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Buil
E .

• Darin
I
L. Stewart
 Building
Enterprise
Taxonomies
A Controlled Vocabulary Primer

SECOND EDTTTON

Darin L. Stewart, Ph.D.

(@
Mokita Press
To Laura,
who taught me the importance of details.
Copyright © 2011 by Darin L. Stewart

Published by Makita Press.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of

America. No part of this book may be reproduced in
any manner whatsoever without written perm1ss1on
except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical articles and reviews. For information contact
[email protected]

SECOND EDITION
 Contents

1. Findability 1
Infoglut 4

The Problem with Search 6

Tclepor ting and Orienteerin 12

2. Metadata 23
T ypes of Metadata 28
Descriptive Metadata 28
Administrative Metadata 30
Structural Metadata 31
Metadata Schemas 32
Where Do I Put It? 36
Where Does It Come From? 39
Metadata and Autho rity Control 41

3. Taxonomy 45
Linnaean Taxonomy 48
Controlled Vocabulat:ies 51
Faceted Classification 59

4. Preparations 67
The Taxonomy Development Cycle 70
Research 72
 Performing a Content Audit 76
Creating a Governance Document 83

5. Terms 89
Internal T erm Sources 90
I ntranets and Websites 92
External Term Sources 95

E xisting Taxonomies 98
Refining Terms 99

Basic Hygiene 99

Compound and Precoordinated Terms 107

D isambiguation 110

6. Structure 115
Card Sorting 116

Categories and Facets 122

7. Interoperability 135
Basic XML Concepts 137

Representing Hierarchy 140

l ;ear of Baggage Handling 144

XSLT 146

Zthes 152

8. Ontology_ 159
What Is An Ontology? 160

Class Hierarchy, Slots and Facets 162

Resource D escription Framework 168
 RDF/ XNU~ 176
RDF Schema 180
Web O ntology Language (OWL) 181

9. Folksonomy 185
Tagging 186
Folksonomy 191
Tag Clouds 194
Pace Layerin 202

Glossary 205
Notes 219
Index 227
 1
Findability
"But the plans were on display... "
"On display? I had to go down to the cellar to find them."
'That's the display department."
"With a flashlight. "
"Ah, well, the lights had probably gone."
"So had the stairs."
"But look, you found the notice didn't you?"
"Yes," said Arthur, "yes I did. It was on display in the
bottom of a locked filing cabinet stuck in a disused lavatory
with a sign on the door saying 'Beware of the Leopard."'

From The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy

rinding good information is hard, m uch harder than it should be.

Your first en counter with a new website often feels like en tering a
strange land with its own language, laws, customs and culture. You
have business to conduct th ere, but must do so witho ut the benefit
of an interpreter or guide. As you b egin to explore the homepage,
you m ust quickly orient yoursel f to its wugue approach to navigation,
in terpret bizarre labels and menus, guess at search terms and wade
through propagan da in search of useful informatio n. And these are
just the public pages.

T hings get much more dangerous if you venture out o f the tourist
areas and onto an i.ntranet or, heaven help you, a file system. Once
you enter the realm of the enterprise i.n fo nnation system , all bets are
o ff. The seemingly unified front o f the corporate website dissolves
into a collection of fiefdo ms, each with its own local dialect and
2 Chapter One

jealously guarded borders passable o nly with the right permissions

and passwords. There also seems to be a civil war underway.

D espite our best efforts, most websites, portals, intrancts and file
systems are hostile environments for information seekers. We hire
consultants, hold focus groups and conduct usability studies to
w1derstand our users' needs. We build site maps, add search boxes,
and tag our content, and users still get lost. According to surveys
co nducted by Gartner, IDC and o thers, knowledge wo rkers spend
fro m thirty to as much as for ty percent o f their work day searching
for information and yet only find what they need less than half the
1
time. This means we spend more time looking for documents than
actuaUy reading them. This situatio n is not just embarrassing, it's
expensive.

