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IMAGE & PARADIGM
IN PLATO'S SOPHIST
This page has been intentionally left blank.
IMAGE & PARADIGM
IN PLATO'S SOPHIST

DAVID AMBUEL

PARMENIDES
PUBLISHING

Las Vegas ⴢ Zurich ⴢ Athens

 PARMENIDES PUBLISHING
Las Vegas ⴢ Zurich ⴢ Athens

 2007 by Parmenides Publishing

All rights reserved

Published 2007
Printed in the United States of America

ISBN-10: 1-930972-04-0
ISBN-13: 978-1-930972-04-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ambuel, David.
Image and paradigm in Plato’s Sophist / David Ambuel.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-930972-04-9 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-930972-04-0 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Plato. Sophist. I. Plato. Sophist. English. II. Title.
B384.A43 2007
184—dc22
2007005040

1-888-PARMENIDES
www.parmenides.com
 to Patinya

eijkw; kinhtovn tina aijw'no" (Tim. 37d)

This page has been intentionally left blank.
 CONTENTS

Preface ix
Introduction xi

PART ONE

Dramatic setting 3
Statement of the problem (216a–217b) 4
Paradigms (217b–219a) 6
Diaeresis: The method of division 10
Speusippus 11
Diaeresis in Aristotle 13
Diaeresis in the dialogues 16
Diaeresis in the Phaedrus 17
Diaeresis in the Statesman 21
Diaeresis in the Philebus 24
Preliminary summary of Platonic diaeresis 26
The angler (219a–221c) 33
Diaeresis in the Sophist 35
viii CONTENTS

Tevcnh and trivbh (art and knack) 42

The attributes of sophistry 45
First definition: The sophist as hunter (221c–223b) 48
Second, third, and fourth definitions: The sophist as huckster
(223c–224e) 51
Fifth definition: The sophist as verbal athlete (224e–226a) 54
Sixth definition: The sophist as educator (226a–231c) 56
A doxastikhv ejpisthvmh (opinionative knowledge)
(231c–233d) 62

PART TWO

Images 67
The image-making art (233d–236c) 70
The vocabulary of imitation 70
Ei[dwlon (image) 71
Favntasma (appearance) 73
Eijkwvn (likeness) 74
The theory of participation 75
Image and imitation in the Sophist 77
Not-being (236d–239e) 81
Opposition 85
Not-being and images (239e–240c) 87
False opinion (240c–242b) 89
The more accurate analysis of being (242b–244d) 90
To; o[n (what is) 93
The Sophist and the Parmenides 94
Whole and part (244d–246a) 102
The senses of being 105
Being and difference 107
The less accurate analysis of being (246a–248a) 108
The earth-born 111
Duvnami" (power) 113
The friends of the forms (248a–249d) 117
Recapitulation: The perplexity of being (249d–251a) 123
CONTENTS ix

PART THREE

The modes of combination (251a–252e) 127

The definition of dialectic (252e–254b) 132
The communion of kinds (254b–255e) 141
The five greatest kinds, in outline 148
Kaq j auJtov and pro;" a[lla 150
The definition of not-being (255e–257a) 152
The reductio ad absurdum 155
Kinds and forms 158
Oppositions again 159
False statement (259b–264b) 163
Being as truth 165
Truth and falsity, truth and ignorance 167
On saying, saying something, and saying something that is 170
Conclusion (264b–268a) 173

PART FOUR

Sophist translation 179

Appendix: On Owen and some others 249

Selected bibliography 267
Index 273
This page has been intentionally left blank.
 PREFACE

