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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-06027-2 — Experimental Economics
Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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Experimental Economics
Method and Applications

Over the past two decades, experimental economics has moved from a fringe activity
to become a standard tool for empirical research. With experimental economics now
regarded as part of the basic tool-kit for applied economics, this book demonstrates
how controlled experiments can be useful in providing evidence relevant to economic
research. Professors Jacquemet and L’Haridon take the standard model in applied econo-
metrics as a basis for the methodology of controlled experiments. Methodological
discussions are illustrated with standard experimental results. This book provides future
experimental practitioners with the means to construct experiments that fit their research
question, and newcomers with an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of con-
trolled experiments. Graduate students and academic researchers working in the field of
experimental economics will be able to learn how to undertake, understand and criticise
empirical research based on lab experiments, and refer to specific experiments, results
or designs completed with case study applications.

Nicolas Jacquemet is a full professor at University Paris-1 Panthèon Sorbonne and the
Paris School of Economics. His research combines experimental methods and econo-
metrics to study discrimination, the effect of personality traits on economic behaviour,
the role of social pre-involvement in strategic behaviour and experimental game theory.
His research has been published in Econometrica, Management Science, Games and
Economic Behavior, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Journal of
Health Economics and Journal of Economic Psychology.
Olivier L’Haridon is a full professor at the University of Rennes 1. His research com-
bines experimental methods and decision theory, applied in the study of individual
decision-making as affected by uncertainty. His work has been published in Ameri-
can Economic Review, Management Science, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, Theory
and Decision, Experimental Economics, Journal of Health Economics and Journal of
Economic Psychology.

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-06027-2 — Experimental Economics
Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
Frontmatter
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Experimental Economics
Method and Applications

NICOLAS JACQUEMET
University Paris 1 Panthèon-Sorbonne and Paris School of Economics, France

O L I V I E R L’ H A R I D O N
Université de Rennes I, France

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Cambridge University Press
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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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DOI: 10.1017/9781107446786
© Cambridge University Press 2018
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A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Jacquemet, Nicolas, author. | L’Haridon, Olivier, author.
Title: Experimental economics method and applications / Nicolas Jacquemet,
Paris School of Economics, Olivier L’Haridon, Université de Rennes I, France.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge
University Press, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018007008 | ISBN 9781107060272
Subjects: LCSH: Experimental economics.
Classification: LCC HB131 .J33 2018 | DDC 330.072/4–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018007008
ISBN 978-1-107-06027-2 Hardback
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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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Contents

List of Figures page viii

List of Tables x
List of Illustrations xii
List of Focuses xiv
Abbreviations and Symbols xvi
Preface xxi

Part I What Is It? An Introduction to Experimental Economics 1

1 The Emergence of Experiments in Economics 3

1.1 The End of a Long-Standing Regretful Impossibility 4
1.2 Why Such a Change: Two Early Examples 6
1.3 The Research Programme: Three Examples 12
1.4 Experimental Economics Today: What Every Newcomer Must Know 22

2 A Laboratory Experiment: Overview 26

2.1 The Experiment 27
2.2 The Experimenter’s Role: The Game under Study 34
2.3 Experimental Second-Price Auction with Private Values 38
2.4 Case Study: Experimentally Designed Devices to Reduce Hypothetical
Bias 41

Part II Why? The Need for Experiments in Economics 49

3 The Need for Controlled Experiments in Empirical Economics 51

3.1 The Econometric Approach to Data Analysis 52
3.2 Estimating Causal Effects of Treatments 59
3.3 Identification Based on Observational Data 68
3.4 Inference Based on Controlled Experiments 72
3.5 From the Laboratory to the Field: An Overview of Controlled
Experiments in Economics 83

4 The Need for Experimental Methods in Economic Science 88

4.1 What Laboratory Experiments Aim For 88

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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vi Contents

4.2 Experiments, Theory and Reality: How Experiments Achieve Their

Goals 90
4.3 Case Study. Deepening Understanding through Additional Controls and
Measures: The Dictator Game 95
4.4 How Experiments Interact with Theory: Testing Models 103
4.5 How Experiments Interact with Reality: Searching for Facts 110

Part III How? Laboratory Experiments in Practice 117

5 Designing an Experiment: Internal-Validity Issues 119

5.1 What Is an Experiment? How Is It Linked to Internal Validity? 119
5.2 The Incentive Structure of Experiments 132
5.3 Parameters and Experimental Treatments 147
5.4 The Perceived Experiment 159
5.5 Perceived Opponents and Learning 166
5.6 Case Study: Eliciting Beliefs 170

