BRIQUETTING OF BIOMASS RESIDUES AND THEIR

CHARACTERIZATION

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(With Specialization in Industrial Pollution Abatement)

By
VARUN PANWAR

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE - 247 667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2008
 CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this dissertation work titled
"Briquetting of Biomass Residues and Their Characterization", in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of technology in Chemical
Engineering with specialization in "Industrial Pollution Abatement", and submitted to the
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, is an
authentic record of the work carried out by me during the period June 2007 to June 2008,
under the guidance of Dr. B. Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical
Engg., IITR, Roorkee. The matter embodied in this work has not been submitted for the
award of any other degree.

Date: 26`h June 08 G-

Place: IIT, Roorkee (Varun Panwar)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
my knowledge.

Dr. B. Prasad
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Y

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am greatly indebted to my guide Dr. B. Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of

Chemical Engg., IITR, Roorkee for his suggestions, guidance and support during the
entire course of the work without which the dissertation would not have been possible.
I would like to thank Dr. Shri Chand, Head of the Department and Chairman, DRC, for
providing various facilities during the course of my work.
I am thankful to Professor I. M. Mishra and Professor I. D. Mall for their encouragement
and kind advice.
My special thanks are due to Professor Bhupinder Singh, Civil Engg. Department and
Professor and head Dr. Kamaluddin, Chemistry Department, IITR for providing me
various departmental facilities.
I am also thankful to Shri Ayodhya Prasad, Chemical Engg. Department, Suresh Saini,
Alternate Hydro Centre, Abdul Haq, Chemistry Department and Mh. Kaleem, Roorkee
for their timely help and cooperation during the experimental phase of my work.
I sincerely acknowledge the support and guidance of my parents for their encouragement
and moral support.

I also thank my friends for their help and support all along this work.

Varun Panwar

L''
Biomass densification refers to the . process whereby biomass in the form of small
particles, like straw, sawdust or chips, is concentrated by machines into small pellets or
briquettes.
Depending on the particular machine used, this process increases the bulk density of the
biomass by about 1.0 to 12 times of its original bulk density. The moisture content of the
compacted biomass generally should be between 7% and 14%. If it is higher, the biomass
will not compact easily, if lower it will not bind together as well.
Densification is an important strategy for the biomass market because it improves the
convenience and accessibility of biomass: densification reduces the bulkiness of biomass
products and therefore increases their transportability (an important selling point for
biomass use, as the farms and forests biomass is harvested from are often far away from
its consumers). Currently, the challenge the biomass industry faces is developing a cost
effective way to produce biomass fuel pellets.
Densification of loose biomass (viz., agricultural and agro-industrial wastes) is called
biomass briquetting. It facilitates easy transportation, better handling and storage besides
being efficient in use as an alternative fuel to coal and firewood. The high temperature
developed during the high-pressure densification process assists the inherent lignin
present in the biomass to bind the biomass and form a densified fuel called briquettes
In India, briquettes are mostly manufactured from groundnut shell, saw dust, coffee husk,
bagasse, mustard stalk, cotton stalk and press mud.
Briquettes find applications in process industries of any scale using either coal or
firewood and in commercial and domestic sectors. In addition, briquettes are widely used
in brick kilns in the northern region. Recently, briquettes have also been successfully
tried in steel rolling mills and for gasification for power generation.

Experimental Programme
Biomass Collection and Preparation
The biomass materials were obtained from nearby Roorkee Town. Initial moisture was
quiet high (about 25-37%), so biomass residues were dried by normal floor drying. Four
types of woody materials —mango leaves, eucalyptus leaves, wheat straw, and mango
sawdust were studied. The materials were obtained from sawmills and farms, and were
tested while they were fresh, i.e., stored for less than three months. The sawdust was
sieved to remove particles larger than 1.2mm before use. Different moisture contents for
the compaction tests were achieved by air drying - spreading the materials on the floor in
the laboratory under room temperature and natural venting. It is found that in three days
(with normal humidity conditions) moisture come down to 8 to 9%.

Physico-Chemical and Thermo-Chemical Properties of Biomass

Residues
Biomass fuels are characterized by what is called the "Proximate and Ultimate
analyses". The "proximate" analysis gives moisture content, volatile content (when
heated to 950 °C), and the free carbon remaining at that point, the ash (mineral) in the
sample. The "ultimate" analysis" gives the composition of the biomass in wt% of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen (the major components) as well as sulfur and nitrogen (if any). The
physicochemical properties are volatile matter, ash content, fixed carbon and chemical
composition of biomass. Higher and lower heating values are thermo chemical properties
which are determined. The high heating value (HHV) based on the complete combustion
of the sample to carbon dioxide and liquid water. The low heating value, LHV, gives the
heat released when the hydrogen is burned to gaseous water, corresponding to most
heating applications and can be calculated from the HHV and H2 fraction.

Experimental Setup
Experimental setup comprises of a piston, a cylinder, a clamper stand and a small
cylindrical part required extruding briquettes from main cylinder. All the parts are made
of mild steel whose tensile strength is 500 MPa which is well beyond the maximum
pressure employed to the system while briquetting that is 100 MPa. A hydraulic press

0
was required to carry out briquetting operations in above stated parts. An automatic
Compression Testing Machine of 500 tons maximum capacity (available at Civil Engg.
Department IITR) was used for briquetting.

Pressure Variation

This test is conducted to study the effect of pressure on the densities of logs
formed. Five pressures taken in this study are 30, 50, 70, 90, 100 MPa on mango and
eucalyptus leaves.

Pressure Application Rate Variation

In this test pressure application rates were varied and their effect on densities was
studied. The compression testing machine had only three speeds namely low, medium
and high. Corresponding rates were calculated as 0.2 -0.3 MPa/sec, 1.1-1.5 MPa/sec and
2-3 MPa/sec.

Holding Time Variation

Various holding times were employed to exploit the effect on densities of briquettes.
Holding times employed were 0, 10, 20, 40 and 60 sec.

Size Variation

Material used in this test was sawdust which is sieved to four different sizes with

standard sieves,

E
Moisture Variation

Normal floor drying was imposed on residues to get the desired moisture content for
briquetting.

Density Calculations

Density was determined using every kind of briquette covered in paraffin oil
(Density and weight known) and submerged in water (Density known) to determine the
volume, after weighing them.

Impact Resistance Test

The impact resistance was tested by adapting the ASTM method D440-86 of drop
shatter for coal.

Results and Discussions

Physico-Chemical and• Thermo-Chemical Properties of Biomass
Residues
Properties of the four biomass were determined to asses their suitability for the
experiment. Their initial low bulk densities (<200kg/m3) and high heating values (about
more than half of those of coal found in India) make them desirable for briquetting.

Effect of Pressure Variation

Eucalyptus leaves produce better briquettes than mango leaves for all compaction
pressures employed.

F
Effect of Holding Time

A short holding time increased the density of the logs slightly. A 10-s holding time could
result in a 14% increase in log density. When the holding time was longer than 20 s, the
effect diminished significantly.

Effect of Pressure Application Rate

Compaction speed or pressure application rate is an important parameter for compaction

machine design. Higher production rates of the machine require faster compaction
speeds. It is found that 2MPA/ sec pressure rate is optimal value for both quality and
faster production of briquettes.

Effect of moisture content

Logs made at around 8% moisture content had both high-density and good long-term
performance. Considering both the density and the long-term performance of the logs,
moisture content of 5-12% is the appropriate range for producing good-quality logs of all
the tested materials.

Effect of Particle Size

The effect of particle size over densities of produced briquettes can be seen from fig.
Experiment was done on sawdust having 9.63% moisture at pressure of 70MPa and 10
sec holding time. It is seen that smaller particle size sample produces higher density log.
Sawdust with 150-250 µm size produces highest densities as well as they are good at
handling external forces. As the size increases the density of logs decreases.