Platonic dialectic was regarded by Aristotle more as a training tool than a

philosophical method. Plato does not pretend to present a set of premises
identified as known truths for a basis from which to derive true conclu-
sions. Inevitably, the starting point for inquiry is an agreed-upon belief
that appears, at least to one person, plausible.
The student of Plato will not find philosophical questions sorted into
neat packages: a treatise on ethics, another on ontology, then epistemol-
ogy and philosophy of mind in separate books. Nor will he or she find a
uniformly direct and systematic method of inquiry into these questions.
Myth and metaphor are employed alongside rational account, sequential
argument next to argument by analogy, methodical discourse placed
within carefully crafted dramatic settings, good arguments and bad argu-
ments examined, assumptions clarified and assumptions hidden.
The Sophist is a rather technical piece. The myth and drama are at
their minimum, and Plato introduces a set of plodding definitions that
evolves into a discussion of terms of highest abstraction: ‘being,’ ‘rest,’
‘motion,’ ‘sameness,’ ‘otherness.’
And yet it is not only a technical piece. This volume aims to give an
interpretation of the Sophist as a whole, with sensitivity to its subtleties
and implications. The philosophical commentary is followed by a transla-
xii PREFACE

tion. As R. E. Allen remarked on translating Plato, “Plato, as a writer,

stands with Shakespeare, but his translators do not, so this task is all but
impossible.” There have been several translations of the Sophist, and I
have learned from them all. The goal here is not to add one to their
number, but to add clarity to the interpretation. Those familiar with
other interpretations will quickly apprehend that the reading presented
here sets out with an approach distinct from many. The intent is not to
make a definitive statement of doctrine; where there is such philosophi-
cal richness, there is no finality. Instead, the intent is to overcome the
barriers that keep us from the Sophist’s philosophical depths. As the Phi-
lebus states, discussing analysis and definition by divisions, when im-
properly done, is the cause of impasse; properly done, it is the entry to
an open path. The Sophist presented here is not an artifact of our intellec-
tual past or a notable historical point marking the ancestry of later devel-
opments; it is living philosophy.
The text used for this translation is the edition of Duke, Hicken, Ni-
coll, Robinson, and Strachan in the Oxford Classical Text (OCT) Series,
alongside the earlier OCT text of Burnet. The text and philological notes
by Campbell also proved very valuable.
I am very fortunate to have benefited from the assistance of many.
Above all, I am especially grateful to R. E. Allen, to whom I am indebted
in so many ways. His suggestions, questions, encouragement, and coun-
sel, as well as his kindness and cherished friendship, have helped more
than anything to bring this book about.
I am also very grateful to all others who, at various stages of the manu-
script, have offered their thoughts and made helpful suggestions, includ-
ing John Anton, Dougal Blyth, Luc Brisson, David J. Marshall Jr., John
McCumber, Debra Nails, Apostolos Pierris, and David White. David Mar-
shall in particular went over the entire manuscript with great care, cor-
rected many errors and made many valuable suggestions. Gale Carr and
the staff at Parmenides Publishing are treasures for their cheerful dedica-
tion and professionalism. I must also thank my students over the years,
who have been an inspiration in most unexpected ways.
Finally, I could accomplish nothing without the indulgence, support,
balance, and love of my entire family.
 INTRODUCTION

kai; dh; kai; to; pavlai te kai; nu'n kai;

ajei; zhtouvmenon kai; ajei; ajporouvmenon,
tiv to; o[n, touvto; ejsti, tiv" hJ oujsiva
Aristotle, Metaphysics 1028b

Early grammarians supplied a subtitle for the Sophist: peri; tou' o[nto",
logikov", “about being, logical.” Ancient though this description may be,
it touches a critical issue in contemporary thought. The Sophist does dis-
cuss “being,” and plainly it is a work in logic: the dialogue distinguishes
between nouns and verbs for the first time, and it concludes with an
account of false statement. But does the logic derive from and hinge on
the ontology? Or have questions about the metaphysics of “being” been
overridden, to be rejected in favor of the interest in logical analysis and
in the linguistic constitution of our world of experience? Must the an-
cient gigantomaciva peri; th'" oujsiva" be made to yield to a modern
gigantomaciva peri; tou' ejstin, the battle of gods and giants over “be-
ing” supplanted by a battle over the copula?
The study that follows approaches the Sophist as a work of metaphys-
ics. To say it is fundamentally metaphysical does not, of course, deny
xiv INTRODUCTION