6 Conducting an Experiment 191

6.1 A Long, Long Time Beforehand: Setting Up an Experimental Laboratory 191
6.2 Two Months Before: The Basics 195
6.3 One Month Before: The Final Settings 204
6.4 One Week Before: Almost There 206
6.5 D-Day: Step-by-Step Proceedings 207
6.6 Case Study: Measuring Preferences in Choice over Time 208

7 The Econometrics of Experimental Data 229

7.1 Experimental Data 230
7.2 Estimation and Inference 243
7.3 Testing Procedures 256
7.4 Case Study: Eliciting Preferences under Risk 289

Part IV What For? What Laboratory Experiments Tell Us 321

8 The External Validity of Experimental Results 323

8.1 When and How Does External Validity Matter? 324
8.2 Is External Validity Testable? 336
8.3 Testing External Validity 339
8.4 Case Study: Replication: Enhanced Credibility Thanks to Accumulated
Evidence 352

9 More Accurate Theory and Better Public Policies: the Contributions of

Experimental Economics 361
9.1 Testing Theory: Drawing General Lessons from (Causal) Experimental
Evidence 362

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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Contents vii

9.2 Case study: Rational Behaviour, Irrational Thinking: K-level Models 369
9.3 Test-Bedding Public Policies in the Laboratory: The Example of
Matching Markets 380
9.4 Whispering in the Ear of Princes: Behavioural Public Policy 385

References 398
Index 431
Index of Authors 441

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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Figures

1.1 Trends in academic publishing in experimental economics page 5

1.2 Market equilibrium in the Chamberlin (1948) experiment 7
1.3 Observed behaviour in the Chamberlin (1948) experiment 8
1.4 Predicted and observed behaviour in the Smith (1962) replication 9
1.5 Table of payoffs in a non-cooperative game 13
1.6 Empirical behaviour in prisoners’ dilemma games 15
1.7 A simple four-moves sequential game 16
1.8 A six-moves centipede game 16
1.9 Payoff matrices of two zero-sum games 18
1.10 Empirical value functions 20
1.11 The actual use of information: informed players’ behaviour 21
2.1 Consent form 28
2.2 First screen: resale value in the first round 32
2.3 Second screen: bid in the first round of play 32
2.4 Third screen: results of the first round 33
2.5 The sixth round of the experiment: screen captures 34
3.1 The challenge of data analysis 54
3.2 The econometric approach to data analysis 56
3.3 Incentive effects of tournaments 81
3.4 Dispersion of efforts in tournaments 82
4.1 Meta-analysis results: the dictator game 97
4.2 The effect of social distance on dictators’ decisions 98
4.3 Offers in the dictator game with earned money 100
4.4 Donations from dictators who earned their position 101
4.5 Generous decisions by dictators are taken slowly 103
4.6 Cooperation in repeated games with different termination rules 108
4.7 Reciprocity in the field 114
5.1 Empirical free riding in VCM games 129
5.2 A typical display for an experimental quadratic scoring rule 176
5.3 A typical display for eliciting matching probabilities 183
6.1 Typical implementation of an experimental lab 192
6.2 An experimental lab: what it looks like 194
6.3 A basic experimental algorithm based on the dictator game 198

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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List of Figures ix

6.4 A typical experimental session 206

6.5 An example of a time trade-off curve 228
7.1 Visual representations of data 234
7.2 Box plots for different distributions 235
7.3 Normal probability plots 236
7.4 A scatter plot 237
7.5 Anscombe’s quartet 239
7.6 Transformation functions and normality 243
7.7 An illustration of the central limit theorem 246
7.8 Confidence intervals on samples from a population with parameter θ 249
7.9 Critical values for common distributions: normal, t and χ 2 250
7.10 Critical values and rejection regions 259
7.11 Hypothesis testing 260
7.12 Power under different alternative hypotheses 262
7.13 The bracketing procedure used in L’Haridon and Vieider (2015) 296
7.14 The Binswanger (1980) method in Carpenter and Cadernas (2013) 298
7.15 Trade-off sequences and elicited utility under risk and uncertainty 307
8.1 The identification of heterogeneous treatment effects 332
8.2 Many very heterogeneous treatment effects 333
8.3 Social preferences when the monetary stakes are (very) high 343
8.4 Other-regarding behaviour in non-WEIRD populations 349
9.1 The chosen numbers in the Nagel (1995) guessing games 371
9.2 The distribution of behaviour over time in the guessing game 373
9.3 Early matches in the Kagel and Roth (2000) experiment 384
9.4 Matches by productivity type in the Kagel and Roth (2000) experiment 384
9.5 401(k) participation by tenure in Company A in Choi et al. (2004) 390
9.6 Individual welfare optima and consistent arbitrariness 394