G
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION A

ACKNOLEDGEMENTS B

ABSTRACT C

CONTENTS H

LIST OF FIGURES M

LIST OF TABLES 0

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Biomass Densification 1

1.2 Biomass 5

1.3 Appropriate Biomass Residues for 7

m
Briquetting

1.3.1 Characteristics 7

1.3.2 Biomass Material 8

1.4 Briquetting 10

1.5 Technologies for Briquetting 11

1.5.1 Screw Press and Piston Press 11

Technologies

1.5.2 Hydraulic piston press 12

1.5.3 Palletizing 14

1.6 Compaction. Characteristics of Biomass 15

and Their Significance

1.7 Appliances of Biomass Briquettes 17

1.7.1. Combustion in Stoves 18

1.7.2. Combustion in Furnaces 18

 1.7.3. Applications 19

1.8 Aims and Objectives of the Proposed Work 19

CHAPTER2 LITERATURE REVIEW 21

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL 29

3.1 Biomass Collection and Preparation 29

3.2 Physico-Chemical and Thermo-Chemical 29

Properties of Biomass Residues
3.2.1 Proximate Analysis 30

3.2.2 Ultimate Analysis 31

3.2.3 Heating Values 31

3.3 Densification of Biomass 31

3.3.1 Experimental Setup 31

3.3.2 Pressure Variation 38

3.3.3 Pressure Application Rate Variation 39

 3.3.4 Holding Time Variation 39

3.3.5 Size Variation 39

3.3.6 Moisture Variation 40

3.3.7 Density Calculations 40

3.3.8 Impact Resistance Test 40

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 42

4.1 Physico-Chemical and Thermo-Chemical 42

Properties of Biomass Residues

4.1.1 Proximate Analysis 42

4.1.2 Ultimate Analysis 43

• 4.2 Effect of Pressure Variation 45

4.3 Effect of Holding Time 45

4.4 Effect of Pressure Application Rate 46

K
 4.5 Effect of moisture content 47

4.6 Effect of Particle Size 48

4.7 Impact Resistance Test 49

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND 51

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Preliminary Experiments 51

5.1.1 Physicomechanical Properties 51

5.1.2 Physicochemical Properties 51

5.1.3 Thermo chemical Properties 52

5.2 Materials for Compaction 52

5.3 Densification of Biomass 52

5.4 Recommendations 53

CHAPTER6 REFERENCES 55
LIST OF FIGURES

FIG TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 Densified Biomass Types -Pellets, Cubes, Logs and 6
their uses

1.2 Biomass Pellets and Briquettes 10

1.3 3 MTS Sintech® 60/D Materials Testing Workstation 13

used for biomass densification. (Hydraulic press)
1 .4 Screw Press with biomass stove die-heater 14

3.1 Details of Cylinder Assembly 32

3.2 Details of Stand Assembly 33

3.3 Details of Piston Assembly 34

3.4 Details of Extrusion Assembly 35

3.5 Compression testing Machine (500 tones) 36

3.6 Compression Testing Machine (another view) 37

M
3.7 Experimental Setup used with Compression Testing 38
Machine (Cylinder, piston, stand and extrusion
assembly)

4.1 Biomass Residues and Corresponding Briquettes 44

4.2 Density vs. pressure for briquettes made of mango and 45

eucalyptus leaves (holding time 0 sec)

4.3 Density vs. holding time using mango leaves with a 46

compaction pressure of 100 MPa

4.4 Density vs. compaction speed variation for briquettes 47

made from mango leaves at 100 MPa compaction
pressure and 8.6% moisture content

4.5 Density vs. moisture (%) for logs made of sawdust at 48

100 MPa and holding time of 10 sec

4.6 Effect of size of biomass residue (sawdust) on density 49

of briquettes produced at 9.63% moisture and
compaction pressure of 70 MPa

N
LIST OFTABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 Ash content of different biomass types 8

1.2 Comparison of a screw, extruder and a piston press 12

4.1 Proximate analysis of Biomass Residues 42

4.2 Ultimate Analysis of Biomass Residues 43

4.3 Properties of the logs made of different woody 50

materials under different pressure and moisture
conditions

iJ
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Biomass Densification

Biomass densification refers to the process whereby biomass in the form of small
particles, like straw, sawdust or chips, is concentrated by machines into small pellets or
briquettes.
While biomass is a great renewable energy source, it is not a good fuel, because it
typically contains more than 70% air and void space. This low volumetric energy density
makes it difficult to collect, ship, store and use (Grover and Mishra, 1996).

Densification is a relatively new process in which the air is squeezed out at very high
pressure to make pellets (using feed type machines), cubes (using alfalfa cuber) or logs
(PrestoLog etc-.). Best of all, for many applications almost any biomass can be used
provided it is chopped fine: sawdust; agricultural residues and even municipal solid waste
(Grover and Mishra, 1996).

Depending on the particular machine used, this process increases the bulk density of the
biomass by about 10 to 12 times of its original bulk density. The moisture content of the
compacted biomass generally should be between 7% and 14%. If it is higher, the biomass
will not compact easily, if lower it will not bind together as well.

Densification is an important strategy for the biomass market because it improves the
convenience and accessibility of biomass: densification reduces the bulkiness of biomass
products and therefore increases their transportability (an important selling point for
biomass use, as the farms and forests biomass is harvested from are often far away from
its consumers). Currently, the challenge the biomass industry faces is developing a cost
effective way to produce biomass fuel pellets.

1
Densification of loose biomass (viz., agricultural and agro-industrial wastes) is called
biomass briquetting. It facilitates easy transportation, better handling and storage besides
being efficient in use as an alternative fuel to coal and firewood. The high temperature
developed during the high-pressure densification process assists the inherent lignin
present in the biomass to biiad the biomass and form a densified fuel called briquettes.

In India, briquettes are mostly manufactured from groundnut shell, saw dust, coffee husk,
bagasse, mustard stalk, cotton stalk and press mud. While the southern region of India
produces briquettes mostly from groundnut shell and saw dust, western and northern
regions produce bagasse, groundnut shell, cotton stalk, mustard stalk and press mud
briquettes. As a recent addition, municipal solid waste is also densified for use as a fuel in
process industries (tea, tobacco, textile, chemical, paper, starch, tyre retreading, tiles, etc)
for thermal applications (Grover and Mishra, 1996).
Briquettes find applications in process industries of any scale using either coal or
firewood and in commercial and domestic sectors. In addition, briquettes are widely used
in brick kilns in the northern region. Recently, briquettes have also been successfully
tried in steel rolling mills and for gasification for power generation.
The two most common and prevalent briquetting technologies are
(1) Screw extruder and (2) die and punch.
Screw extruder technology produces briquettes in a continuous fashion using a pre-
designed extruder and a barrel. The briquettes have a carbonized outer surface with a hole
at the centre, facilitating easy travel of air around the briquettes, ensuring better
combustion. Die and punch technology produce briquettes consisting of punches of
briquettes locked together as a perfect cylindrical log without a central hole. The
briquettes are brownish in colour without carbonized surface. While the screw extruder
technology was successful in briquetting rice husk and saw dust in Europe, Japan,
Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand, it miserably failed in India and Nepal due to various
reasons. The main reason attributed to this failure was the easy wear on the screw
extruder (in one case it did not even last for an hour), besides high specific power
consumption. Efforts by experts from Japan on working with different hard -faced alloys

2
and coating on the screw extruder did very little to improve its life (Grover and Mishra,
1996).
Further, the variety of biomass in India posed a major threat to the 'briquettability'
(compatibility) of the screw extruder as different biomass called for different screw
extruders and barrel designs. Moreover, briquetting of pyrolysed biomass (char) posed a
severe threat to the wear and tear of the screw extruder. Considerable R&D efforts by the
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi — sponsored by the University of Twente, The
Netherlands — reported improvement on the life of the screw and reduction in specific
power consumption, but unfortunately remained on a lab scale. These results are yet to be
proved commercially, as there is literally no market for screw extruders in India.
However, India gained good operating experience in the die and punch briquetting
machines as there are more than 150 plants installed in India with a success percentage of
about 40-50. The major reasons for the failure of such plants during the 1980s and early
1990s were due to poor machine design, poor quality of machines, poor service backup,
poor availability of spare parts and little awareness among the fuelwood/coal users (about
the benefits of briquettes). Added to these woes were the outright discouraging signals
from the bankers for lending working capital for stocking biomass. For the plant
suppliers, IREDA (Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency) in India was a gold
mine as they funded briquetting projects when no other financial institutions or banks
were into it. As a result more plants were implemented in India financed by IREDA.
Most of these plants did not succeed due to technical, managerial and financial problems
as identified by the Bharathidasan School of Energy, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, which
are given below -
Technical reasons:
Poor design, poor quality of machines, poor performance and poor service;
Managerial reasons:
First generation entrepreneurs, poor raw material sourcing, poor marketing strategy and
poor operational management;
Financial reasons:
Local commercial banks simply refuse to extend working capital for biomass (which is a
new and risky concept - asset for them)

3
IREDA, subsequently setup a technical back-up cell at the Bharathidasan School of
Energy, which provided operational solutions for the plants suffering from technical
problems. But little resulted to improve the financial situation since it mainly depends on
the security (collateral) that the briquetter possesses and the rapport he enjoys with the
local commercial banks. Nevertheless, the briquetting plants implemented in India since
the mid `90s, most of them being self-financing briquettors are doing excellent business,
especially in the western and southern regions. A raw estimate says that around 50,000
tones of briquettes are consumed annually by the tea industry alone in the state of Tamil
Nadu, and 20,000 tones by the Indian Tobacco Company in the state of Karnataka. On an
average, a typical briquetting plant of die and punch (standard capacity of 750 kg/hour
for saw dust) type produces between 250 and 300 tones per month which fetches a
market price between Rs 1800 to Rs 2500 (inclusive of transport cost) per tone. The profit
margin is so good that the payback period is well within 12 months. Briquettes when
replaced for firewood and coal provide a direct cost savings on the fuel to the tune of
25% to 30 % as the combustion efficiency improves remarkably. In addition to such
direct savings are the benefits of easy transportation, handling and storing during rainy
seasons besides saving labour for sizing the firewood. These die and punch plants have
established their viability and quick return mainly due to the availability of improved
machine design and quality, good upkeep of the machinery, continued efforts on
expanding the market for briquettes and continued search on sourcing biomass for
consistent production and sales.