that the dialogue raises logical issues, but it does assert that the logic and
grammar is embedded in the metaphysics. As is implied by the arguments
of Parmenides and reaffirmed by Aristotle, in the Sophist, the law of con-
tradiction is a law of being. It is in the first instance not a law of thought
but a law of reality, rooted in the nature of things. And the Sophist is so
structured that the success of the concluding analysis of truth and falsity
is made to rest on the adequacy of the underlying ontology.
The Sophist is framed as an inquiry led by an Eleatic philosopher into
the nature of the sophist in contrast to those of the statesman and the
philosopher. The proposal that the sophist be defined as a contriver of
images, a kind of deceiver, incurs theoretical difficulties. An image ap-
pears to be what it is not, so if the Eleatic denial of the intelligibility of
not-being holds, images (and therefore deception and falsity) cannot be.
To speak of images would be to say there is what is not, an apparent
contradiction. A definition of the sophist capable of demonstrating the
possibility of the image and of falsehood will involve a reevaluation of
Eleaticism.
The dialogue divides roughly into three parts. These have generally
been viewed as follows: first, the divisions, which offer a series of defini-
tions of the sophist; second, the aporetic section that raises the problem
of not-being; and finally, a positive response that determines a sense in
which not-being is and gives an explanation of false statement, permit-
ting the definition of the sophist to be completed.
It is an opinion widely accepted—both by those inclined to judge the
Sophist a work of logic and by those who find in it a work of metaphys-
ics—that the final, positive third of the dialogue is especially significant
as an elaboration of the doctrines of later Platonism, despite extensive
disagreement over the nature of these doctrines. In contrast, this study
proposes to establish three main points:

(1) In structure, the Sophist is aporetic as a whole. The dialogue has

the structure of a reductio ad absurdum. The “solution” proposed at
the conclusion derives directly from assumptions that are shown in
the middle section to be untenable. To say that the dialogue is apore-
tic, however, is not to say that it makes no point, but rather that the
point is made indirectly.
(2) The Sophist is a criticism of Parmenides as a philosopher whose
INTRODUCTION xv

insights are substantial yet incomplete, leading to a philosophical jus-

tification of sophistry.
(3) As a criticism of the inadequacies in Eleaticism, the Sophist
makes an indirect argument for the necessity of the ontological dis-
tinction between paradigm and image, the basis for the theory of par-
ticipation as an account of reality and meaning.

At the midpoint of the Sophist lies the problem of images, the work’s
thematic center. It is a problem for Parmenides’ metaphysics of one be-
ing: if there is no intermediate between being, which is intelligible, and
not-being, which is utterly unintelligible, then there are no images. Eleat-
icism implies an inadequate theory of relations that fails to account for
resemblance. Thus it makes impossible any kind of definition other than
negative definition, thwarting any understanding of essence. Conse-
quently, Eleaticism can be taken as the philosophical underpinning for
the antithesis of philosophy, lending legitimacy to sophistry.
While the line of reasoning may appear disjointed, it is unified by the
introduction of a series of related, familiar, Platonic distinctions, each of
which collapses for want of an adequate explanation. The central col-
lapsed distinction is that of the philosopher and the sophist, which is
signaled in the beginning when the possession of art (tevcnh) is con-
trasted with the lack of art, and—in contrast with both earlier and later
dialogues—the sophist is assumed for the duration of the conversation
to possess an art. Philosopher and sophist are held nominally distinct,
but there is no foundation for their separation, since the opposition of
reality to appearance and of knowledge to opinion are also suggested
only to be obscured. Each collapses in turn in the absence of an adequate
rendering of the relation of paradigm to image.
The first part of the dialogue introduces a method of inquiry, which is
employed in generating a series of definitions of the sophist. The method
of collection and division is made synonymous with dialectic, an identi-
fication that is supported by descriptions of the method in other dia-
logues. In the Sophist, however, the divisions reveal peculiarities at odds
with the principles established for the method of division. Most notably,
division does not proceed “along natural joints” as called for in the Phae-
drus, nor can it, since the Eleatic logic that underlies the method used in
the Sophist allows for no intermediate in the strict opposition of being
xvi INTRODUCTION

