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 Interferogram
Analysis
for Optical
Testing
Second Edition

Daniel Malacara
Centro de Investigaciones de Optica
Leon, Mexico

Manuel Servín
Centro de Investigaciones de Optica
Leon, Mexico

Zacarias Malacara
Centro de Investigaciones de Optica
Leon, Mexico

Boca Raton London New York Singapore

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

Published in 2005 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 1-57444-682-7 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-57444-682-1 (Hardcover)
Library of Congress Card Number 2004056966
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is
quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume
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No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Malacara, Daniel, 1937–

Interferogram analysis for optical testing / Daniel Malacara, Manuel Servín, Zacarias Malacara.
p. cm. -- (Optical engineering ; 84)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-57444-682-7 (alk. paper)
1. Optical measurements. 2. Interferometry. 3. Interferometers. 4. Diffraction patterns—Data
processing. I. Servín, Manuel. II. Malacara, Zacarias, 1948–. III. Title. IV. Optical engineering (Marcel
Dekker, Inc.) ; v. 84.

QC367.M25 2005
681.'25--dc22 2004056966

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Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

Contents

Chapter 1 Review and Comparison of the Main

Interferometric Systems ............................................ 1
1.1 Two-Wave Interferometers and Configurations
Used in Optical Testing ............................................................ 1
1.2 Twyman–Green Interferometer................................................ 5
1.3 Fizeau Interferometers ............................................................. 8
1.4 Typical Interferograms in Twyman–Green
and Fizeau Interferometers .................................................... 11
1.5 Lateral Shear Interferometers ............................................... 14
1.5.1 Primary Aberrations................................................... 16
1.5.1.1 Defocus .......................................................... 17
1.5.1.2 Spherical Aberration .................................... 17
1.5.1.3 Coma.............................................................. 17
1.5.1.4 Primary Astigmatism ................................... 17
1.5.2 Rimmer–Wyant Method To Evaluate Wavefronts.... 18
1.5.3 Saunders Method To Evaluate Interferograms........ 20
1.5.4 Spatial Frequency Response of Lateral
Shear Interferometers ................................................ 21
1.5.5 Regularization Method To Obtain Wavefronts ......... 23

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

1.6 Ronchi Test............................................................................... 26
1.7 Hartmann Test ........................................................................ 30
1.8 Fringe Projection ..................................................................... 34
1.9 Talbot Interferometry and Moiré Deflectometry................... 37
1.10 Common Light Sources Used in Interferometry................... 39
1.11 Aspherical Compensators and Aspheric Wavefronts ............ 41
1.12 Imaging of the Pupil on the Observation Plane ................... 41
1.12.1 Imaging the Pupil Back on Itself .............................. 42
1.12.2 Imaging the Pupil on the Observing Screen ............ 43
1.12.3 Requirements on the Imaging Lens.......................... 46
1.13 Multiple-Wavelength Interferometry ..................................... 51
References......................................................................................... 54

Chapter 2 Fourier Theory Review............................................. 63

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 63
2.1.1 Complex Functions ..................................................... 63
2.2 Fourier Series .......................................................................... 66
2.3 Fourier Transforms ................................................................. 68
2.3.1 Parseval Theorem ....................................................... 71
2.3.2 Central Ordinate Theorem ........................................ 71
2.3.3 Translation Property .................................................. 72
2.3.4 Derivative Theorem .................................................... 72
2.3.5 Symmetry Properties of Fourier Transforms ........... 73
2.4 The Convolution of Two Functions ........................................ 75
2.4.1 Filtering by Convolution ............................................ 78
2.5 The Cross-Correlation of Two Functions............................... 79
2.6 Sampling Theorem .................................................................. 80
2.7 Sampling of a Periodical Function ......................................... 83
2.7.1 Sampling of a Periodical Function
with Interval Averaging ............................................. 85
2.8 Fast Fourier Transform........................................................... 89
References......................................................................................... 94