4
1.2 Biomass

Biomass energy is essentially derived from forest, urban, and agricultural waste.

Biomass can be divided into three categories:

• Forest biomass, which comes from branches and cutting residues, bark, sawdust,
crowns, needles, and other forest waste
• Agrifood biomass, the bulk of which comes from crop and livestock production
and field waste
• Urban biomass, which is made up of municipal, commercial, and industrial waste

Since biomass contains carbon and hydrogen, it can be considered a fuel. It is used in a
number of areas to meet a variety of energy needs, including electricity and heat. It can
also be used in the production of alcohol or biodiesel fuels for automobiles.

Biomass is an environment-friendly energy source. Biomass plays a key role in

protecting the environment because it makes it possible to reuse waste, reduce landfill
costs, and, by the same token, prevent soil and groundwater contamination.

In Quebec, residual biomass represents the only alternative form of energy in large-scale
use, notably in the pulp and paper and sawmill industries, where it is derived from
sawmill waste such as bark or black .liquor from pulp and paper manufacturing. The
development of cogeneration is also becoming increasingly common in the forestry
industry. Cogeneration using biomass entails burning the biomass in a boiler to produce
vapor driving a turbogenerator unit that generates electricity. This is an excellent way to
process and convert biomass residue that otherwise could not be used (Mesae et al.,
1996).

5
The potential agro-residues which do not pose collection and drying problems, normally
associated with biomass are rice husk, groundnut shells, coffee husk and coir waste
(obtained by dry process). -
At present, loose rice husk, groundnut shells and other agro-residues are being used
mostly by small scale boilers in process industries. Apart from being inefficient, these
boilers do not have provision to capture fly ash and unburnt carbon, with the result that
extensive air pollution is being created. in Ludhiana, one of the industrialized cities of
Punjab (India),,about 2,000 tones of rice husk is burnt every day (Grover and Mishra,
1996).
This pollution problem has become so acute that the State Government of Punjab has
banned the burning of loose husk in such boilers. It is very likely that other States in India
will soon follow this policy. The users have been advised to use husk either as briquetted
fuel or in fluidized bed boilers with proper pollution control measures.
Figure 1.1 shows some forms of densified biomass and their uses-

Y~
yyỳrSv

Pellets Cubes Logs

Once densified, the fuel has many uses.

1 r1 I ____ !

Co-firing with coal Home Pellet Stoves Micro power plants WoodGas Cooking

Fig. 1.1 Densified Biomass Types -Pellets, Cubes, Logs and their uses

1.3 Appropriate Biomass Residues for Briquetting

1.3.1 Characteristics
There are many factors to consider before a biomass qualifies for use as feedstock for
briquetting. Apart from its availability in large quantities, it should have the following
characteristics:

a. Low moisture content

Moisture content should be as low as possible, generally in the range of 10-15 percent.
High moisture content will pose problems in grinding and excessive energy is required
for drying.

b. Ash content and composition"

Biomass residues normally have much lower ash content (except for rice husk with 20%
ash) but their ashes have a higher percentage of alkaline minerals, especially potash.
These constituents have a tendency to devolatalise during combustion and condense on
tubes, especially those of super heaters. These constituents also lower the sintering
temperature of ash, leading to ash deposition on the boiler's exposed surfaces. Ash
contents of some biomass residues are shown in table 1.1-

'A
 Table!.! Ash content of different biomass types (Grover and Mishra, 1996).

Biomass Ash content (%) Biomass Ash content (%)

Corn cob 1.2 Coffee husk 4.3
Jute stick 1.2 Cotton shells 4.6
Sawdust (mixed) 1.3 Tannin waste 4.8
Pine needle 1.5 Almond shell 4.8
Soya bean stalk 1.5 Areca nut shell 5.1
Bagasse 1.8 Castor stick 5.4
Coffee spent 1.8 Groundnut shell 6.0
Coconut shell 1.9 Coir pith 8.0
Sunflower stalk 1.9 Bagasse pith 8.0
Jowar straw 3.1 Bean straw 10.2
Olive pits 3.2 Barley straw 10.3
Arhar stalk 3.4 Paddy straw 15.5
Lantana samara 3.5 Tobacco dust 19.1
Subabul leaves 3.6 Jute dust 19.9
Tea waste 3.8 Rice husk 22.4
Tamarind husk 4.2 Deolted bran 28.2

c. Flow characteristics
The material should be granular and uniform so that it can flow easily in bunkers and
storage silos.

1.3.2 Biomass Material

Some of the appropriate agro-residues are described below:
a. Rice husk
When compared to sawdust, agro-residues have a higher ash content, higher potash
content and have poor flow characteristics. However, rice husk is an exceptional biomass.
It has good flow ability, normally available with 10 percent moisture and the ash contains
fewer alkaline minerals, thereby it has a high ash sintering temperature. In fact, it makes
an excellent fuel although its calorific value is less than wood and other agro-residues.

8
b. Mango Leaves
Mango leaves have ash content of 13.36% this is far more than mango wood which is
2.84% and volatile matter around 73.04%.
c. Eucalyptus Leaves
Eucalyptus leaves have ash content of 7.29%and VM 79.24%. These give good logs
when densified. Crushing is an important factor before densifying leaves.
d. Wheat straw
Wheat straw produces logs which are stronger while handling but logs produced suffer
from low densities at every compaction pressure. Also it has the lowest heating values
among the materials used.
e. Sawdust
As far as materials are concerned sawdust comes out to be the best material for
compaction. At 70 MPa it gives better densities as well as better performance
over wheat straw, mango and eucalyptus leaves.
f. Other biomass materials:
Groundnut shell: Because of low ash (2-3%) and moisture content less than 10%, it
is also an excellent material for briquetting.
Cotton sticks: This material is required to be chopped and then stored in dry form. It
has a tendency to degrade during storage. Also, it has a higher content of alkaline
minerals and needs to be used with caution.
Bagasse/ bagasse pith: These residues have high moisture content of 50% after
milling, hence drying is energy intensive. They have low ash content and a
correspondingly high heating value of the order of 18.42 MJ/kg. Pith is the small fibrous
material which has to be removed from bagasse before bagasse is used as feedstock for
making paper. Due to shortages of wood and increasing demand for paper and pulp, an
ever increasing number of paper units are switching over to bagasse as feed material. The
amount of pith available is almost equal to the tonnage of paper produced-by-a-paper mill.
For example, a 60 TPD mill will generate 60 TPD of bagasse pith. This material does not
require milling before it is briquetted.
At present, this pith is available from sugar mills at much lower costs. This is a potential
material for briquetting.

0
 Coffee husk: An excellent material for briquetting having low ash and available with
10 percent moisture content. The material is available in the coffee growing areas of
Karnataka and Kerala.
Mustard stalks: Like cotton sticks, it is also an appropriate material for briquetting.
Others: Other potential biomass residues suitable for briquetting are lentil stalks,
sawdust, and lantana camera in hilly areas, tea wastes, and coir pith.

1.4 Briquetting

Biomass pellets

Wood briquettes Corn stalk briquettes

Fig. 1.2 Biomass Pellets and Briquettes

10
Figure 1.2 shows biomass pellets, wood briquettes and corn stalk briquettes prepared
under various pressure and other conditions.

Advantages associated with biomass fuel pellets include:

• Reduced amount of dust and waste produced in consumer end-use.
• Reduced storage costs, as they take up less space than non-densified biomass.
• More efficient combustion control because fuel pellets are uniform in size and their
flow into combustion boilers can be better regulated.

1.5 Technologies for Briquetting

1.5.1 Screw Press and Piston Press Technologies

High compaction technology or binder less technology consists of the piston press and
the screw press. Most of the units currently installed in India are the reciprocating type
where the biomass is pressed in a die by a reciprocating ram at a very high pressure. In a
screw extruder press, the biomass is extruded continuously by a screw through a heated
taper die. In a piston press the wear of the contact parts e.g., the ram and die is less
compared to the wear of the screw and die in a screw extruder press. The power
consumption in the former is less than that of the latter. But in terms of briquette quality
and production procedure screw press is definitely superior to the piston press
technology. The central hole incorporated into the briquettes produced by a screw
extruder helps to achieve uniform and efficient combustion and, also, these briquettes can
be carbonized. The piston presses which are currently operating in India are also known
as ram and die technology. In this case the biomass is punched into a die by a
reciprocating ram with a very high pressure thereby compressing the mass to obtain a
briquette. The briquette produced is 60 mm in external diameter. This machine has a 700
kg/hr capacity and the power requirement is 25 kW. The ram moves approximately 270
times per minute in this process. Table 1.2 shows comparison of screw press to piston
press-

11
 Table 1.2 Comparison of a screw extruder and a piston press
(Grover and Mishra, 1996)

Piston press Screw extruder

Optimum moisture content 10-15% 8-9%

of raw material
Wear of contact parts low in case of ram and die high in case of screw

Output from the machine in strokes continuous

Power consumption 50 kWh/ton 60 kWh/ton

Density of briquette 1-1.2 gm/cm' 1-1.4 gm/cm3

Maintenance high low

Combustion performance of not so good very good

briquettes
•Carbonisation to charcoal not possible makes good charcoal

Suitability in gasifiers not suitable suitable

Homogeneity of briquettes non-homogeneous homogeneous

At present, screw press and piston press technologies are becoming more important
commercially.