and not-being. The only definitions that can be made on this basis are
negative definitions.
With the seventh division, which defines the sophist as a producer of
deceptive images, the early confusion leads to an inability to account for
images in Eleatic terms. This provides an argumentative refuge for the
sophist—he cannot be a maker of deceptive images if there are no images
and no falsity—and it is concluded that the Eleatic rejection of not-being
must be modified.
Picking up an argument from the Theaetetus, that “being” must be
understood before “not-being” can be explained, the Visitor directs the
conversation away from the muddles over “not-being” to an analysis of
“being.” The analysis leads only to multiple contradictions before it is
abandoned for the initial task of redefining “not-being.” However, the
arguments about “being” rest on the Eleatic assumptions made about
the strict exclusion of “being” and “not-being” that produced the earlier
perplexity, assumptions that we have been explicitly asked to revise. The
ensuing arguments adhere to the contradictory results of the attempts to
define “being,” and allow only for relations of identity and difference or
whole and part, excluding any theoretical account of resemblance, the
basis for the image-relation and any theory of participation.
Although the question about the nature of “being” is dropped, it paves
the way for the conclusion of the dialogue, which substitutes “otherness”
for “not-being.” It is a substitution based on the premises it was meant
to reject. If it affords an awkward explanation of false statement, it af-
fords no explanation of the relation of resemblance that was said to be
the foundation for false statement when the task was set. While the Elea-
tic Visitor denies the opposition of “being” and “not-being” as contraries,
the dialogue ends in an argument that directly implies the reduction of
“being” to the newly introduced definition of “not-being.” With great
subtlety, the ending turns back to the beginning: the sophist has an art
(the “art” of images) that is no art, and definitions can only be definitions
in terms of otherness, negative definitions allowing no adequate account
of images and no essences. The dialogue ends in a subtle aporia, an apo-
ria pointing to the failure to acknowledge that to say images both are
and are not indicates an order of ontological dependence.
Despite the dialogue’s technicalities and abstractions, it would be a
mistake to fail to notice its deep and philosophically significant connec-
INTRODUCTION xvii

tions to its announced topic, the sophist, and to the life and the trial
and death of Socrates. The Sophist is both dramatically and thematically
connected with the Theaetetus and the Statesman. Theaetetus now re-
sponds to the questions of a guest from Elea, who will lead the conversa-
tion of the Statesman. These circumstances and Socrates’ words explicitly
recall the Parmenides. On the day before, Socrates departed at the end of
the conversation of the Theaetetus to answer charges at the Porch of the
King Archon. And so the discussion of the Euthyphro would have taken
place on the afternoon between the Theaetetus and the Sophist. This dra-
matic date, set at the time of the trial of Socrates, links the dialogue to
the Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. On these, the Gorgias comments by way
of examining the connections of sophistry and statesmanship.1 And so
the connections extend; the Sophist is not an isolated dialogue.
It has been observed that “all Platonic scholars hold that in the Sophist
and subsequent works the protagonist expresses Plato’s own views.”2 By
now, it will not have escaped the attention of the reader familiar with
the literature on the Sophist that I share neither this assumption that the
Eleatic speaks straight Platonic doctrine nor other related presupposi-
tions about the text. The reasons I find these absurd should become clear
to the reader who persists. For the reader who does hold to what “all
Platonic scholars” hold, and has both the kindly indulgence and dili-
gence to persevere, let this be a dialectical exercise to discover what this
dialogue might uncover, on the hypothesis that it is, after all, a work of
metaphysics.

1 See Allen, Dialogues of Plato, vol. 1.

2 Robinson, Essays in Greek Philosophy, 21.
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