Chapter 3 Digital Image Processing ......................................... 95

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 95
3.2 Histogram and Gray-Scale Transformations......................... 96
3.3 Space and Frequency Domain of Interferograms ................. 98
3.4 Digital Processing of Images ................................................ 100
3.4.1 Point and Line Detection ......................................... 102
3.4.2 Derivative and Laplacian Operators....................... 102

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 3.4.3 Spatial Filtering by Convolution Masks................. 103
3.4.4 Edge Detection.......................................................... 109
3.4.5 Smoothing by Regularizing Filters ......................... 110
3.5 Some Useful Spatial Filters ................................................. 112
3.5.1 Square Window Filter .............................................. 112
3.5.2 Hamming and Hanning Window Filters ................ 114
3.5.3 Cosinusoidal and Sinusoidal
Window Filters.......................................................... 115
3.6 Extrapolation of Fringes Outside of the Pupil.................... 116
3.7 Light Detectors Used To Digitize Images............................ 118
3.7.1 Image Detectors and Television Cameras .............. 119
3.7.2 Frame Grabbers........................................................ 123
References....................................................................................... 125

Chapter 4 Fringe Contouring and Polynomial Fitting.......... 127

4.1 Fringe Detection Using Manual Digitizers ......................... 127
4.2 Fringe Tracking and Fringe Skeletonizing ......................... 129
4.2.1 Spatial Filtering of the Image................................. 131
4.2.2 Identification of Fringe Maxima ............................. 131
4.2.3 Assignment of Order Number to Fringes............... 133
4.3 Global Polynomial Interpolation .......................................... 135
4.3.1 Zernike Polynomials ................................................. 137
4.3.2 Properties of Zernike Polynomials .......................... 140
4.3.3 Least-Squares Fit to Zernike Polynomials ............. 141
4.3.4 Gram–Schmidt Orthogonalization .......................... 143
4.4 Local Interpolation by Segments ......................................... 144
4.5 Wavefront Representation by an Array of Gaussians ........ 148
References....................................................................................... 150

Chapter 5 Periodic Signal Phase Detection

and Algorithm Analysis ......................................... 159
5.1 Least-Squares Phase Detection of a Sinusoidal Signal...... 159
5.2 Quadrature Phase Detection of a Sinusoidal Signal.......... 165
5.2.1 Low-Pass Filtering in Phase Detection .................. 168
5.3 Discrete Low-Pass Filtering Functions................................ 173
5.3.1 Examples of Discrete Filtering Functions.............. 176
5.3.1.1 Wyant’s Three-Step Algorithm .................. 176
5.3.1.2 Four-Steps-in-Cross Algorithm .................. 177
5.3.1.3 Schwider–Hariharan Five-Step
(4 + 1) Algorithm ........................................ 178

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5.4 Fourier Description of Synchronous Phase Detection ........ 179
5.5 Synchronous Detection Using a Few Sampling Points ...... 188
5.5.1 General Discrete Sampling...................................... 190
5.5.2 Equally Spaced and Uniform Sampling ................. 194
5.5.3 Applications of Graphical Vector Representation.... 196
5.5.4 Graphic Method To Design
Phase-Shifting Algorithms....................................... 198
5.6 Signal Amplitude Measurement........................................... 201
5.7 Characteristic Polynomial of a Sampling Algorithm .......... 203
5.8 General Error Analysis of Synchronous
Phase-Detection Algorithms ................................................. 206
5.8.1 Exact Phase-Error Analysis..................................... 207
5.8.2 Phase-Error Approximation
in Two Particular Cases........................................... 210
5.9 Some Sources of Phase Error ............................................... 212
5.9.1 Phase-Shifter Miscalibration and Nonlinearities .... 214
5.9.1.1 Error in the Sampling
Reference Functions ................................... 215
5.9.1.2 Error in the Measured Signal ................... 216
5.9.2 Measurement and Compensation
of Phase-Shift Errors ............................................... 217
5.9.3 Linear or Detuning Phase-Shift Error ................... 220
5.9.4 Quadratic Phase-Shift Errors.................................. 221
5.9.5 High-Order, Nonlinear, Phase-Shift
Errors with a Sinusoidal Signal.............................. 224
5.9.6 High-Order, Nonlinear, Phase-Shift
Errors with a Distorted Signal................................ 226
5.9.7 Nonuniform Phase-Shifting Errors ......................... 229
5.9.8 Phase Detection of a Harmonically
Distorted Signal........................................................ 231
5.9.9 Light-Detector Nonlinearities.................................. 234
5.9.10 Random Phase Error................................................ 235
5.10 Shifting Algorithms with Respect to the Phase Origin...... 239
5.10.1 Shifting the Algorithm by ± π/2 ............................... 242
5.10.2 Shifting the Algorithm by ±π/4 ............................... 243
5.11 Optimization of Phase-Detection Algorithms...................... 247
5.12 Influence of Window Function of Sampling Algorithms..... 249
5.13 Conclusions ............................................................................ 252
Appendix. Derivative of the Amplitude of the Fourier
Transform of the Reference Sampling Functions ............... 253
References....................................................................................... 254