1.5.2 Hydraulic piston press

Another type of briquetting machine is the hydraulic piston press. This is different from
the mechanical piston press in that the energy to the piston is transmitted from an electric
motor via a high pressure hydraulic oil system. This machine is compact and light.
Because of the slower press cylinder compared to that of the mechanical machine, it
results in lower outputs. The briquettes produced have a bulk density lower than 1000
kg/m3 due to the fact that pressure is limited to 40-135 kg/h. This machine can tolerate
higher moisture content than the usually accepted 15% moisture content for mechanical
piston presses. Fig. 1.3 shows a MTS Sintech® 60/D materials testing workstation
(hydraulic press) used for biomass densification. This is a type of hydraulic press. A tube
and plunger apparatus was constructed for use with the machine at Iowa State University
so biomass samples could be compacted.

12
Fig. 1.3 MIS Sintech® 60/D Materials Testing Workstation used for biomass aensification. tnyaraulic
press) (Pelt, 2003)

13
 1 Hopper
2 Electric motor/Diesel engine
3 Engine wheel.
4 Engine pulley
5 Main pulley
6 Bearing house
7 Pre heater outer cylinder
8 Pre heater inner cylinder
9 Die heater exhaust pipe
10 Die heater upper portion
11 Die heater
12 Briquette
13 Die
14 Screw
15 Screw housing

Fig 1.4 Screw Press with biomass stove die-heater (Moral and Ali, 2000)

Fig 1.4 shows schematic diagram of the briquetting system run by diesel engine/electric
motor with biomass stove die-heater. It is an example of screw press. This system is
modeled by Moral and Ali in 2000 at Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
(KUET), Bangladesh.

1.5.3 Palletizing
Palletizing is closely related to briquetting except that it uses smaller dies (approximately
30 mm) so that the smaller products are called pellets. The palletize has a number of dies
arranged as holes bored on a thick steel disc or ring and the material is forced into the
dies by means of two or three rollers. The two main types of pellet presses are: flat and

14
ring types [3]. The flat die type features a circular perforated disk on which two or more
rollers rotate. The ring die press features a rotating perforated ring on which rollers press
onto the inner perimeter. Some of the technical features of both types are given below:

Flat type Ring type

Disk diameter (mm) 300-1500 250-1000

Track surfaces of rollers (cm2) 500-7500 500-6000

Large capacity palletizes are available in the range of 200 kg/h to 8 ton/h. Thus, pellet
press capacity is not restricted by the density of the raw material as in the case of piston
or screw presses. Power consumption falls within the range of 15-40 kWh/ton.

1.6 Compaction Characteristics of Biomass and Their Significance

In order to produce good quality briquettes, feed preparation is very important. Feed
)arameters are discussed in this section, as these play a practicable role in t+rinnetting
.echnology.
For densification of biomass, it is important to know the feed parameters that influence
the extrusion process. For different briquetting machines, the required parameters of raw
materials like their particle size, moisture content, temperature are different. These are
discussed below.

a. Effect of particle size (Reece, 1966)

Particle size and shape are of great importance for densification. It is generally agreed
that biomass material of 6-8 mm size with 10-20% powdery component (< 4 mesh) gives
the best results. Although the screw extruder which employs high pressure (1000 - 1500
bar), is capable of briquetting material of oversized particles, the briquetting will not be
smooth and clogging might take place at the entrance of the die resulting in jamming of
the machine.

15
b. Effect of moisture
The percentage of moisture in the feed biomass to extruder machine is a very critical
factor. In general, it has been found that when the feed moisture content is 8-10 %, the
briquettes will have 6-8% moisture. At this moisture content, the briquettes are strong
and free of cracks and the briquetting process is smooth. But when the moisture content is
more than 10%, the briquettes are poor and weak and the briquetting operation is erratic.

c. Effect of temperature of biomass (Reece, 1966)

By varying the temperature of biomass the briquette density, briquette crushing strength
and moisture stability can be varied. In a screw extruder, the temperature does not remain
constant in the axial direction of the press but gradually increases. Internal and external
friction causes local heating and the material develops self-bonding properties at elevated
temperatures. The addition of heat also relaxes the inherent fibers in biomass and
apparently softens its structure, thereby reducing their resistance to briquetting which in

production rate and reduction in wear of the contact parts. However, the temperature
should not be increased beyond the decomposition temperature of biomass which is
around 300 °C.

d. Effect of temperature of the die (Reece, 1966)

The distinctive feature of a screw type briquetting machine is that heat is applied to the
die `bush' section of the cylinder. This brings about two important operational
advantages. The machine can be operated with less power and the life of the die is
prolonged. Further, the surface of the briquette is partially carbonized/torrified to a dark
brown color making the briquette resistant to atmospheric moisture during storage. The
temperature of the die should be kept at about 280-290 °C If the die temperature is more
than the required one, the friction between the raw material and the die wall decreases
such that compaction occurs at lower pressure which results in poor densification and
inferior strength. Conversely, low temperature will result in higher pressure and power
consumption and lower production rate.

16
e. Effect of external additives
The briquetting process does not add to the . calorific value of the base biomass. In order
to upgrade the specific heating value and combustibility of the briquette, certain additives
like charcoal and coal in very fine form can be added. About 10-20% char fines can be
employed in briquetting without impairing their quality. Further, only screw pressed
briquettes can be carbonized. When carbonized with additives in the briquette to make
dense char coal, the yield is remarkably increased. However, depending upon the quality
of charcoal and coal powder, various formulations can be evolved for optional results. In
piston press technology the effect of particle size and moisture content is similar to that
of the screw press. But in this case preheating of raw material is not employed and the die
is not heated. In fact the die needs cooling for smooth briquetting.

1.7 Appliances of Biomass Briquettes

Briquettes can be used in any appliances meant for burning wood or coal. However,
certain changes in operating parameters especially regarding the distribution of primary
and secondary air will have to be incorporated into the conversion. One should first
understand the specific characteristics of briquetted biomass before taking steps to make
changes in appliances. Briquettes have a density twice that of common fuel wood.
Porosity is very low and, accordingly, char produced during combustion is denser than
wood or biomass charcoal. Moreover, screw pressed briquettes with a central hole have
better combustibility than ram pressed solid briquettes and are considered to be better
fuel than coal, wood and solid briquettes. This is mainly due to: (1) the larger surface area
per unit weight or volume for the same size; (2) in spite of low porosity the effective
thickness or resistance for release of volatiles is relatively much less and thus their
flammability is much higher; and (3) char left after combustion is also twice as dense as
wood and it burns slowly due to higher ash content. Since inventory of this char is much
higher for the same thickness of bed, the briquettes have a higher heat capacity i.e., they
retain heat for a longer period and keep the appliance ata higher temperature which then
facilitates easy ignition of fresh fuel charges.

17
1.7.1. Combustion in Stoves

Solid briquettes (SB) are considered unsuitable for cook stoves and give excessive smoke
unless broken into small pieces of 1-2 cm in thickness. Screw pressed briquettes (SPB)
are easy to bum and give better combustion than wood. Since the density of these
briquettes is higher than wood, the amount of air required is correspondingly greater for•
the same volume of briquettes. Moreover, SPB should be placed in a vertical position as
far as possible so that the air can easily pass through the central holes. These can be
broken into suitable sizes so as to fit well n the combustion chamber. The specific air
requirement for these briquettes is about I.6Nm3/hour per kWh of heat output. For
burning briquettes provision should be made to have side entry holes in the casing of
stoves for ingression of secondary air. Alternatively, a hollow cylinder made out of a
perforated sheet (holes size 3-5 mm) having diameter about 50 mm less than the inner
-dte
cylinder will facilitate the entry of distributed secondary air. This cylinder will also
prevent the flame from touching the casing of the stove thereby conserving radiation
losses.

1.7.2. Combustion in Furnaces

Both types of briquette are suitable for industrial furnaces which are meant for burning
coal/wood but SPB fuels because of their homogeneous structure and configuration give
much better performance than SB and other fuels. The power density is at least twice that
of coal, provided secondary and primary air are properly distributed and the installed
blowers supplying air have the requisite capacity .SB fuels have a tendency to break
during combustion and the resulting products depending upon size, either get entrained
with gases or tend to pass through the grate into the ash pit or block the grate. This tends
to reduce their combustion performance. SPB fuels, on the other hand, do not have these
tendencies and give much better combustion performance. While burning briquettes of
either type, the operating parameters, especially with regard to distribution of primary
and secondary air, have to be manipulated. Compared to coal these briquettes need more
secondary and less primary air. When compared to wood, because of the higher density,
the amount of air needs to be increased but its distribution components should be
maintained at the original ratio. However, the specific consumption of total air in terms of
Nm3/hr.kWht remains the same.