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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Tables

1.1 The choice sequence of the Allais paradox page 10

1.2 Observed continuation decisions in centipede games 17
1.3 Theoretical predictions in the non-revealing and fully revealing games 19
2.1 Empirical revelation properties of a second-price auction 39
3.1 Individuals, treatments and observations 63
4.1 Gift exchange in the field: donation patterns 114
5.1 Voluntary contributions without altruism 132
5.2 Smith (1982) precepts: three incentive-compatibility criteria 133
5.3 Outcome-based social preferences in the prisoners’ dilemma game 144
5.4 Multiple treatment variables: a 2 × 2 factorial design 158
5.5 A quadratic scoring rule 175
5.6 Examples of binary scoring rules 176
5.7 The constant-sum game in Nyarko and Schotter (2002) 188
6.1 Example of binary choices used by Tanaka et al. (2010) 209
6.2 The price list in Coller and Williams (1999) 216
6.3 The treatments in Coller and Williams 217
6.4 Four procedures to elicit indifference in choice over time 218
6.5 The convex time-budget method 224
6.6 The choice list in the direct-method elicitation 226
7.1 An example of experimental data based on second-price auctions 230
7.2 Descriptive statistics 238
7.3 Correlation measures and the Anscombe quartet 240
7.4 True data-generating process and decisions 258
7.5 Frequently used statistical tests 266
7.6 The ANOVA decomposition 280
7.7 A 2 × 2 table for independent samples 285
7.8 A 2 × 2 table for paired samples 289
7.9 Elicitation methods 291
7.10 An example of the bisection procedure 295
7.11 The bracketing procedure in Tversky and Kahneman (1992) 295
7.12 The payoffs and risk classification in Binswanger (1980) 297
7.13 The payoffs and risk classification in Eckel and Grossman (2008) 297
7.14 The ten paired lottery-choice decisions in Holt and Laury (2002) 299

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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List of Tables xi

7.15 Lottery-choice decisions and the CRRA index 299

7.16 The ten paired lottery-choice decisions in Drichoutis and Lusk (2016) 302
8.1 In-lab versus online experiments: overview of experimental
comparisons 339
8.2 Calculation of the false-positive report probability 354
8.3 Replication versus robustness: a classification 357
9.1 Level classification in the control, graduate and computer treatments 379
9.2 The distribution of behaviour in the 11–20 Game 380
9.3 The Newcastle algorithm: a fictional example 383

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Nicolas Jacquemet , Olivier L'Haridon
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Illustrations

2.1 Second-price auctions as a preference revelation mechanism:

home-grown and induced values page 42
2.2 An experimental comparison of correction methods 46
3.1 Labour market effects of the minimum wage: a natural experiment 52
3.2 Incentives and performance: a ‘natural’ experiment 61
3.3 The need for assumptions on the data-generating process to achieve
inference (even) from experimental evidence 67
3.4 Incentives and performance: selection and incentive effects 73
3.5 Gender differences in competitiveness: experimental evidence from
exogenously chosen composition of groups 76
3.6 Piece rate: a field experiment 77
4.1 Whispering in the ears of antitrust authorities 91
4.2 Models as a reduction of reality: firms’ behaviour in collusion theory 93
4.3 Reciprocity at work: the fair-wage-effort hypothesis 104
4.4 Experimental evidence on the fair-wage-effort hypothesis 105
4.5 Trust: evidence from the lab 111
5.1 Endowment effects in market behaviour 123
5.2 Identified failures of internal validity: misconceptions about the
endowment effect 125
5.3 Saliency and coordination: experimental evidence based on the stag
hunt game 135
5.4 Evidence from non-incentivised behaviour: the status quo effect 137
5.5 The effect of incentives on experimental outcomes 138
5.6 Social preferences and strategic uncertainty: the ultimatum-bargaining
game 142
5.7 Altruism in the prisoners’ dilemma game 145
5.8 Outcome versus intention: an experiment on the nature of social
preferences 146
5.9 The effect of roles on behaviour: the Stanford prison (aborted)
experiment 148
5.10 Controlling for closeness: the inclusion-of-the-other-in-the-self scale 150
5.11 Individual consistency of social preferences: a within-subject design 154
5.12 Evidence of order effects: rationality spillovers 155

