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Color Foundations
Page Range: 1

Three basic elements are required for an appreciation of color: a light source, an object,
and a viewer. Part I begins with the fundamentals of color observation. We describe the
physiology of the eye and how light imparts color to objects, as well as the psychological
and cultural factors involved in perception. These factors in turn affect whether an artist
chooses to use local, optical, or arbitrary color. Next, we examine the different color
systems and “wheels,” along with their application to different media.

The science and psychology of color have had fascinated thinkers for centuries. On our
historical journey, we’ll meet such individuals as Leonardo da Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton,
Albert Munsell, and Josef Albers. Their influence on the discipline of color remains strong
today.

We will look at coloring agents— additive, subtractive, and partitive color mixing—as well
as pigments, dyes, binders, and grounds. Finally, we will explore the realms of modern
technology’s employment of color in the arts.

While we explore the various visual media available today, this text has been written not
to give “how-to” instructions for specific media, but rather to provide tenets of color
usage to all art media.
What is Color?
DOI: 10.5040/9781501303364.ch-001
Page Range: 2–9

Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

Describe the process of light transmission and the anatomy of the eye in the
physiological process of how we see color.

Differentiate the various factors that affect our perception of color.

Compare and explain the differences between local, optical, and arbitrary color.

More than any other element of design, color has the ability to make us aware of what we
see, for nothing has meaning without color (here we extend the meaning of color to
include black and white). Try to describe the sky, for example, without referring to color—
it is very difficult.

Color defines our world and our emotions. It is usually seen before imagery. Our eyes are
attracted to color to such an extent that the color of an object is perceived before the
details imparted by its shapes and lines. At first glance we do not see the different species
of trees present in a summer woodland, but rather see the preponderance of green. The
artist, architect, and designer, however, are generally concerned with having color and
imagery perceived simultaneously. Upon entering a room, we first see the color or colors
used in the interior design and then discern the furnishings and artifacts contained within
the space. An artwork, be it fine or commercial, is aesthetically pleasing to the viewer
when its color usage allows the viewer to see the content of the piece (both color and
imagery) together. When this is accomplished, a work’s message is conveyed immediately,
without a “second look” on the part of the viewer (Figure 1.1).
Color can also be described by two very different methods or points of view—objectively,
by referring to the laws of chemistry, physics, and physiology; and subjectively, by
referring to concepts of psychology. Similarly, our perception of objects depends both on
physical factors—such as their actual hues (i.e., the name of a color: red, yellow, blue,
etc.), or their lightness and darkness in relationship to surroundings (the value of a hue)—
and more psychological and cultural factors.
1.1 Henri Matisse (1869–1954), The Red Studio, 1911. Our initial impression is of an
abundance of red color. We must take a second look to determine the objects in The Red
Studio. This is an example of how color is seen before imagery. However, Matisse has
tempered this initial reaction with judicious use of values and complementary
combinations. Source: © Copyright The Red Studio. Issy-les-Moulineaux, fall 1911. Oil on
canvas, 71 ¼ in × 7 ft 2 ¼ in (181 × 219.1 cm). Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund ©
Succession H. Matisse, Paris/ARS, NY. Location: The Museum of Modern Art, New York,
NY, U.S.A. Photo credit: Digital Image. © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by
SCALA/Art Resource, NY/©Artres.

Physiology
Physiologically, color is a sensation of light that is transmitted to the brain through the
eye. Light consists of waves of energy, which travel at different wavelengths. Tiny
differences in wavelengths are processed by the brain into myriad nuances of color, in
much the same way that our ear/brain partnership results in our interpretation of sound.
Sound lets us interpret our auditory language; color lets us interpret our visual language.
Because each of us is unique, our eye/brain reactions differ. Thus, when we speak of color,
we cannot speak in absolutes but must resort to generalizations. These are sensations that
seem to happen to all of us.
As light passes into the eye (Figure 1.2), it comes in contact with the covering near the
back of the eye known as the retina. The retina is made up of layers of different cells,
including those known as rods and cones. The function of the rods is to allow the brain to
see dimly lit forms. They do not distinguish hue, only black and white. The cones,
however, help us to perceive hues. The cones in the eye recognize only red (long
wavelengths), blue-violet (short wavelengths), and green (middle wavelengths), and they
relay these color messages to the cones of the fovea, an area at the center of the retina,
to transmit them to the brain. The brain then assimilates the red, blue-violet, and green
impulses and mixes them into a single message that informs us of the color being viewed.
When we see red, for example, it is because the red-sensitive cones are activated while
the green and blue-violet cones are relatively dormant. Keep in mind that objects emit
many colored wavelengths (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet), but our eye cones
break down these colored wavelengths into red, blue-violet, and green, which our brain
then processes into the colors we actually see. Yellow is the result of the green-sensitive
and red-sensitive cones being activated and mixed while the blue-violet cones remain
comparatively inactive (Figure 1.3).