1.7.3. Applications

The briquettes are particularly recommended for:

Boilers For steam generation
Food processing industries Distilleries, bakeries, canteens, restaurants and drying etc.
Textile process house Dyeing, bleaching etc.
Agro-products Tobacco curing, tea drying, oil milling etc.
;lay product<. Bricks kilns, tile making, pot firing etc.
Jomestics Cooking and water heating
Gasification Fuel for Gasifier
Charcoal Suitable for making charcoal in kilns

1.8 Aims and Objectives of the Proposed Work

Based on the literature survey as detailed in Chapter- 2, and works reported in
India, the aims and objectives of the work covered in this thesis may be specified as
follows:
I. To characterize and analyze different biomass residues for their
physicomechanical, physicochemical and thermo chemical properties.
2. To study the effect of compaction pressure on the densities of briquettes
produced.
3. To study the effect of pressure application rate on the densities of briquettes
produced.
4. To study the effect of moisture content of biomass residues on the densities of
briquettes produced.

19
5. To study the effect of holding time on the densities of briquettes produced.
6. To study the effect of sizes of biomass residues on the densities of briquettes
produced.
7. To calculate impact resistance index of various biomass residues.

20
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In its natural form, most biomass is difficult to utilize as a fuel because it is bulky, wet,
and dispersed. Disadvantages of biomass as an energy source include inefficient
transportation and large volumes required for storage. Solving these problems is where
biomass densification gains extreme importance. Biomass densification is defined as
compression or compaction of biomass to remove inter- and intra-particle voids
Compression baling can reduce biomass volume to one-fifth of its loose bulk volume.
The first United States patent for biomass densification was issued in 1880 to William
Smith (U.S. Patent No. 233,887). He compressed the sawdust and other waste from a
sawmill at a temperature of 66°C (150°F) using a steam hammer. Burmistrova (1963)
described densification testing on various kinds of hay. Dry hay required stronger
compression forces and produced bales of lower bulk density than wet hay. More
moisture in the biomass decreases friction when the material is being compressed.
Therefore, the same stress on wet biomass produces more deformation than on dry
biomass. Biomass densification can also reduce the moisture content of a material by
"squeezing" some of the moisture out during compression. Burmistrova concluded
moisture content is the variable with the greatest effect on compression. Sitkei (1986)
reached the same conclusion (Babu, 2001).

The various researches in the field of biomass densification are cited below:

Bhattacharya et al. (1985)

The potential of the use of densified rice husks and sawdust in Thailand is analyzed from
an energy viewpoint. A survey of densified fuel manufacturers and the market was
conducted and a number of densification machines were found to be lying idle, chiefly
due to lack of a market for the fuel. An economic analysis of briquette making from
sawdust is presented and explanations for the partial commercial failure of this
technology detailed.

21
Felkera et al. (1999)
A 216 kW biomass harvester, modified from a John Deere silage harvester, was held
tested in Texas and New Mexico to examine the productivity and cost of harvesting
shrubs and small trees for energy purposes. The harvester was tested on mesquite
(Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa) in Texas and salt cedar (Tamarisk pentandra )
and pinyon (Pinus edulis )/juniper (Juniperus monosperma ) stands in New Mexico.
While the harvester severed and chipped a few individual 20-cm basal diameter trees, the
harvester was much more efficient harvesting dense stands of small trees that were less
than 10-cm in basal diameter. During the course of these trials, major modifications were
made to increase the efficiency of the cutter head and the materials handling system.
After these modifications, when harvesting mesquite stands less than 10-cm in basal
diameter, the machine harvested at the rate of 0.95 ha h^-1 with a fresh weight harvest
production of 7050 kg h^-1. Using $70 h^-1 operating cost data for similar commercial
equipment, we estimated an energy cost of $1.00 kJ"-1 which compares favorably to
energy sources such as low sulfur Wyoming coal, natural gas and fuel oil. The swath
harvester described here did not bale the chips. However, baling trials with 3 commercial
balers found that 2 commercial balers could pick up dense windrows of the chips and
make a satisfactory 300 kg square bale and a 595 kg round bale. The large square bale
with a density of 319 kg m"-3, provides an opportunity for full load potential of flat bed
truck trailers to be realized. As the harvester is built on an agricultural frame, it is not
sufficiently robust to operate in a forestry environment. A commercial version will need
to be built on a high clearance, heavy duty frame with 4 wheel drive similar to a forestry
skidder. Brown Bear Corporation, the company that manufactures the cutter head, is
anxious to build this harvester for a purchase price of about $280000. We estimate that an
annual demand for about 12000 Mg of biomass at $9 per green Mg will be necessary to
justify the purchase of the first harvester. The market potential for non-energy related
biomass i.e., potting soil base, landscape mulch, wood chips for bioremediation, mesquite
barbecue products, appears sufficiently great in some locations to justify purchase of the
first commercial version of a harvester.

22
Tavares et al. (1999)
In this article a study is made of a series of briquettes made from forest or industrial
waste, some types of which have not to date been used in briquettes. They are evaluated
from both an energy and economic viewpoint. Lignocellulosic densification improves the
briquettes' behavior as a fuel by increasing the homogeneity and by being easier to
transport and manage. Lignocellulosic binder less briquettes' characteristic net heating
value (LHV) and remaining amount of fuel during combustion (Weight) have been
investigated to obtain a general expression function of production and raw material
factors. In both cases the main factor is the fixed carbon in a quadratic way as all the
factors are easily measurable.

Chin and Siddiqui (1999)

Biomass material, including sawdust, rice husks, peanut shells, coconut fibers and palm
fruit fibers, was densified into briquettes at modest pressures of 5±7 MPa using a piston
and die type of press. The briquettes were tested to evaluate their relaxation behavior,
mechanical strength and burning characteristics. The sawdust briquettes were found to
have better overall handling characteristics. But briquettes of different biomass materials
required different optimum conditions of fabrication and generally showed a promising
potential for further development.

Li and Liu (2000)

High-pressure binderless compaction of wood processing residues and other biomass
waste materials, including hardwood, softwood, and bark in the forms of sawdust,
mulches, and chips, were studied. A piston-and-mold (punch-and-die) process was used
to produce densified logs (slugs) under room temperature and at pressures ranging from
34 to 138 MPa. The properties of the logs including density, abrasion resistance, impact
resistance, compressive strength, water resistance, and long-term performance were
tested. The effects of moisture content, compaction pressure, compaction speed, pressure
holding time, and particle size and particle shape were studied. It was found that the
necessary moisture for producing good-quality logs ranges from 5 to 12% for all the
woody materials studied, and the optimum moisture content is in the neighborhood of

23
8%. It was also found that mulch is the easiest form to be compacted into dense and
strong logs, sawdust is the second, and chips the last. For the mulches, a compaction
pressure of 70 MPa can produce high-quality logs. For sawdust, a minimum pressure of
100 MPa is needed to form good logs. And for chips, no good logs can be made even at
pressure as high as 138 MPa. The l.bgs produced under optimal conditions had dry
densities near or higher than I g/cm3. Such high density facilitates storage, handling and
transportation of biomass. The dense logs also have high-energy content per unit volume,
making it easier to be cofired with coal in power plants.

Granada et al. (2001)

Briquetting of biomass can be done through various techniques. The present work
describes the process of designing a taper die and its optimization for use in a hydraulic
machine. The application of an experimental design technique, and the later statistical
analysis of the results is presented, applied to a laboratory hydraulic press densification
process of lignocelluloses biomass. The most appropriate experiment type is determined
for a first set of experiments; calculating, among other things: minimum number of tests
to carry out to obtain binding conclusions, most influential factors, and search paths to
improve fuel quality. Another experiment type is determined for a second set of
experiments, taking account of the most influential factors (pressure, temperature and
moisture content), and also the number of tests to carry out considering the improvement
of density and friability. Finally, an approximation study of the best product allows
conclusions to be reached on product behavior beyond the experimental design range
factors.

Pelt. (2003)
Several biomass samples of soybean straw, dry corn stalks, wet corn stalks, and dry
alfalfa hay were compression tested. The objectives of this experiment were to (1) define
a relationship between bulk density and applied pressure for several samples of corn
stalks, soybean straw, and alfalfa hay, and curve fit the results using Equation 1 that
models biomass densification, and (2) observe similarities or differences in the values for
the constants k and n due to differences in moisture or type of biomass.

'►ELI
7 = kp^n
where: ,y = bulk density, kg/m3
k = constant
p = pressure, kPa
n = exponential constant
Biomass samples were tested with an MTS Sintech® 60/D Materials Testing Workstation
using a 2224 N (500 lb) load cell and a crosshead movement of 12.7 cm (5 in) per
minute. The samples were compressed within a PVC tube having a 39-cm (15.4-in)
inside diameter and a 56-cm (22.0-in) height. In increasing order, the average k-value for
each material tested was 25 (dry corn stalks), 36 (soybean straw), 49 (wet corn stalks),
and 56 (dry alfalfa hay). The most difficult biomass material to -compact, from the four
tested, was dry corn stalks. This experiment also indicates dry biomass is tougher to
compact than wet biomass. In decreasing order, the average n-value for- each material
tested was 0.29 (dry corn stalks), 0.24 (soybean straw), 0.24 (wet corn stalks), and 0.23
(dry alfalfa hay). An ANOVA test determined that the k-values are statistically different
for each material. However, an ANOVA test did not conclusively prove the n-values of
the different biomass materials are different.