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List of Illustrations xiii

5.13 VCM: a 4 × 2 factorial design 157

5.14 Identified failures of internal validity: confusion in VCM games 160
5.15 Identified failures of internal validity: game form recognition in beauty
contest games 164
5.16 Belief elicitation and outcome behaviour in a VCM game 167
5.17 The effect of closeness and the ability to coordinate 168
5.18 The accuracy of self-reported expectation measures 172
6.1 Experimental instructions for a simple dictator game 197
6.2 Information provided to prospective participants in economic
experiments 202
6.3 Information provided to prospective participants in economic
experiments (continued) 203
6.4 Instructions for a time-preference-elicitation experiment 212
6.5 Eliciting indifferences via bisection 214
8.1 Reversed external validity: experimental evidence on the winner’s
curse in real auction markets 324
8.2 The measure of corruption from laboratory bribery behaviour 328
8.3 The external validity of gift exchange at work 330
8.4 Laboratory evidence of the external validity of declarative surveys 337
8.5 The predictive power of experimental time-preference measures 341
8.6 External validity of free riding in voluntary-contribution mechanisms 345
8.7 Overcoming coordination failures thanks to complexity 347
8.8 Self-selection in laboratory experiments 350
8.9 The winner’s curse with experienced bidders 352
9.1 Market size and collusion: ‘two are few and four are many’ 363
9.2 The hidden cost of incentives: motivation crowding out 364
9.3 The informational content of incentives: an experimental test 366
9.4 Preference reversal in a market situation 368
9.5 The market-entry game 374
9.6 Strategic thinking in the centipede game 376

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Focuses

2.1 Preference elicitation and policy-making: the hypothetical bias page 37

2.2 Preference elicitation: auctions, referenda and BDM mechanisms 44
3.1 Causal effects in theoretical analysis and empirical works 62
3.2 The programme evaluation approach and the structural approach 66
3.3 Incentives and performance: the confounding effect of self-selection 70
3.4 Two additional difference estimators and their identifying assumptions 74
4.1 On the use of response times to interpret observed behaviour in
experiments 102
5.1 Cold versus hot: available measures of outcome behaviour 121
5.2 Loss aversion: a behavioural foundation for the endowment effect 124
5.3 Equilibrium analysis of the VCM game 130
5.4 Incentive-compatible compensation of repeated choices: the random
incentive system 140
5.5 Intention-based social-preference models 143
5.6 Economics and psychology: an overview of the main methodological
disagreements 165
5.7 Prediction markets 174
5.8 Measuring beliefs over a continuous random variable 177
5.9 The binarised scoring rule 178
5.10 Risk aversion and hedging in experimental games 179
5.11 Using matching probabilities to test complex ambiguity models 182
5.12 Comparing elicitation methods 185
5.13 Experimental designs for ambiguity 186
6.1 The discounted-utility model 210
6.2 Behavioural foundations of the discounted-utility model 211
6.3 Accounting for non-linear utility 215
7.1 Censored and truncated data 232
7.2 Distance correlation as a measure of the degree of association 241
7.3 The exploratory analysis of treatment effects with odds ratios 242
7.4 Bayesian parameter estimation 247
7.5 Sample size and confidence intervals 252
7.6 Prediction intervals for a single observation 253
7.7 A five-step approach to hypothesis testing 257

