indicate that the nut shells are inert. concentration was recorded as shown in Table 4. Iron helps
The average turbidity of the influent water is 1.0 NTU for transport oxygen through human blood and it is not
the entire nut shell filter. They are below the maximum considered hazardous to human health. Conductivity is a
recommended turbidity limit of 100NTU. This suggests that measure of the ability of water to carry electric current. The
it may be necessary to pre-treat the source water simply by result also showed that the level of conductivity of the water
letting the water settle before pouring it into the filtration sample were within the range of WHO
chamber, otherwise, it becomes necessary to clean the filter standardrecommendation.
more frequently since more clogging is expected to occur
The result of bacteriological examination shown in the filter bed to fully mature quickly i.e. increasing the
Figure 5. confirms that the nut shells filtration chamber ripening period of the filter bed, in which the filter can
designed is an effective technology at removing total coli effective remove contamination.
forms. The longer the filter is put into use there by getting

TABLE 5. BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

Sample Description Ph C/R Colonies Presumptive Most

No of samples per CC results of probable
Growing Coliform number of
on organisms At bacteria
Nutrient 48 Hours of per
Agar At incubation At 100mlof
37 0C in 370C Water
48 Hours Sample
1. Design 6.6 Nil - 0 5 1 07
filter A
2. Design 6.6 Nil - 1 4 0 13
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filter B
3. Design 6.6 Nil - 0 0 0 0
filter C
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4 Stream 7.4 Nil - 1 4 5 160

water
(Raw)

IV. DRAWBACKS
The first drawback of the filter is that it takes time an adequate supply of drinking water for a typical household
for the biological layer to fully mature. During this ripening in the rural area.
period which is estimated to be 2 weeks, the filter is less
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
effective in removing contamination.
Based on the results of the study, the effective
The second drawback is that the efficiency of the
removal of total coliforms, reduction of turbidity and high
filter is limited by the turbidity of the source water. In the
flow, the nut shells filtration chamber could be
monsoon season, the performance of the filter will be
recommended as a technology to be adopted on large scale
compromised. Pre treatment steps may be necessary to
treatment of water in rural area. However there is needs to
reduce the turbidity of the influent water to the filter
work hand in hand with a monitoring plan to ensure correct
V. CONCLUSION construction, operation and maintenance procedure to be
followed is necessary. The monitoring plan is necessary to
This experimentation gives a favourable result with
increase the effectiveness of the filters.
filter C having a periwinkle shell of 0.20m size of a nut shell
and 65m depth, a palm kernel shell of 0.25m size of nut
shell and 65m depth, a coconut shell of 0.35m size of the nut
shell and a 30m depth selection and as well as, on how fully
well the filter mature, the total number of coliforms can be
removed. Flow rate measurement of the effluent water from
the design nut shell filtration chamber yield an average of
30l/hr, which means that the nut shell filter could provides

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Vol. 3 Issue 7, July - 2014

REFERENCES
[1] M.A. Barakat ,2008. Removal of Cu (II), Ni (II) and Cr (III) Ions
from Wastewater Using Complexation Ultrafiltration Technique.
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[2] J.O Aribisala,”Sustainability of Environment and Poverty
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Annual General Meetings, Nigeria Society of Engineers,Kano. 2005.
[3] M.N. Baker and J. Taras Micheal, “The Quest for pure water: The
History of water purification from Records to the Twentieth
Century”, 2nd ed, American water works Association, 1981.
[4] IRC. Small Community Water Supplies “Technology of small water
supply systems in developing countries”. Hofkes, E.H. (Ed.)
Technical Paper Series 18. IRC, Rijswijk, The Netherlands, 1981.
[5] G.S Logsdon, “Foreword to slow sand filtration, American Society of
Civil Engineering’s” New York, Albama press limited, 1991.
[6] R.D. Letterman, “Operation and maintenance, slow sand filtration”
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Albama press
limited, 1991.
[7] M.R.Collins, “Assessing slow sand filtration and proven
modification” 4th edition Zealand, Taiwan press limited, 1998.
[8] Center for Affordable Water Sanitation Technology (CAWST)
Annual Report,2008
[9] International Development Research Center, USA (IDRC)
[10] N.J.D. Graham, “Slow sand filtration recent developments in water
treatment technology” Ellis Horword Ltd. Chichester, England, 1998.
[11] Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 4 th ed. World Health
Organisation, 2011
[12] Leo M.L. Nollet “Handbook of Water Analysis” 3rd Ed, 2007.
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