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

Chapter 6 Phase-Detection Algorithms .................................. 259
6.1 General Properties of Synchronous
Phase-Detection Algorithms ................................................. 259
6.2 Three-Step Algorithms To Measure the Phase ................... 260
6.2.1 120° Three-Step Algorithm ...................................... 261
6.2.2 Inverted T Three-Step Algorithm............................ 266
6.2.3 Wyant’s Tilted T Three-Step Algorithm.................. 268
6.2.4 Two-Steps-Plus-One Algorithm ............................... 270
6.3 Four-Step Algorithms To Measure the Phase ..................... 274
6.3.1 Four Steps in the Cross Algorithm ......................... 275
6.3.2 Algorithm for Four Steps in X................................. 278
6.4 Five-Step Algorithm .............................................................. 281
6.5 Algorithms with Symmetrical N + 1 Phase Steps.............. 284
6.5.1 Symmetrical Four-Step (3 + 1) Algorithm .............. 290
6.5.2 Schwider–Hariharan Five-Step
(4 + 1) Algorithm ...................................................... 294
6.5.3 Symmetrical Six-Step (5 + 1) Algorithm ................ 298
6.5.4 Symmetrical Seven-Step (6 + 1) Algorithm............ 301
6.6 Combined Algorithms in Quadrature .................................. 304
6.6.1 Schwider Algorithm.................................................. 308
6.6.2 Schmit and Creath Algorithm ................................. 315
6.6.3 Other Detuning-Insensitive Algorithms ................. 319
6.7 Detuning-Insensitive Algorithms for Distorted Signals ..... 321
6.7.1 Zhao and Surrel Algorithm...................................... 322
6.7.2 Hibino Algorithm ...................................................... 326
6.7.3 Six-Sample, Detuning-Insensitive Algorithm ......... 328
6.8 Algorithms Corrected for Nonlinear
Phase-Shifting Error ............................................................. 330
6.9 Continuous Sampling in a Finite Interval .......................... 334
6.10 Asynchronous Phase-Detection Algorithms......................... 339
6.10.1 Carré Algorithm........................................................ 340
6.10.2 Schwider Asynchronous Algorithm ......................... 346
6.10.3 Two Algorithms in Quadrature ............................... 349
6.10.4 An Algorithm for Zero Bias
and Three Sampling Points ..................................... 349
6.10.5 Correlation with Two Sinusoidal
Signals in Quadrature ............................................. 351
6.11 Algorithm Summary.............................................................. 352
6.11.1 Detuning Sensitivity ................................................ 352
6.11.2 Harmonic Sensitivity................................................ 355
References....................................................................................... 355