1.2 The human eye. We distinguish the world of color after light passes through the
cornea and pupil and strikes the retina, which subsequently passes messages to the fovea
from where they are transmitted to the brain. Source: Color, 3e, by Paul Zelanski and
Mary Pat Fisher, 1999 (Laurence King/Prentice Hall Inc.).
1.3 The eye/brain processing the color yellow. The yellow sensation is passed through the
lens of the eye and is converted in the retina to the light components of red and green.
From the retina these components are conveyed to the fovea, which transmits them to
the brain. The brain mixes the red and green messages to create the yellow that we see.

“Mere color, unspoiled by meaning, and unallied with definite form, can speak to the soul
in a thousand different ways.”
--—Oscar Wilde, Irish Writer and Poet

How Light Gives Objects Color

Our reaction to color is, on one hand, physiological, which we’ve learned about through
scientific research, but it is also psychological, and thus very individual, which must include
mental conditioning. Color is a sensation that is the result of light, and it is seen before
form. We must also be aware that as light changes, so does color. Color is everywhere,
and it assists us in visualizing forms and distinguishing different objects or parts of objects.
Because color is constantly changing, the sensations we experience are the result of a
number of visual processes all working in concert.
On the physical and chemical levels, our perception of color depends on how molecules
bond and the resulting absorption or reflection of light rays, which impart the sensation of
various hues: red, yellow, blue, etc. The great physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac
Newton (1642–1727) was a pioneer in studying light under laboratory conditions to
provide a logical framework for understanding color (see page 18). His early research into
color phenomena resulted in his discovery that sunlight is composed of all the colors in
the visible spectrum (Figure 1.4). Using a ray of sunlight directed through a prism, Newton
observed that the ray of light was bent, or refracted, resulting in an array of projected
colors, each with a different range of wavelengths, in the following order: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, blue-violet, and violet. This array, the constituents of light, is known as
the visible spectrum.

1.4 The visible spectrum. Of the seven light waves, violet has the shortest wavelength and
red the longest. A close examination of the colors of the spectrum also reveals that the
human eye can detect graduated colors between them, such as red-orange between red
and orange, and blue-green between blue and green.

When light strikes a surface, certain wavelengths are absorbed and others are reflected
(bounced back) by its pigments, or coloring matter. This process gives the surface its
color. We use the term “surface color” to denote the hue of an object. For example, we
see red when only the red wavelengths are reflected off the surface of an object, such as a
red apple, and the remaining wavelengths are absorbed. Different combinations of
reflected wavelengths form all the observed colors. When all the wavelengths are
reflected off a surface and mixed, the result is white. (“White light” is the light that we
perceive as daylight at noon.)

Factors in Perception
There are many factors affecting our perception of a color, such as the surroundings of the
object, its surface texture, and the lighting conditions under which it is seen. How much of
a color is used, whether it is bright, dull, light, or dark, and where it is placed in relation to
another color are also crucial factors in our perception.

Media and Techniques

Our perception of color in works of art is strongly affected by the type of medium used.
Painting alone offers myriad different types of media, such as oil, acrylic, and water, which
affect our perception of color. Drawings impart different results depending upon the
utilization of various instruments, such as pencils (in various hardness), pastels, crayons,
conté, inks, chalks, and markers. Printmaking can be done using litho inks and litho
crayons, as well as paints. We must also take into consideration the type of support
employed—canvas, board, paper, cloth, and so on—and what grounds are used, such as
gesso or primer. Even the different brands of paint can cause us to perceive color
differently because of the media used for the mixture. How does a pencil line or sketch
affect the visual perception of color in a watercolor painting? The textile artist produces a
vast array of product by various techniques, such as embroidery, weaving, quilting, lace,
discharge, and dyeing. All of these can be accomplished using a vast array of yarns and
fibers, each imparting its unique qualities of sheen and texture. Ceramic glazes can result
in an overlapping of colors that change our perception of the piece. We can also
experience the same types of color variations in printmaking. Consider also that interior
design and fashion combine many types of media and textures that can produce a
different perception of the same color (Figure 1.5). While the performance arts require
communication skills, those skills are brought to life through judicious use of color. Think
of the theater, TV, concerts, and street performances—without color, who would notice?