A third of a scmor knowledge worker's time, the time they spend

chasing information , works out to be ro ughly S26,000 a year i.n salary
and benefits on average. When those searches arc successful, this is a
legitimate cost of doing business. When they fail , that fruitless search
time is a drain on resources. Y ct as expensive as tlu s may seem,
search time is a mi.nor compo nent of the cost of luddcn in formatio n.
Even ilic tens o f iliousands of dollars spent o n redesigning and
maintaining an improved website is trivial if it gets users to tl1e
content iliey need. The true cost comes when users ilirow up their
hands and abandon ilieir search. Studies have suggested that this
happens after abo ut twelve minutes at tl,c outside.

This phenomenon is not restricted to co mplex searches and o bscure

facts. Inforn1atio n as mundane as tl,e contact i.n formatio n for the
director of human resources cannot be located by employees o n their
own Intranet fifty-seven percent of the time. Those intrepid few who
can find ilic information usually must troU tl1ro ugh multiple Web
pages and documents loo ki.ng for an org chart (which is probably out
of date) that nu ght have tl,e directo r's name. They must then look up
the director in an employee directory located elsewhere o n the
Intranet hoping they spelled ilie nam e right. O ne study found tlus to
be the case in five o ut o f si.-..:: corporate Intraoets.2
Findability 3

When people can't fi11d what they need, they don't just give up. They
go elsewhere. Wh en a consumer doesn't find the right product, they
go to a competitor, which in aggregate costs your company half of its
po tential sales. Tf they arc already a customer, they pick up the pho ne.
This costs you an average of seventeen dollars for each call that yom
self-service website was supposed to eliminatc. 3 When an employee
can't find what they need, they go to a co-worker, doubling costs
while halving productivity and often yielding no better results. Tn a
2002 research note, Rcgi11a Casonato and Kathy H arris of G artner
estim ated that ao employee will get fifty to seventy-five percen t o f
the mformation they need directly from other people, effectively
erasmg tl1e benefits o f a corporate Tntranet. 4

When a knowledge worker reaches this dead-end, they have little

choice but to set about creating tl1e in fo rmation they need &om
scratch. T his may be as simple as running a report and stitching a few
documents together, but more o ften it involves considerable
research, an additio nal in formatio n chase and consultation with
multiple colleagues. Unfortuna tely, all this effort is no t being
expended to create information, but to recreate it. As much as ninety
percent of the time spent creating information for a specific need is
actually recreating information that already exists but could no t be
5
located. According to Kit Sims Taylor, this is because it is simply too
hard to find what you need.

At present it is easier to write that contract clause,

exam question, insurance policy clause, etc., ourselves
than to find something close enough to what we want
from elsewhere ... . While most of us do not like to
admit that much of our creative work involves
reinventing the wheel, an honest assessment of our
work would indicate that we do far more 'recreating'
than creating. 6

Taylor has found that in addition to the amoun t of time spent

looking for information, an additio nal thirty percent is spen t
reinventing the wheel. When you account for communication and
collaboration overhead, only ten percent o f our time, effort and
4 Chapter One

energies is actually spent in the creation o f new knowledge and

information. In a separate study, IDC found that th.is "knowledge
work deficit" costs Fortune 500 companies over twelve billion dollars
annually.7

These arc just the purely quantifiable costs. Consider the impact poor
findability has on decisio n making when there simply isn't time to re-
research and recreate the needed intelligence. Critical decisions may
be delayed because the information we can find, if any, is either
incomplete or conllicting. Worse, bad decisio ns may be enacted when
they wouldn't have even been considered had a fuller, more accurate
picture been available. ln this age of compliance, the ability to locate
and produce in form ation on demand can mean the difference
between passing an audit and dissolving the company.

lnfoglut

So how did we get into this mess? We have spent literally trillions o f
dollars on information technology, and yet o ur access to in formation
seems to get worse in direct proportion to the amount o f money and
effort expended to improve it. Some pundits point to the sheer
volume of in formatio n with which we arc inundated and resign
themselves to this inevitable consequence of life in the information
age. As Britton H adden of n NfE magazine put it:

Everyday living is too fast, too busy, too complicated.

More than at any other time in history, it's important to
have good information on just about every aspect of
life. And there is more information available than ever
before. Too much in fact. There is simply no time for
people to gather and absorb the information they need.