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

Chapter 7 Phase-Shifting Interferometry .............................. 359
7.1 Phase-Shifting Basic Principles ........................................... 359
7.2 An Introduction to Phase Shifting ....................................... 360
7.2.1 Moving Mirror with a Linear Transducer .............. 360
7.2.2 Rotating Glass Plate ................................................ 361
7.2.3 Moving Diffraction Grating ..................................... 362
7.2.4 Rotating Phase Plate................................................ 363
7.2.5 Moiré in an Interferogram
with a Linear Carrier............................................... 365
7.2.6 Frequency Changes in the Laser Light Source ..... 365
7.2.7 Simultaneous Phase-Shift Interferometry.............. 366
7.3 Phase-Shifting Schemes and Phase Measurement............. 366
7.4 Heterodyne Interferometry................................................... 368
7.5 Phase-Lock Detection ............................................................ 370
7.6 Sinusoidal Phase Oscillation Detection ............................... 373
7.7 Practical Sources of Phase Error ......................................... 376
7.7.1 Vibration and Air Turbulence.................................. 376
7.7.2 Multiple-Beam Interference
and Frequency Mixing ............................................. 378
7.7.3 Spherical Reference Wavefronts .............................. 381
7.7.4 Quantization Noise................................................... 382
7.7.5 Photon Noise Phase Errors...................................... 382
7.7.6 Laser Diode Intensity Modulation .......................... 382
7.8 Selection of the Reference Sphere
in Phase-Shifting Interferometry ......................................... 383
7.8.1 Paraxial Focus........................................................... 385
7.8.2 Best Focus ................................................................. 385
7.8.3 Marginal Focus ......................................................... 386
7.8.4 Optimum Tilt and Defocusing in
Phase-Shifting Interferometry................................. 387
7.8.4.1 Temporal Phase-Shifting Techniques........ 389
7.8.4.2 Spatial Linear Carrier Demodulation....... 390
7.8.4.3 Spatial Circular Carrier Demodulation.... 391
References....................................................................................... 392

Chapter 8 Spatial Linear and Circular Carrier Analysis ..... 399

8.1 Spatial Linear Carrier Analysis ........................................... 399
8.1.1 Introduction of a Linear Carrier ............................. 400
8.1.2 Holographic Interpretation of the Interferogram.... 403
8.1.3 Fourier Spectrum of the Interferogram
and Filtering ............................................................. 407
8.1.4 Pupil Diffraction Effects .......................................... 411

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

8.2 Space-Domain Phase Demodulation
with a Linear Carrier............................................................ 414
8.2.1 Basic Space-Domain Phase
Demodulation Theory ............................................... 414
8.2.2 Phase Demodulation with
an Aspherical Reference........................................... 416
8.2.3 Analog and Digital Implementations
of Phase Demodulation ............................................ 418
8.2.4 Spatial Low-Pass Filtering ..................................... 419
8.2.5 Sinusoidal Window Filter Demodulation................ 422
8.2.6 Spatial Carrier Phase-Shifting Method.................. 424
8.2.7 Phase-Locked Loop Demodulation .......................... 428
8.3 Circular Spatial Carrier Analysis ........................................ 432
8.4 Phase Demodulation with a Circular Carrier..................... 433
8.4.1 Phase Demodulation with a
Spherical Reference Wavefront................................ 433
8.4.2 Phase Demodulation with a
Tilted-Plane Reference Wavefront........................... 436
8.5 Fourier Transform Phase Demodulation
with a Linear Carrier............................................................ 440
8.5.1 Sources of Error in the Fourier
Transform Method.................................................... 444
8.5.2 Spatial Carrier Frequency, Spectrum Width,
and Interferogram Domain Determination ............ 446
8.6 Fourier Transform Phase Demodulation
with a Circular Carrier......................................................... 447
References....................................................................................... 449

Chapter 9 Interferogram Analysis with Moiré Methods....... 455

9.1 Moiré Techniques................................................................... 455
9.2 Moiré Formed by Two Interferograms
with a Linear Carrier............................................................ 456
9.2.1 Moiré with Interferograms
of Spherical Wavefronts ........................................... 458
9.2.2 Moiré with Interferograms
of Aspherical Wavefronts ......................................... 462
9.3 Moiré Formed by Two Interferograms
with a Circular Carrier......................................................... 465
9.3.1 Moiré with Interferograms
of Spherical Wavefronts ........................................... 467
9.3.2 Moiré with Interferograms
of Aspherical Wavefronts ......................................... 468

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

9.4 Summary of Moiré Effects .................................................... 470
9.5 Holographic Interpretation of Moiré Patterns ................... 470
9.6 Conclusion .............................................................................. 472
References....................................................................................... 473