1.5 Illustration of interior space—the Red Room in the White House, Washington, D.C.
Notice that the red on the walls, on the upholstery, and on the rug all appear different, as
well as the white of the candles, the molding paint, the flowers, the bust sculpture, the
lampshade, and the porcelain lamp base. These color nuances are the result of the
influences of the different types of media. Source: Photo by Bruce White, copyright White
House Historical Association (781).

Modern technology has totally surrounded us with color—the computer has brought color
into newspapers, film, TV, videos, and even our telephones, not to mention the mobile
communication devices we all now rely upon. Communication today is dominated by the
use of color.

Eye and Brain

The human eye in combination with the brain’s reaction tells us how to distinguish the
type of color being seen, as well as its relative purity and lightness. But memory also
exerts an influence. Most of what we see is based on the memory of a color—when and
how we have experienced it before. In addition, certain colors are perceived more easily
than others. Yellows and greens are seen before other hues, while red and violet are the
most difficult to perceive. If we take another look at the hue order of the visual spectrum,
we see that a perception curve is formed, with the yellow and green hues at the curve’s
height and red and violet forming its lower extremities (Figure 1.6).
1.6 The perception curve. The yellow and green wavelengths register highest on the
relative lightness axis. Someone with normal vision perceiving colored lights of equal
energies will register the yellow-green segments of the spectrum first, because they
appear brighter than all the other ones.

Psychology and Culture

Memory, experiences, intelligence, and cultural background all affect the way a color’s
impact can vary from individual to individual. This is not to say that the eye will
physiologically perceive the color differently, but that its psychological perception will
mean different things to different people. In most Western cultures, for example, black is
associated with death, but in China and India white is regarded as a symbol of death. In
America and many Western cultures, a bride usually wears white, as white is deemed a
bridal or wedding color. In China, however, a bride is attired in red. The mailboxes on the
streets of the United States are blue, but in Sweden the mailboxes are red. An American
tourist in Sweden might have a more difficult time finding a site to mail those postcards
home because of the color change from the familiar blue to red.

Advances in technology have also resulted in color perception changes. For example, we
now refer to the use of pink-ribbon logos as the “pinking of America” for these logos
have come to serve as reminders of breast cancer awareness on advertising and articles—
the health testing and prevention as well as the charitable organizations seeking funds for
this worthy cause. We are also attempting to become “green” through endeavors put
forth to clean up and protect our environment. Reforms, movements, and causes are
regularly put forth using color verbiage.

Local, Optical, and Arbitrary Color

The quality of light further determines the quality of any color that we see. A red barn in
brilliant noon sunlight will appear red, but that same red will be perceived differently at
sundown or on a rainy day. Armed with this knowledge, artists, architects, and designers
can influence the color sensations of those who view their work. They may use color in
three ways to impose these sensations: local or objective color, optical color, and arbitrary
color. Local color is the most natural. It reproduces the effect of colors as seen in white
daylight, exactly as we expect them to be: blue sky, red barn, and green grass. When the
artist has a highly realistic style, the composition is rendered in exact colors and values
(Figure 1.7). We often find that catalog and advertising art, such as packaging, is done in
local color. Young children also depict their art in local color. Optical color reproduces
hues as seen in lighting conditions other than white daylight: in the rain or a thunderstorm
(Figure 1.8), at sunset, or in indoor lighting, for example. Again, the composition is usually
rendered in a somewhat naturalistic way. Arbitrary color allows the artist to impose his or
her feelings and interpretation of color onto the image (Figure 1.9). Here, natural color is
abandoned for the artist’s choice. A gray stone bridge may be executed in warm oranges
and beiges if the artist wants the bridge to impart a feeling of vitality and warmth.
Arbitrary color is most often seen in 20th-century art, especially among the Expressionists
and Fauves, whereas local and optical color are employed in more realistic styles of art. In
the commercial world, posters are often rendered in arbitrary color to attract attention.

1.7 Ferrari F430. The local color of this car (pure hue red) stands out from the natural
surroundings on a bright, cloudless day. Source: NEIL ROY JOHNSON / Shutterstock.com.

1.8 Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State, 1834. Oil on canvas, 39 ¼ ×
63 ¼ in (99.7 × 160.6 cm). The New-York Historical Society, New York. Weather conditions
determine subtle changes in the optical color of this landscape. The effects of sunlight
originating beyond the left of the painting can be seen tingeing the light-green leaves in
the left foreground, while gray thunderclouds serve to darken the landscape in the central
and right-hand areas. Source: Collection of The New-York Historical Society.
1.9 Odilon Redon, The Golden Cell (Blue Profile), 1892. Oil and colored chalks, with gold,
11⅞ × 9¾ in (30.1 × 24.7 cm). British Museum, London. Bequest Campbell Dodgson. The
Symbolist painter Redon uses a gold background in order to suggest a Byzantine mosaic
of the fourteenth or fifteenth century, which typically employed this color. However, he
chooses to interpret the woman’s dreaming face in arbitrary color, associating her in his
fantasy with the Virgin Mary, who is traditionally rendered in blue. Blue is also utilized to
symbolize tranquility and dependability, which were desired feminine traits in the 1890s.
Source: © The Trustees of the British Museum / Art Resource, NY / © Artres.