Sokhansanj and Turhollow (2003)

Loose plant-based biomass has a low bulk density ranging from 50-130 kg/m3 depending
on the plant species, particle density and particle size. Biomass densified into bales and
cubes increases its bulk density to 120-500 kg/m3. The handling properties of pellets and
cubes are similar to those for grains. The existing, well-developed, conventional bulk
handling equipment can be used to handle pelleted and cubed biomass. Although cubed
biomass is easier and safer to handle and store, it is more expensive as a feedstock for a
conversion plant than biomass bales. The objective of this research was to develop a base
cost for cubing using the existing technology. The delivered cost of corn stover bales
delivered to a biorefinery 64 km (40 miles) away from an intermediate storage, including
a final grinding, was estimated at $60.15/dry Mg ($54.57/dry ton), whereas for corn
stover cubes the cost is $71.92/dry Mg ($65.38/dry ton). These costs included $11/dry
Mg ($10/dry ton) payment to the farmer. The difference between the cost of baled and

25
cubed biomass was in capital equipment and operation costs. Development of innovative
densification and bulk handling technologies are proposed to decrease densification costs
to or below the cost of baled biomass.

All and Moral (2004)

Biomass residues constitute the biggest source of energy in Bangladesh, where the share
of bio-energy in the total energy consumption is more than 65%. The available residues
include rice husk, wheat husk, sawdust, rice straw etc. These residues have low heating
value per unit volume and high transportation and storage costs when used in as received
condition; these difficulties can be largely overcome through briquetting. A project aimed
at promoting briquetting technology in Bangladesh through adaptive research,
demonstration and dissemination was implemented by the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET) during 1997-
2004. The major achievements of the research are the enhancement of screw life and
reduction in briquetting energy consumption, leading to reduction in the production cost
of briquettes. Within this project, three technology packages were developed by KUET
on improved heated-die screw-press briquetting system, each consisting of a machine to
produce briquette, selected accessories, and a stove to burn briquettes efficiently.
Accessories developed included a biomass pre-heater, die-heating stove and a smoke
removal system. With the packages developed, it is possible to produce rice husk
briquettes at a cost of about Tk. 1.75 per kg (1 US$ = Tk 60 Tk; which is competitive
with the cost of fuel wood in the local market. Thus, the future prospect of biomass
briquetting technology in Bangladesh appears to be very promising.

Debdoubi et al. (2004)

The aim of this study is to prepare a solid fuel from the most abundant biomass of
morocco that can be used by the local population, and in particular by the rural ones,
instead of the wood of forest, which is less available and its exploitation is negative for
the environment. Esparto is the most available biomass, with a production of 560 000
tons annually of dry matter approximately. However, briquettes of esparto have low
calorific power and their mechanical properties are bad. To improve the quality of the

26
briquettes and to have an economically competitive product at the same time, the esparto
was partially pyrolyzed at temperatures between 160_C and 400_C, and the pressure of
densification has been examined. The combustion profile of the samples has been studied
by applying the derivative thermogravimetry technique, and the mechanical properties of
the briquettes were tested to evaluate the impact resistance and water resistance.
This study showed that strong briquettes can be obtained with a higher calorific value
when the esparto is partially pyrolyzed, and a relatively elevated densification pressure is
applied.

Mani et al. (2005)

Corn stover is a major crop residue for biomass conversion to produce chemicals and
fuels. One of the problems associated with the supply of corn stover to conversion plants
is the delivery of feedstock at a low cost. Corn stover has low bulk density and it is
difficult to handle. In this study, chopped corn stover samples were compacted in a piston
cylinder under three pressure levels (5, 10, 15 MPa) and at three moisture content levels
(5%, 10%, 15% (wb)) to produce briquettes. The total energy requirement to compress
and extrude briquette ranged from 12 to 30 MJ/t. The briquette density ranged from 650
to 950 kg/m3 increasing with pressure.
Moisture content had also a significant effect on briquette density, durability and
stability. Low moisture stover (5-10%) resulted in denser, more stable and more durable
briquettes than high moisture stover (15%).

Badger and Fransham (2005)

ROI BioOil plants can be made modular and transportable, allowing them to be located
close to the source of biomass and the. subsequent transportation of high energy density
BioOil to a central plant. Conversely, one central BioOil plant could supply several
energy users in distributed locations, or several plants could supply numerous end-users,
just as in the petroleum. industry.
Renewable Oil Internationals LLC (ROI) is one of several developers of fast pyrolysis
technology. The production of BioOil can convert raw biomass into a low-viscosity
liquid that, depending on the moisture content of the feedstock, increases the energy
density of biomass by a factor of 6 to 7 times over green wood chips. The increase in
energy density increases the amount of energy that can be hauled by standard tanker
trucks versus a chip trailer van by a factor of two. Capital costs, exclusive of land costs,
are comparable for a 50MWe biomass handling system at the power plant. Land area
requirements for fuel storage and handling are reduced roughly half for BioOil systems
versus solid fuel handling systems. No analysis was made of operating and maintenance
costs.

Mazzu (2006)
An animal traction piston press was studied for applications in developing countries,
aimed at producing biomass briquettes as alternative household fuel. Experiments were
carried out with different biomasses for determining the minimum compaction pressure
and the relationship between applied pressure and volume reduction. Two cams were
designed for moving the machine mechanisms: their shape was determined with the aim
of minimizing the applied draft force, considering the experimentally determined biomass
behavior. The machine was prototyped and tested in Senegal, giving satisfactory results.

Samaniegoa et al. (2006)

Brazil is the largest world charcoal producer. Surface kilns with semi-spherical form built
with bricks with or without recovery of by-products called "Tail Quente" are the most
important systems used for charcoal production. The un-recovered pyrolysis products
released to environment by this technology are major pollutants.
Some alternatives integrating existing or improved carbonization units within a global
biomass economy are presented. In these alternatives the carbonization reactors can be
used for primary biomass conversion, for densification, for power and heat production or
as core technology in new bio-refineries. Some of the technical and economical
limitations to implement these concepts are discussed.

28
CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL

In context to the objectives of this dissertation work, a brief experimental program was
envisaged and here it is described in details below.

3.1 Biomass Collection and Preparation

The biomass materials were obtained from nearby Roorkee Town. Initial moisture was
quiet high (about 25-37%), so biomass residues were dried by normal floor drying. Four
types of woody materials —mango leaves, eucalyptus leaves, wheat straw, and mango
sawdust were studied. The materials were obtained from sawmills and farms, and were
tested while they were fresh, i.e., stored for less than three months. The sawdust was
sieved to remove particles larger than 1.2mm before use. Different moisture contents for
the compaction tests were achieved by air drying - spreading the materials on the floor in
the laboratory under room temperature and natural venting. It is found that in three days
(with normal humidity conditions) moisture come down to 8 to 9%.
Mango and Eucalyptus leaves were crushed in a grass cutter and then dried. The
maximum size thus produced was 1 inch. Wheat straw was used as it is found from
crusher machines after drying. Sawdust `was sieved to four different sizes to determine the
size effect on densities of log formed.
All residues were then stored in airtight plastic bags for their uses in different
experiments.

3.2 Physico-Chemical and Thermo-Chemical Properties of Biomass

Residues

Biomass fuels are characterized by what is called the "Proximate and Ultimate
analyses". The "proximate" analysis gives moisture content, volatile content (when

29
heated to 950 °C), and the free carbon remaining at that point, the ash (mineral) in the
sample. The "ultimate" analysis" gives the composition of the biomass in wt% of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen (the major components) as well as sulfur and nitrogen (if any). The
physicochemical properties are volatile matter, ash content, fixed carbon and chemical
composition of biomass. Higher and lower heating values are thermo chemical properties
which are determined. The high heating value (HHV) based on the complete combustion
of the sample to carbon dioxide and liquid water. The low heating value, LHV, gives the
heat released when the hydrogen is burned to gaseous water, corresponding to most
heating applications and can be calculated from the HHV and H2 fraction.
Literature survey indicates that there is no standard procedure evolved to determine these
properties. So ASTM standard methods for solid fuels such as coal and coke have been
adopted.

3.2.1 Proximate Analysis

The Proximate Analysis (D-3172-73 through D-3174-82 and D-3175-82 Anon.,

1993) gives the moisture content, fixed carbon, volatile and ash content of biomass. As
the biomass materials were highly volatile, the sparking fuel procedure was used.
Moisture content was determined according to ASTM D 3173. A small amount of each
biomass was finely ground and sample of one gm. each was taken in silica crucibles at
104 °C in a hot air oven for one hour and weight loss represents the moisture content.
Other samples were taken in silica crucibles at 750°C in a muffle furnace for 1 hour and
remaining weight was ash content. For VM samples were taken in crucible with lid and
heated at 950 °C for only 6 min. after cooling in desiccator and the difference in wt. is
due to loss of volatile matters after deducting the corresponding moisture determined
previously. Fixed carbon was determined by subtracting moisture, VM and ash from one.