Chapter 10 Interferogram Analysis without a Carrier ........... 475

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 475
10.2 Mathematical Model of the Fringes..................................... 476
10.3 The Phase Tracker ................................................................ 481
10.4 The N-Dimensional Quadrature Transform........................ 485
10.4.1 Using the Fourier Transform To Calculate
the Isotropic Hilbert Transform .............................. 487
10.4.2 The Fringe Orientation Term .................................. 488
10.5 Conclusion .............................................................................. 490
References....................................................................................... 491

Chapter 11 Phase Unwrapping ................................................. 493

11.1 The Phase Unwrapping Problem ......................................... 493
11.2 Unwrapping Consistent Phase Maps................................... 500
11.2.1 Unwrapping Full-Field Consistent Phase Maps.... 500
11.2.2 Unwrapping Consistent Phase Maps
within a Simple Connected Region ......................... 502
11.3 Unwrapping Noisy Phase Maps ........................................... 504
11.3.1 Unwrapping Using Least-Squares Integration...... 504
11.3.2 The Regularized Phase Tracking Unwrapper ........ 507
11.4 Unwrapping Subsampled Phase Maps ................................ 511
11.4.1 Greivenkamp’s Method ............................................ 513
11.4.2 Null Fringe Analysis of Subsampled Phase
Maps Using a Computer-Stored Compensator....... 516
11.4.3 Unwrapping of Smooth Continuous
Subsampled Phase Maps ......................................... 518
11.4.4 Unwrapping the Partial Derivative
of the Wavefront ....................................................... 520
11.5 Conclusions ............................................................................ 521
References...................................................................................... 522

Chapter 12 Wavefront Curvature Sensing ............................... 525

12.1 Wavefront Determination by Slope Sensing ....................... 525
12.2 Wavefront Curvature Sensing .............................................. 525

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 12.2.1 The Laplacian and Local Average Curvatures....... 526
12.2.2 Irradiance Transport Equation ............................... 527
12.2.3 Laplacian Determination with
Irradiance Transport Equation ............................... 529
12.2.4 Wavefront Determination with
Iterative Fourier Transforms................................... 533
12.3 Wavefront Determination with Defocused Images ............. 537
12.4 Conclusions ............................................................................ 538
References....................................................................................... 538

Index ............................................................................................... 541

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

1
Review and Comparison of the
Main Interferometric Systems

1.1 TWO-WAVE INTERFEROMETERS

AND CONFIGURATIONS
USED IN OPTICAL TESTING
Two-wave interferometers produce an interferogram by
superimposing two wavefronts, one of which is typically a flat
reference wavefront and the other a distorted wavefront
whose shape is to be measured. The literature (e.g., Malacara,
1992; Creath, 1987) provides many descriptions of interfer-
ometers; here, we will just describe some of the more impor-
tant aspects.
An interferometer can measure small wavefront defor-
mations with a high accuracy, of the order of a fraction of the
wavelength. The accuracy in a given interferometer depends
on many factors, such as the optical quality of the components,
the measuring methods, the light source properties, and dis-
turbing external factors, such as atmospheric turbulence and
mechanical vibrations. It has been shown by Kafri (1989),
however, that the accuracy of any interferometer is limited.
He proved that, if everything else is perfect, a short coherence
length and a long sampling time can improve the accuracy.
Unfortunately, a short coherence length and long measuring

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 X X

Wavefront W(x,y) θ Flat

wavefront

Z Z

Figure 1.1 Two interfering wavefronts.

time combined make the instrument more sensitive to

mechanical vibrations. In conclusion, the uncertainty princi-
ple imposes a fundamental limit to the accuracy that depends
on several parameters but is of the order of 1/1000 of the
wavelength of the light.
To study the main principles of interferometers, let us
consider a two-wave interferogram with a flat wavefront that
has a positive tilt about the y-axis and a wavefront under
analysis, for which the deformations with respect to a flat
wavefront without tilt are given by W(x,y). This tilt is said to
be positive when the wavefront is as shown in Figure 1.1. The
complex amplitude in the observation plane, where the two
wavefronts interfere, is the sum of the complex amplitudes of
the two waves as follows:

E1 ( x, y) = A1 ( x, y) exp ikW ( x, y) + A2 ( x, y) exp i(kx sin θ) (1.1)

where A1 is the amplitude of the light beam at the wavefront

under analysis, A2 is the amplitude of the light beam with the
reference wavefront, and k = 2π/λ. Hence, the irradiance is:

E1 ( x, y) ⋅ E1* ( x, y) = A12 ( x, y) + A22 ( x, y) +

(1.2)
+2 A1 ( x, y) A2 ( x, y) cos k[ x sin θ − W ( x, y)]

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 Irradiance

Imax

Imin

π/2 π 2π Phase difference

Figure 1.2 Irradiance as a function of phase difference between

the two waves along the light path.

where the symbol * denotes the complex conjugate of the

electric field. Here, we have introduced optional tilt θ about
the y-axis between the two wavefronts. The irradiance func-
tion, I(x,y), may then be written as:

I ( x, y) = I1 ( x, y) + I2 ( x, y) +
(1.3)
+2 I1 ( x, y) I2 ( x, y) cos k[ x sin θ − W ( x, y)]

where I1(x,y) and I2(x,y) are the irradiances of the two beams,
and the phase difference between them is given by φ = k(xsinθ
– W(x,y)). This function is shown graphically in Figure 1.2.
For convenience, Equation 1.3 is frequently written as:

I ( x, y) = a( x, y) + b( x, y) cos k[ x sin θ − W ( x, y)] (1.4)

Assuming that the variations in the values of a(x,y) and b(x,y)

inside the interferogram aperture are smoother than the vari-
ations of the cosine term, the maximum irradiance in the
vicinity of the point (x,y) in this interferogram is given by:

Imax ( x, y) = ( A1 ( x, y) + A2 ( x, y))
2

(1.5)
= I1 ( x, y) + I2 ( x, y) + 2 I1 ( x, y) I2 ( x, y)

and the minimum irradiance in the same vicinity is given by:

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 Imin ( x, y) = ( A1 ( x, y) − A2 ( x, y))
2

(1.6)
= I1 ( x, y) + I2 ( x, y) − 2 I1 ( x, y) I2 ( x, y)

The fringe visibility, v(x,y), is defined by:

Imax ( x, y) − Imin ( x, y)
v( x, y) = (1.7)
Imax ( x, y) + Imin ( x, y)

Hence, we may find:

2 I1 ( x, y) I2 ( x, y) b( x, y)
v( x, y) = = (1.8)
I1 ( x, y) + I2 ( x, y) a( x, y)

Using the fringe visibility, Equation 1.3 is sometimes also

written as:

I ( x, y) = I0 ( x, y)(1 + v( x, y) cos k[ x sin θ − W ( x, y)]) (1.9)

where I0(x,y) = a(x,y) is the irradiance for a fringe-free field,

when the two beams are incoherent to each other. This irra-
diance, as a function of the phase difference between the two
interfering waves, is shown in Figure 1.2.
Several basic interferometric configurations are used in
optical testing procedures, but almost all of them are two-
wavefront systems. Both wavefronts come from a single light
source, separated by amplitude. Furthermore, most modern
interferometers use a helium–neon laser as the light source.
The main advantage of using a laser as the source of light is
that fringe patterns may be easily obtained because of the
great coherence of the laser. In fact, this advantage can also
be a serious disadvantage, as spurious diffraction patterns
and secondary fringe patterns are easily obtained. Special
precautions must be taken into account to achieve a clean
interference pattern. In this chapter, we review some of these
interferometers, but greater detail about these systems may
be found in many books (e.g., Malacara, 1992).

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 Reference
mirror
Surface
Microscope Collimator Beam under test
objective splitter

He–Ne laser

Spatial
filter

Observation
plane

Figure 1.3 Basic configuration in a Twyman–Green interferometer.