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List of Focuses xv

7.8 Multiple test procedures 261

7.9 Sample-size determination 263
7.10 Bayes factors 265
7.11 The likelihood-ratio test 267
7.12 Testing for outliers 269
7.13 Goodness-of-fit tests and the normality hypothesis 274
7.14 Testing for randomness: the run test 275
7.15 Two-way and multi-way ANOVA 282
7.16 The balloon analogue risk task (BART) 292
7.17 Portfolio choice and the elicitation of risk attitudes 293
7.18 Incentives and repeated choice 300
7.19 Comparing standard-gamble methods 303
7.20 Survey questions and the measurement of risk attitudes 304
7.21 Comparing standard-gamble and value-equivalence methods 308
7.22 The basic prospect-theory model 310
7.23 Measuring loss aversion 311
7.24 Prospect theory with uncertainty and ambiguity 312
7.25 Probability weighting in choice under risk 313
7.26 Stochastic choice 315
8.1 The many different meanings of external validity in experimental
psychology 326
9.1 The cognitive-hierarchy model 375
9.2 An alternative theoretical model of strategic thinking: quantal-response
equilibrium 377
9.3 Designing a liberal and paternalistic choice architecture 388
9.4 Opt-in/opt-out versus active decisions: a non-liberal-paternalistic tool
to enhance enrolment in 401(k) without default 392
9.5 The malleability of consumer preferences: anchoring and consistent
arbitrariness 395

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Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviations
AD Aggregate Demand
ATE Average Treatment Effect
ATT Average Treatment on the Treated
BART Balloon Risk Analogue Task
BDM Becker-De Groot-Marschak
BMI Body Max Index
CADI Constant Absolute Decreasing Impatience
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
CE Certainty Equivalence
CHM Cognitive-Hierarchy Model
CRDI Constant Relative Decreasing Impatience
CRRA Constant Relative Risk Aversion
DARA Decreasing Absolute Risk Aversion
DA Deferred Acceptance algorithm
DGP Data Generating Process
DM Dissonance Minimization
ECU Experimental Currency Unit
FPRP False Positive Report Probability
FR Fully-revealing game
FTC Federal Trade Commission
FW Fixed wage
HSD Honestly Significant Difference
IEC Institutional Ethics Committee
IOS Inclusion of the Other in the Self
IQR Interquartile Range
IRB Institutional Review Board
IV Induced Value
LHS Left-Hand Side
LSD Least Significant Difference
MARS Meta-Analysis Reporting Standards
MD Mean absolute Deviation
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimator
MOOSE Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology

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Abbreviations and Symbols xvii

MPCR Marginal per Capita Return

MSE Mean Squared Error
MT Amazon’s Mechanical Turk
MT Mechanical Turk
MT Western Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic
NR Non-revealing game
OLS Ordinary Least Squares
PEEM Portable Extensions of Existing Models
PE Probability Equivalence
PGG Public Good Game
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
PR Piece-rate
Q-Q Quantile-Quantile
QRE Quantal-Response Equilibrium
RDU Rank-Dependent Utility
RHS Righ-Hand Side
RIS Random Incentive System
UBG Ultimatum Bargaining Game
VCM Voluntary Contribution Mechanism
WEIRD Western Educated, Industrialised, Rich, and Democratic
WTA Willingness to Accept
WTP Willingness to Pay
WVS World Value Survey
WVS World Values Survey

Symbols
ȳ sample average
 variation
δ exponential discount factor, parameter
ℓ effort
η decision error
θ̂ estimator
λ, γ parameters
E expectation
B bias
T test statistic
X matrix of individual observations, e.g observable characteristics
y vector of the observations on the outcome variable
I beliefs in bayesian estimation
L sampling distribution
N normal distribution
S state space
T treatment

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xviii Abbreviations and Symbols

X inputs
Y outputs
μ mean
variance-covariance matrix
ω() probability weighting function
B Binomial distribution
dCor distance correlation
dCov distance covariance
Fl , Fu critical values of the Fisher distribution
standard normal cumulative distribution
φ standard normal density
π profit
ε vector of error terms
ρ Pearson correlation coefficient
σ,ψ standard deviations
 parameter space
V variance
εi individual error terms
a, b, A, B general purpose parameters (actions, prizes, bids. . . )
bL lower bound of confidence interval
bU upper bound of confidence interval
c threshold in hypothesis testing
ce () cost of effort
d0 , d1 decisions in hypothesis testing
DR decision rule
e endowment
F(), f () functions
G() cumulative distribution function
g() density
h, i, j, k, s, t indexes
H0 , H1 , Ha statistical hypothesis
K number of samples, treatments, classes. . .
L() likelihood
LL() log-likelihood
m number of observable characteristics, median
N population size
n number of observations, sample size, number of modeling features
nX number of inputs
nY number of outputs
p, Pr probability
p(k) rank-ordered p-value
q, Q price, returns
r rank
rr rate of return

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