Concepts to Remember

Color is usually seen before imagery.

The physiology of the eye and the brain’s reaction enable us to perceive light as
different colors.

The color imparted by an object is produced by the mixture of wavelengths

reflected from its surface.

Our perception of the color of an object is dependent upon several factors, such as
illumination, media, technique, quantity, relationship to other colors present,
memory, and culture.
Most color usage employs one of three aspects of color—local, optical, or arbitrary
— and any of these can be manipulated by users to create desired reactions in the
viewer.

Key Terms

Hues
Value

Wavelengths

Retina

Rods
Cones

Fovea

Visible spectrum

Pigments

Gesso

Texture
Local color

Optical color

Arbitrary color

Exercises

1. Observe an object under different lighting conditions and, if you can, take some
color photographs. How do the different conditions affect the object’s color?

2. Collect and label pictures (magazine photographs are good) showing local, optical,
and arbitrary color.

3. Using a drawing of the same object, render it in the media of your choice in local,
optical, and arbitrary color.
Color Systems and Color Wheels
DOI: 10.5040/9781501303364.ch-002
Page Range: 10–15

Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

Describe the three color systems—subtractive, additive, and partitive—and explain
how each is unique in our perception of color.

Distinguish and compare the differences between the four basic color wheels that
utilize the three color systems.

Identify and state the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors within each of the four
basic color wheels, why they are unique to each wheel, and how they are created.
Over the centuries, colors have been mixed according to three different systems.
Subtractive color is the process of mixing pigments together, such as we see in painting.
As we learned in Chapter 1, the pigments in an object enable it to absorb some light
waves and reflect others Figure 2.1). When these pigments are blended, more light is
absorbed and less is reflected—hence the term “subtractive.” By contrast, the colors in
light are additive—the more they are mixed with other colors, the lighter they become.
Additive color is the process of mixing colored light, such as in theatrical lighting or
television. The partitive color system is based on the viewer’s reaction to colors when they
are placed next to one another. Bear in mind that all colors are seen in relation to other
colors, rather than in isolation. Color wheels are color arrangements or structures that
enable us to organize and predict such color reactions and interactions. As you will see,
just one wheel or system may not satisfy all our needs. For example, the painter uses
subtractive color (to create various colors of paint) and partitive color (to create color
reactions according to where the paint colors are placed). The photographer uses additive
color (to create the colors or values—lightness or darkness—within the photograph) and
partitive color (to impart reactions and interactions between the photographic imagery).
The textile artist uses subtractive color (to create colors of yarn and textiles by dyeing)
and partitive color (to impart reactions and interactions that occur from color placement).
It becomes obvious that all art media use partitive color, and that the specific materials
employed within each medium can be either additive or subtractive. Each artist must
determine which wheel or wheels best satisfy the needs at hand.
2.1 The surface absorption of light rays. A white surface (a) will reflect all light rays that
strike it, while a black surface (b) will absorb them. A colored surface (c and d) will reflect
the same colored light ray striking it but absorb other colors. Illustration by Alicia Freile.

The Pigment Wheel

The mixing or pigment wheel is the basis for working with subtractive color; it imparts
information about the reactions colors have when they are actually mixed (Figure 2.2). Its
primary colors are red, yellow, and blue, which are used in combination to form the other
hues. The term “primary” tells us that this is a color that cannot be obtained by mixing.
When two primary colors are mixed together a secondary color (or intermediate color) is
the result of the mixture. Yellow and blue mixed together results in green, red and yellow
mixed together produces orange, and a mixture of red and blue results in violet
(sometimes called purple). Thus the secondaries are green, orange, and violet. When a
primary color and an adjacent secondary color are mixed, tertiary colors are the result:

red + orange = red-orange

orange + yellow = yellow-orange

yellow + green = yellow-green

green + blue = blue-green

blue + violet = blue-violet

violet + red = red-violet

“The purest and most thoughtful minds are those which love color the most.”
--—John Ruskin, English Art Critic
2.2 The pigment wheel. Mixing two primaries from this twelvestep subtractive color wheel
produces a secondary. Mixing a primary with a neighboring secondary results in a tertiary.