1.2 TWYMAN–GREEN INTERFEROMETER

The basic configuration of the Twyman–Green interferometer,
invented by F. Twyman and A. Green (Twyman, 1918), is
illustrated in Figure 1.3. The fringes in a Twyman–Green
interferometer are of equal thickness. The light from the laser
is expanded and collimated by means of a telescopic system
that usually includes a microscope objective and collimator.
To obtain a clean wavefront, without diffraction rings on the
field, the optical components must be as clean as possible. For
an even cleaner beam, a spatial filter (pinhole) may be used
at the focal plane of the microscope objective. The quality of
the wavefront produced by this telescope does not need to be
extremely high, because its deformations will appear on both
interfering wavefronts and not produce any fringe deviations.
If the optical path difference between both interfering beams
is large, the tolerance on the wavefront deformations in the
illuminating telescope may be drastically reduced; in this
case, the illuminating wavefront must be quite flat, within a
fraction of the wavelength.
If the beam splitter is nonabsorbing, the main interfer-
ence pattern is complementary to the one returning to the
source, due to the conservation of energy principle, even

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

though the optical path difference is the same for both pat-
terns. Phase shifts upon reflection on dielectric interfaces may
explain this complementarity.
The beam splitter must be of high quality with regard
not only to its surfaces but also to the material, which must
be extremely homogeneous. The reflecting surface must be of
the highest quality — flat, with an accuracy of about twice
the required interferometer accuracy. The quality of a nonre-
flecting surface may be relaxed by a factor of four with respect
to a reflecting face. To prevent spurious interference fringes,
the nonreflecting surface must not reflect any light. One way
to accomplish this is by coating the surface with an anti-
reflection multilayer coating. Another possible method is for
the beam splitter to have an incidence angle equal to the
Brewster angle and which properly polarizes the incident
light beam; however, this solution substantially increases the
size of the beam splitter, making it more difficult to construct
and hence more expensive.
Many different optical elements may be tested using a
Twyman–Green interferometer, as described by Malacara
(1992). For example, a plane-parallel plate of glass may be
tested as shown in Figure 1.4a. The optical path difference
(OPD) introduced by this glass plate is:

OPD = 2(n − 1)t (1.10)

where n is the refractive index and t is the plate thickness.

The interferometer is first adjusted so no fringes are observed
before introducing the plate into the light beam, thus ensuring
that all fringes that appear are due to the plate. If the field
remains free of fringes after introducing the plate, we can say
that the quantity (n – 1)t is constant over the entire plate
aperture. If the fringes are straight, parallel, and equidistant
and we may assume that the glass is perfectly homogeneous
so that n is constant, then the fringes are produced by a small
angle between the two flat faces of the plate. If the fringes are
not straight but are distorted, we may conclude that either the
refractive index is not constant or the surfaces are not flat, or
both. We can only be sure that (n – 1)t is not constant. To

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

 Beam Plate
splitter under
test

(a)

Beam Lens
splitter under
test

(b)

Figure 1.4 Testing a glass plate and a lens in a Twyman–Green

interferometer.

measure the n and t separately, we must augment the results

from this test with another measurement made in a Fizeau
interferometer, which measures the values of nt.
The optical arrangements in Figure 1.4b can be used to
test a convergent lens. A convex spherical mirror with its
center of curvature at the focus of the lens is used for lenses
with long focal lengths, and a concave spherical mirror is used
for lenses with short focal lengths. A small, flat mirror located
at the focus of the lens can also be employed. The portion of
the flat mirror being used is so small that its surface does not
need to be very accurate; however, the wavefront is rotated
180°, thus the spatial coherence requirements are stronger
and odd aberrations are canceled out.
Concave or convex optical surfaces may also be tested
using a Twyman–Green interferometer with the configura-
tions shown in Figure 1.5. Even large astronomical mirrors
can be tested. For this purpose, an unequal-path interferom-
eter for optical shop testing was designed by Houston et al.
(1967). When the beam-splitter plate is at the Brewster angle,
it has a wedge angle of 2 to 3 arc min between the surfaces.
The reflecting surface of this plate is located to receive the
rays returning from the test specimen in such a way as to

Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis

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