Hadden made this o bservation in 1929, shortly before founding the

magazine. Infoglut is not a new problem, but until recently it was at
least somewhat manageable. Today we are discovering that the.: only
Findability 5

thing worse and more dangerous than trying to run an organization

with too little information is trymg to manage o ne with too much.
Everyone understands intuitively that infoglut is a problem, bu t few
have a clear sense o f how m uch of a problem it really is. Experts
have lo ng proclaimed the dangers of information overload. While
hyperbole is the lifeblood of consultants, in this case they seem to be
right o n th.e money.

Each year the world produces roughly five exabytes (1018 /ijleJ) of
new in formation. T o put that in more familiar terms, if the seventeen
million books in the Library of Congress were fully digitized, five
exabytes would be the eg uivalent o f 37,000 new libraries each year.
While thjs is staggering in and of itself, consider that in 1999 it is
estimated that only two exabytes of new information was created,
meaning that the rate of in formation growth is accelerating by 30% a
year. 92% of that information is stored on digital meilia and 40% is
generated by the United States alone. We create 1,397 terabytcs of
o ffice documents each year. Each day we send thirty-one billi.on
emails.8 It is no wonder that we are, as J o hn Naisbitt famously put it,
"drowning in information, but starved for knowledge."

The deluge bas not caught us by surprise. O n the contrary, we have

attacked it with a vengeance, pouring billions into data warehouses,
CR.N(, EJUJ, business intelligence and other data management and
reporting systems. These efforts and investments have bought us
great insight into our str11ctured con/en!: that highly organized
informatio n structured according to a well defined schema or
framework. These are the records found in relational databases and
tl1at slot so ruccly into spreadsheets and reports. 'l'he information
contained in these records can easily be located, manipulated and
retrieved by means of standard guery languages such as SQL.

U nfortunately, this type of domesticated data makes up only fifteen

percent of the total in forma tio n with which we must copc.'1 T he
remaining eighty-five percent is made up of Web pages, emails,
memos, PowerPoint presentations, invoices, product literature,
procedure manuals, take-out menus and anything else that doesn't fit
neatly into a row in a database. The commo n factor among all of
6 Cb ap terOne

these different forms of 1111struct11red co11/e11! is that they arc all designed
for human consumption rather than machine processing. As a result,
all of the tried and true methods of data management we have
worked so hard to master fail miserably when asked to bring a
company picnic an nouncement to heel. So while quarterly sales
forecasts across four continents may be readily available, knowing
whether you are supposed to bring a salad or a desser t may be out o f
reach.

The Problem with Search

This aspect of the information o nslaught bas in fact taken us by
surprise. Many o f us arc still in denial. A fter all, with fully indexed,
electronic in formation sources, full-text searching should allow us to
specify all the terms and subjects in which we are interested and have
the information retrieved and delivered to our desktop. As any user
of Google, A9, or countless other search and retrieval e ngines has
learned tlirough painful experience, things rarely work out that neatly.

Rather than receiving a nice, neat set of t,'l.rgeted documents, search

engines generally present us with long lists o f Web pages that merely
contain the words o n which we searched. Whether or not th ose
words a.re used in the manner and context we intended (did you
mean Mercury the planet, tl1e car, ilie Roman God or the element?)
isn't pa.rt of the equation. We a.re left to sort thro ugh page after page
of links looking for something that might be relevant.

Part of th.is problem is self-inflicted. People just don't write good

queries. O ne third of the time, search engine users only specify a
10
single word as tl1e.i.r query and on average use only two or thrcc.
This is what leads to so many irrelevant documents being returned.
We do n't give enough context to o ur subject to elimi nate documents
th at arc no t o f interest. lf you query just o n the term "Washington"
you will receive links to in formatio n o n th e state, the president, the
capital, a type o f apple, a movie star, a university and so forth. In all,
Google returns 1,180,000,000 "hits." If you add the term "Denzel"
Findability 7

the number of links drops to 3,520,000, and we are reasonably

focused on the actor. If we add the phrase "Academy Awa.rd" we
finally get to 107,000 docwnents reasonably focused on the actor's
accolades. So the more specific and verbose we are with ou.r queries
the more relevant the results.