30
3.2.2 Ultimate Analysis

Ultimate analysis is performed on finely ground and oven dried samples to find out
the wt. fractions of C, H, N and S. This is done using CHNS Elemental Analyzer
(available at Chemistry Department IITR). The test conditions were combustion
temperature of 920 °C and reduction temperature of 640°C.The ash content was
previously determined separately following the standard procedure There is no direct
method to calculate the percentage of oxygen in biomass so it is calculated by subtracting
C, H, N and ash percentages from 100.

3.2.3 Heating Values

The higher heating value of a sample is determined in a bomb calorimeter according

to ASTM- D 2015-17. Samples were ground to 250 µm (60 meshes) screen size. One gm
of each sample was palletized by mixing a little water and then dried. The pellets were
burned in the bomb in presence of oxygen at 30 atm. The higher heating values were
determined from the temperature rise of water and the heat capacity of the system.

3.3 Densification of Biomass

3.3.1 Experimental Setup

Experimental setup comprises of a piston, a cylinder, a clamper stand and a small

cylindrical part required extruding briquettes from main cylinder. All the parts are made
of mild steel whose tensile strength is 500 MPa which is well beyond the maximum
pressure employed to the system while briquetting that is 100 MPa. A hydraulic press
was required to carry out briquetting operations in above stated parts. An automatic
Compression Testing Machine of 500 tons maximum capacity (available at Civil Engg.
Department IITR) was used for briquetting. The dimensional details of each component
is given at figures from 3.1 to 3.4-

31
 4 111 mm ►

30

Fig.3.1 Details of Cylinder Assembly (dimensions in mm)

Fig 3.1 shows the dimensional diagram of cylinder which is 292 mm long with a bore dia
of 50 mm. A set of handle 125 mm each, was fixed to it by welding to facilitate lifting

32
and removal of briquettes from cylinder. Dimensional details of stand assembly are
shown by fig 3.2.

An .

52
1
24
1

Fig 3.2 Details of Stand Assembly (dimensions in mm)

 49 ►

Fig 3.3 Details of Piston Assembly (dimensions in mm)

Fig 3.3 shows dimensional details of piston which 372 mm long and its base diameter is
49 mm This is one mm smaller than the bore of cylinder to ensure smooth penetration.

34
 A

Fig 3.4 Details of Extrusion Assembly (dimensions in mm)

Figure 3.4 shows a small cylindrical component required to extrude the briquette from the
cylinder after densification. Some pressure has to be applied on piston after placing the
cylinder on shown part to take out briquette from cylinder.

35
Fig 3.5 Compression testing Machine (500 tones)

16
 Fig 3.6 Compression Testing Machine (another view)
Fig 3.5 shows the hydraulic compression testing machine (with the capacity of 500 tons)
that is used in experiment to compress the biomass into briquette. This machine is
installed at Civil Engg. Department, IITR, Roorkee. Fig 3.6 provides another view of this
machine.

37
 Fig 3.7 Experimental Setup used with Compression Testing Machine
(Cylinder, piston, stand and extrusion assembly)

All the components viz, cylinder, piston, stand and extrusion assembly — are shown in fig
3.7.

3.3.2 Pressure Variation

This test is conducted to study the effect of pressure on the densities of logs
formed. Five pressures taken in this study are 30, 50, 70, 90, 100 MPa. Materials taken in
this test were mango and eucalyptus leaves, and test conditions were-

38
Mango Leaves:
Moisture — 11.16%
Pressure application rate - 0.3 MPaI sec
Holding time —0 sec
Eucalyptus Leaves:
Moisture — 7.90%
Pressure application rate - 0.3 MPa/ sec
Holding time —0 sec

3.3.3 Pressure Application Rate Variation

In this test pressure application rates were varied and their effect on densities was
studied. The compression testing machine had only three speeds namely low, medium
and high. Corresponding rates were calculated as 0.2 -0.3 MPa/sec, 1.1-1.5 MPa/sec and
2-3 MPa/sec. Material used was mango leaves with 8.6% moisture, 10 sec holding time
and pressure used was 100 MPa.

3.3.4 Holding Time Variation

Various holding times were employed to exploit the effect on densities of

briquettes. Holding times employed were 0, 10, 20, 40 and 60 sec. Material used was
sawdust with 11.25% moisture, 0.2 MPa/sec rate and 100 MPa pressure.

3.3.5 Size Variation

Material used in this test was sawdust which is sieved to four different sizes with
standard sieves. Four different sizes were
1000 — 1200 µm
850 — 1000 pm
550 — 850 pm
150 — 250 ' pm

39
 Moisture — 9.63%
Pressure — 70 MPa
Holding Time — 10 sec

3.3.6 Moisture Variation

This test was conducted on sawdust with 10 sec holding time, pressure of 100
MPa. Sawdust was sieved to remove particles above 1200 µm size. Various moisture
content used were 4.46, 8.34, 9.63, 12.68, 13.65%.

3.3.7 Density Calculations

Density was determined using every kind of briquette covered in paraffin oil
(Density and weight known) and submerged in water (Density known) to determine the
volume, after weighing them. The densities of the logs were measured 2 min after the
logs were ejected from the mold. The 2-min density was chosen because most of the logs
underwent expansion (spring back) after ejection and most rapid expansion occurred
within the first 2 min. Again densities of the logs were tested 24 h after the logs were
made and stored in air-tight bags.

3.3.8 Impact Resistance Test

The impact resistance was tested by adapting the ASTM method D440-86 of drop
shatter for coal. The logs were dropped twice for 1.83m onto a concrete floor. An impact
resistance index (IRI) introduced by Richards was used to evaluate the impact resistance
of the logs. The IRI is calculated from IRI= (100*N)/n, where N is the number of drops,
and n is the total number of pieces after N drops. Because two drops were used as
standard, the number of drops N in the above equation is always 2, and maximum value
of IRI is 200. When the number of pieces was counted in a test, the small pieces that
weigh less than 5% of the initial weight of the log was not included in the calculation of
the IRI. After the first drop, all the pieces that weigh less than 5% of the original weight
of the log were not collected and dropped for the second time.

41
CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Physico-Chemical and Thermo-Chemical Properties of Biomass

Residues

4.1.1 Proximate Analysis

The Proximate Analysis was done according to standard- D-3172-73 through D-
3174-82 and D-3175-82. As the biomass materials were highly volatile, the sparking fuel
procedure was used (Anon., 1993). The results of proximate analysis done on the residues
used in this experiment are listed in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 -. Proximate analysis of Biomass Residues

Proximate Analysis HHV

Biomass (as received basis) MJ/Kg
Moisture Ash Volatile Fixed
(wet %) (dry%) Matter Carbon
(dry %) (dry %)
Mango leaves 8.6 13.36 73.04 13.60 19.17

Eucalyptus 7.90 7.29 79.24 13.47 19.42

leaves
Sawdust 9.63 2.84 86.51 10.65 19.18
Wheat straw 8.09 8.90 71.30 19.80 17.51

The high heating value of these biomass residues was also determined as per the method
described in experimental program and given in the same table, it may be noted that

42
mango leaves had the highest ash content of 13.36%. While sawdust having only 2.84%
ash content. The volatile matters are 86.51 % in sawdust. Eucalyptus leaves had the
highest value corresponding to 19.42. MJ/Kg which makes it most attractive fuel among
these biomass residues.

4.1.2 Ultimate Analysis

Ultimate analysis is performed on finely ground and oven dried samples to find out
the wt. fractions of C, H, 0, N and S. There is no direct method to calculate the
percentage of oxygen in biomass so it is calculated by subtracting C, H, N and ash
percentages from 100.

Table 4.2 - Ultimate Analysis of Biomass Residues

Ultimate Analysis
Biomass (Dry basis)

C H 0 N S
Mango leaves 40.73. 5.49 49.60 1.06 0.00
Eucalyptus leaves 49.76 6.78 33.38 0.77 0.00
Sawdust 44.07 5.76 50.16 0.00 0.00
Wheat straw 43.20 5.01 39.40 0.61 0.00

From the table we concluded that carbon content is maximum (49.76%) for eucalyptus
leaves with minimum (33.38%) oxygen. This is the reason that the heating value is
highest of eucalyptus leaves. As was expected the Sulpher content is NIL for all the
biomass residues.

43
 Fig 4.1 Biomass Residues and Corresponding Briquettes

Fig 4.1 shows briquettes of eucalyptus leaves, sawdust, mango leaves and wheat straw
with corresponding material used, from left to right. All shown briquettes were prepared
under 100 MPa compaction pressure and all materials are shown as they were received
from fields and sawmills.
4.2 Effect of Pressure Variation

Figure 4.2 shows the effects of compaction pressure for both mango and eucalyptus
leaves for 0-sec pressure holding times on the density of the logs at two different
moisture contents. The curves for all the cases have the same pattern: the density of the
logs increased with the compaction pressure. The figure also shows that the leaves with
7.90% moisture produced stronger (denser) logs than that with 11.16% moisture.