When using this wheel, keep in mind that red, yellow, and blue cannot be obtained by
mixing pigments, and that when these three primary pigments are combined, a muddy
black is the result. Imperfections in the pigments mean that the black is not pure, as it
should be in theory. Also note that the secondary and tertiary hues are not equal mixtures
of their components. Mixing together equal amounts of yellow and blue pigments will
result in a green that is more yellow-green than green because yellow is stronger than
green.

The Process Wheel

In contrast to the pigment wheel, the process wheel gives us three basic primaries—
yellow, magenta, and cyan—that do, upon mixing, result in purer hues (Figure 2.3). This
primary arrangement is the standard employed in color printing and photography, as well
as in pigment manufacture (usually ink and computer cartridges). A look at the colors used
shows a very luminous and bright yellow, an intense magenta that is red though leaning
toward violet, and a cyan that is blue but tending toward green. When we take equal
parts of these primaries and mix them, the following secondary hues result:

yellow + cyan = green

cyan + magenta = violet

magenta + yellow = orange
2.3 The process wheel. The primaries and tertiaries in this twelvestep subtractive color
wheel are different from those in the pigment wheel, but the secondaries are the same.

The resulting tertiaries will be as follows:

yellow + green = yellow-green

green + cyan = green-blue-green

cyan + violet = blue-violet-blue (ultramarine blue)

violet + magenta = red-violet-red

magenta + orange = red

orange + yellow = yellow-orange (see Figure 6.3)

Again, mixing the three primaries together in equal amounts gives us black.

The Munsell Wheel

Albert Munsell (1858–1918) developed a partitive color system based on five primary hues
or, as he termed them, principal colors: yellow, red, green, blue, and purple (which is
termed “violet” in this book). These primaries are based on afterimage perceptions that
derive from hues we see in nature. Afterimaging is an optical reaction that occurs after we
stare intensely at a hue and then shift our eyes to a white surface; this second hue is
termed the afterimage. If, for example, we stare at a red dot, the resulting afterimage will
be blue-green. Munsell set up each afterimage as the complement to his principal
(primary) hues. A complementary hue is the hue that occupies the position directly
opposite on a color wheel. From this base he was able to arrange his Munsell wheel
(Figure 2.4).

Munsell’s arrangement resulted in the complementary combinations of yellow and blue-

violet, red and blue-green, green and red-violet, and violet and yellow-green. These
afterimages comprise the secondary hues of the Munsell wheel. He further systematized
the color wheel into a three-dimensional form that he termed a “tree” (Figure 2.5).
Intervals of value, measuring the lightness and darkness of a hue, are shown along the
trunk, or vertical axis, with 0 as black and 10 as white. The intervals between are assigned
the numbers 1 to 9. Any color along the innermost vertical axis is called a neutral, which is
a nonchromatic hue of white, gray, or black that does not contain any pure hue. Branches
or horizontal intervals measure the saturation (or relative purity) of each hue, with the pure
hue being located at the outside edge. The remaining intervals along each horizontal
branch consist of colored gray mixtures in varying degrees of purity.

2.4 The Munsell wheel. This twenty-step partitive color wheel consists of five primaries,
five secondaries, and ten tertiaries.

“In visual perception a color is almost never seen as it really is—as it physically is. This
fact makes color the relative medium in art.”
--—Josef Albers, German-Born American Artist
2.5 The Munsell color tree. There are ten vanes to this tree, corresponding to the five
primaries and five secondaries of the Munsell wheel (see Figure 2.4). In this view, the
complementary primaries of yellow and blue-violet can be seen across from each other.
Courtesy of X-Rite, Inc.

We will explore Munsell’s system further in the section on color theorists (see pages 22–
24). It is used by dye manufacturers for yarn and fabric coloration, as well as in interior
design and in the production of cosmetics, computer hardware, and paint. For example,
Liquitex acrylic paints carry Munsell color notations on their tube labels. Partitive color
usage often relies on the interactions resulting from afterimaging. Because the Munsell
wheel is the wheel based on afterimaging, we will base all our information concerning
color on this wheel unless otherwise noted.

The Light Wheel

The light wheel is based on the additive color system and provides information
concerning light rays and transparent color. Here the primary colors that form the other
hues are red, green, and blue. The secondaries are as follows:

red + green = yellow

green + blue = cyan

blue + red = magenta

As these are combinations of colored light, when all the primaries are combined, white
results. The total absence of light results in black. Because light is being added to light,
the more that color rays are mixed or fused with other color rays, the lighter they become.
The light wheel is used for theatrical lighting and projection (Figure 2.6) and is now the
basis for video, computer graphics, and electronic media.
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