But what happens if you use the J\ cademy Awa.rd's comm on

nickname "Oscar" in yom query? The number of hits jumps to
593,000. This is the risk o f getting too specific with search terms. By
using the proper name of the award rather than its popular name, we
may have missed 486,000 potentially relevant documents. Guessing
the wrong search term can have a dramatic impact o n what you do
and don't frnd.

I nformation scientists have lo ng been aware that there a.re tradcoffs

between depth and coverage whenever a search is conducted. The
broader the sear ch is, the more documents that a.re retrieved,
including those that a.re not r elevant to the actual in formatio n need.
Conversely, the deeper or narrower the search, the more likely
retrieved documents a.re to be relevant. The cost, of course, is that it
is also more likely that documents of interest will be missed in the
search. T he difficulty arises from the fine balance of preciJion and
recall.

Precision is usually described as a ratio: the number o f relevant

documents retrieved divided by the total number of documents
retrieved. I n other words, what percentage of the to tal number of
do cwnents retrieved arc actually related to the topic being
investigated? For example, a Google search on the terms "precision"
and "recall" returns approximately 970,000 documents. T he fust few
documents in the list do indeed prove to be related to measures of
search performance. Howev er, a few links in to the list a news item
appears: "Vermont Precision Woodworks A nno unce Recall of
Cribs." From the search engine's perspective, this is a perfectly valid
docw11ent. Tt contains bo th of the search tcrn1.s in its title. In fact,
o ne search term appears in the title of the website itself, www.recall-
wa.rnings.com, thus causing it to receive a high relevancy ranking.
O ut of 970,000 documents, it is safe to assume that many, if not
8 Cbapter One

most, of the retrieved documents will have this level of relevancy to

our 9uery. This indicates low precision, but high recall.

Recall is also a ratio and is defined as the number of relevan t

documents retrievedthe total number o f relevant documents in the
collection being searched. The example above probably has a high
recall due to the large number o f documents returned.

Relevant Relev,ml
Documents Retrieved Documents Retrieved
Total
= PRECISION Total Relevant
= RECALL

Documents Retrieved Documents in Collection

recaU

These two measures are inversely related: as recall increases, precision

decreases. A balance must be fo und between the two, retrieving
enough docw11ents to get an individual the in formation they need
without returning so many that wading through irrelevant
information becomes burdensom e. This balance is the heart of
in formation retrieval, bu t it is difficult to measure precisio n and recall
precisely. 'Ibis is because we rarely know what is contained in the
collectio n we arc searching, in this case the Internet itself, and also
because the notion of relevance is very subjective. At best we can
estim ate recall and precisio n based o n feedback fro m users o f the
search engine in 9ucstion and make adjustments as appropriate.

Taking our Google search o n "precision" and "recall" as a test case, it

m ay seem that the problem isn't so bad. J\ fter all, the first several
documents in the list were o n the exact to pic we were seeking: search
performance measures. We can just disregard the other 3.5 million
documents o ffered. We got what we needed fro m the top ten or
l:'(vcnty.
Findability 9

This ability to rank pertinent documents near the top of a result set is
what has made Google the clear winner of the search engine wars.
T heir PageRanJ<: algorithm is a key ingredient in the Google secret
sauce. 11 Rather than just counting how many ti.mes a certain word
occurs in a document or where it occurs, Google also looks at who
links to that document. If a lot of pages reference a particular
website, chances are that it is a pretty im portant source of
information on the topic at hand. If the pages linking in are
themselves important, then that likelihood increases and the
document's relevancy rank improves accordingly. T his variation o n
"citation analysis," which is traditionally used to determine the
importance of scholarly publications, has radically changed Internet
search for the better. Google even offers a free tool that l can add to
my website to search my own content with just a few lines of code.

So, problem solved? Not quite. There arc several caveats to applying
a G oogle-like tool to your fi.ndability challenges. First, Google free
site search is really only searching a su bset of the entire Google index,
that part representing just your website. As a result, only those Web
pages that are open and available to the public will be included in a
search. Anything o n the l ntranet is invisible to the Google spiders,
th e programs that find and index Web pages and build up the search
index. Even those pages and documents that are open to the Internet
at large may be missed. Indexing programs only go so deep when
looking over a website. If your content is more than a link or two
away fro m the main page, it will probably be missed. Any new
content you add will likewise be invisible until the next time an
indexing spider happens by- a process completely outside of your
control. As Google explains:

There are a number of reasons a page might not appear

in t he results of your Google free site search. It could
be that Google hasn't crawled t hat particular page yet.
Google refreshes i ts index frequently, but some pages
are inevi tably missed. Or, the page may have
Javascri pt, frames, or store information in a database.
Pages like these are difficult or impossible for the
12
Google crawler to visit and i ndex.
 Chapter 0 11e

Finally, Google's greatest strength, the PagcRank algorithm, is also its

greatest weakness when applied to a single website. l t is unlikely that
CNN.com or eBay will reference your org chart. In fact, very few
websites outside of your organization will link to your internal
documents. Yet the rankings applied to your documents are
determined in the context of rankings of the Internet as a whole. Th.is
effectively renders the relevancy judgments made on your content
meaningless when the search is restricted to your own sitc. 11

Aside from the arcane nature of indexing, the very act o f searching
can be a struggle in most organizations. Documents and content are
spread out across multiple locations and repositories. Policies may be
o n the Intranet, quarterly reports o n the file system, resumes in a
departmental directory and price lists on the company homepage.
Finding in formation is n o longer an exercise in finding a needle in a
haystack. First you must choose which haystacks to search, in what
order, and for how long. In most organizations, less than half of their
documents arc centrally inclexecl. 14 Th.is means that it is impossible to
look for information in aU potential locations with a single query or
even a single search tool. Th.is dispersal of information across an
organization leads to anoth er search challenge: choosin g the correct
query terms.

< !-- sitesearch Goog l e -- >

<F ORM rnethod =GET a ccion= " http: / ;..,...,. google . com/search " >
< input type=hidden n arne=ie value=UTF-B >
<i n p u t type=ludden narne=oe val ue=UT F-B >
< T ABLE £.9.£9.-!-..2£.= " #FFFFF F " ><~..i:.:><td>
< A HREF= " htt p : / /www. google . com/ " >
< IMG SRC= " ht tp : / /www . google.com/ l ogos/ Logo _ 40wht . gi f"
£2.uie r= " 0 " ALT= " Google " ></ A >
</ t d><td>
< INPUT TY PE=text n arne=q size=31 maxlength=255 v alue= "">
< INPUT type=submit n ame =btn<q VALUE="Google Search " >
< f ont size=-1>
<i n put type=hidden narne=dornains v alue="YOUR DOMAIN NAME " ><b.r_>
< input type= ra dio name=sit;es;ean:::J~ value= "" > WliJW <input type= r adio
!ls!l!!..~ i t~ ~ value="YOUR DOMAIN NAME" chec k e d > Y OUR DOMAIN NAM E
<b r ></font ></td></ t r></TABLE >
</ FORM>
~ Sit;eSea~ Google -->

Figure 2. Just cut, pas te and yo u've got search. Not quite.
Fir1dability 11

Most search engines create their

indexes by extracting terms
from the full text of
documents. As a result content
creators and authors become de
facto indexers and catalogers.
The wo rds they choose in
authoring their documents
beco me the search terms
available to their readers. This
becomes a problem if they
do n't speak the same language.
Th.is goes back to the Mercury
(planet, car, god) and actor
(Academy J\ ward or O scar) Fig ure 3. The idea l relationship
pro blem. between author and searcher.

U nless there is a company standard for terminology, and these are

rare, each area of an enterprise is going to have its own language. f\
cmtomer in one area may be a client in another and a patron somewhere
else. Th is lack of consistency in search and indexing terms has
proven to be the single greatest challenge to the effectiveness of
search and findability in general. 15

Ultimately, any search consists of, at rruru.mum, four hurdles that

must be cleared. First, the information seeker must be able to
articulate what they are lo oking for with the right syn tax for the
specific search tool being used. ext, they must guess what words an
autho r may have used to express the concept o f interest. T hen, with
the query in mind, they must figure o ut the most likely place to
search. Finally, they must sift through the results of their search,
separating the potentially relevant from the clearly irrelevant and
hope wh at they end up with is complete, representing all that is
available. Really, it's a wonder that we ever ftnd anything at all.
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