1200

1000 100

E 800
+Mango
600
-u— Eucalyptus
U)
400

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Pressure (MPa)

Fig 4.2 Density vs. pressure for briquettes made of mango and eucalyptus leaves (holding time 0 sec)

4.3 Effect of Holding Time

The effect of holding time variation during compaction was studied extensively using
sawdust at pressure of 100 MPa and at different holding times ranging from 0 to 60 s.
Fig. 4.3 shows the variation of the densities of the logs with the pressure holding time.
The logs were made of sawdust with 11.25% moisture content and compacted at 100
MPa pressure. The densities of the logs were measured both 2 min and 24 h after ejection
from the mold. It can be seen that a short holding time increased the density of the logs

45
slightly. A 10-s holding time could result in a 14% increase in log density. When the
holding time was longer than 20 s, the effect diminished significantly. The two curves in
the figure indicate that the initial densities (measured at 2 min after ejection) of the logs
were always higher than the density after 24 h. This means that the logs have expanded
considerably in 24 h. The two curves in Fig. 4.3 have similar shape. This means that
holding time has little effect on the expansion rate of the logs.

1200

1000 60

E 800 60

Y 600
-# 2min after ejection
-x-24 his after ejection
400
0
200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (sec)

Fig 4.3 Density vs. holding time using mango leaves with a compaction pressure of 100 MPa

4.4 Effect of Pressure Application Rate

Compaction speed or pressure application rate is an important parameter for compaction

machine design. Higher production rates of the machine require faster compaction
speeds. The effect of compaction speed was studied for mango leaves by examining the
differences in densities of logs compacted at different speeds. The ultimate pressure for
compaction of the logs was 100 MPa. The compaction speed was varied from 0.2 to 3.0
MPa/s. The moisture content of the mango leaves was 8.6%. The variation of the dry
densities of the logs (measured 2 min. after ejection) with the compaction speed is plotted
in Fig. 4.4. It can be seen that when the compaction speed was lower than 3 MPa/s, the
density of the logs decreased with the increase in compaction speed. It can be seen from
fig. that the curve goes flatter reaching 3 MPa/s.

1200

1000

E 800 3.

600 —.-- Mango leaves

d 400

200

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Compaction Speed (MPa/sec)

Fig 4.4 Density vs. compaction speed variation for briquettes made from mango leaves at 100 MPa
compaction pressure and 8.6% moisture content

4.5 Effect of moisture content

The effect of moisture content on the properties of the logs was studied extensively for
sawdust. Fig. 4.5 shows densities of the logs made at 100 MPa with 10 sec holding time
as a function of the moisture content. The density was measured 2 min after ejection from
the mold. When the moisture was higher than 13%, the logs had low densities and were
easy to disintegrate when subjected to small handling forces. At about 4% moisture
content, logs with the highest density were produced. However, the logs with initial
moisture contents equal or less than 4% could not maintain good quality for long. They
tended to absorb moisture from the air and expanded significantly, becoming fragile in a
few days. Logs made at around 8% moisture content had both high-density and good
long-term performance. Considering both the density and the long-term performance of
the logs, moisture content of 5-12% is the appropriate range for producing good-quality
logs of all the tested materials. The optimum moisture content is in the neighborhood of

47
8%. This optimum moisture content can be achieved within three days by indoor natural
drying of the materials with initial moisture content over 40%.

1200

1000

Th 800
G7
600 —♦— sawdust

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Moisture %

Fig 4.5 Density vs. moisture (%) for logs made of sawdust at 100 MPa and holding time of 10 sec

4.6 Effect of Particle Size

The effect of particle size over densities of produced briquettes can be seen from fig.
Experiment was done on sawdust having 9.63% moisture at pressure of 70MPa and 10
sec holding time. Material used in this test was sieved to four different sizes with
standard sieves. Four different sizes were -
1000 — 1200 tm
850 — 1000 µm
550 — 850 pm
150 — 250 ,µm

48
 l

It is seen that smaller particle size sample produces higher density log. Sawdust with
150-250 .tm size produces highest densities as well as they are good at handling external
forces. As the size increases the density,of logs decreases.

1000
150
980

E 960

Sawdust
U)

r 920
550
900 50
1000
880
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Size (micron)

Fig 4.6 Effect of size of biomass residue (sawdust) on density of briquettes produced at 9.63% moisture and
compaction pressure of 70 MPa

4.7 Impact Resistance Test

The impact resistance was tested as explained in experimental part by adapting the
ASTM method D440-86 of drop shatter for coal. The logs were dropped twice for 1.83m
onto a concrete floor. An impact resistance index (IRI) introduced by Richards was used
to evaluate the impact resistance of the logs. The IRI is calculated from IRI= (100 *N)/n,
where N is the number of drops, and n is the total number of pieces after N drops.
Because two drops were used as standard, the number of drops N in the above equation is
always 2, and maximum value of IRI is 200. When the number of pieces was counted in a
test, the small pieces that weigh less than 5% of the initial weight of the log was not
included in the calculation of the IRI. After the first drop, all the pieces that weigh less
than 5% of the original weight of the log were not collected and dropped for the second
time. Impact resistance index along with other properties of the biomass residues tested in
this study are listed in the table 4.3 below —

Table 4.3 - Properties of the logs made of different woody materials under different
pressure and moisture conditions (as received basis)

Material Moisture Compaction Dry density Impact resistance

(%) Pressure (MPa) (g/cm3) Index

Mango 8.6 100 1.0277 133

Leaves 90 0.9313 100
70 0.8202 80
50 0.7421 40
30 0.6602 <20
11.16 100 0.9474 100

Eucalyptus 7.90 100 1.0345 200

Leaves 90 0.9793 200
70 0.8752 133
50 0.8064 100
30 0.7300 40

Sawdust 9.63 100 0.9646 133

70 0.9010 133
8.34 100 1.0388 133
12.68 100 0.8214 57

Wheat 8.09 70 0.5825 200

Straw 7.23 70 0.5227 200

50
CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Preliminary Experiments

Preliminary experiments were conducted to determine the physicomechanical,

physicochemical and thermo chemical properties of biomass materials relevant to their
uses in experiment. The physicomechanical properties include bulk density and particle
size. Physicochemical properties include moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash
content and chemical composition (C, H, 0 and N) of residues. The thermo chemical
properties include the heating values.

5.1.1 Physicomechanical Properties

1. The bulk densities of four biomass materials including mango leaves, eucalyptus
leaves, sawdust and wheat straw were in the range of 75 to 193 kg/ m3.
2. The physical shapes and sizes of the biomass materials were complex. In the
absence of suitable established method of determining their sizes, the sieve
analysis has been adopted.

5.1.2 Physicochemical Properties

1. The average volatile matter contents of the biomass materials were in the range
of 71.30 to 86.51 with wheat straw having the lowest value and sawdust having the
maximum value.
2. The ash content of the biomass materials was found to be 13.36% for
mangoleaves, 8..90% for wheat straw, 7.29% for eucalyptus leaves and 2.84% for
mango sawdust. These values are comparable to reported values.

51
 3. The nitrogenous compound of the biomass materials varied from 0.28% to
1.069%. These are very low concentrations and therefore the biomass materials used in
this study are environmentally good fuels.

5.1.3 Thermo chemical Properties

1. The higher heating values of the biomass materials were in the range of 17.51
MJ/Kg (wheat straw) to 19.42 MJ/Kg (eucalyptus leaves).
2. In general, the heating values of the biomass materials were more than half of that
of coal found in India. This factor makes them considered as important potential source
of energy.

5.2 Materials for Compaction

As far as materials are concerned sawdust comes out to be the best material for
compaction. At 70 MPa it gives better densities as well as better performance
over wheat straw, mango and eucalyptus leaves. Among leaves eucalyptus is a
better option as it has high heating values and it gives better logs than mango
leaves at every pressure employed in this study. Wheat straw produces logs
which are stronger while handling but logs produced suffer from low densities at every
compaction pressure. Also it has the lowest heating values among the materials used.

5.3 Densification of Biomass

Bulk densities of the biomass used in this study were in the range of 75 to193
kg/ m3 before densification and after densification densities are in range of 730 to 1044.2
kg/ m3, which are about 9- 10 times higher than the previous ones. Biomass in the form
of briquettes is readily much more economical for transportation and burning operations.

52
Biomass is available in plenty in India and after densification its importance can not be
neglected in any way.
This study suggests that briquettes made at around 8% moisture content had both high-
density and good long-term performance. Considering both the density and the long-term
performance of the logs, moisture content of 5-12% is the appropriate range for
producing good-quality logs of all the tested materials. While, optimum moisture content
is around 8%. This optimum moisture content can be achieved within three days by
indoor natural drying of the materials with initial moisture content over 40%. Also, the
compaction rate affects both the densities and production rate of briquettes. So it is an
important factor to be considered. The rate of 2 MPalsec is a better choice for optimum
production and quality of logs too. A 10 sec holding time can add further to the quality of
logs improving densities at same pressure as well as their long terms performances in
handling of logs. Crushing of biomass has to be done before briquetting for better
compaction. Optimum pressure that is found in this study was 70 MPa. At this pressure
logs formed have good densities along with better performance while transportation and
handling. Also it is not a quite high pressure to attain which requires making bulky
machines for compaction.

5.4 Recommendations

In this dissertation work a number of consideration come. out those may be of

interest in the progress of work in the field of densification of biomass.

• An exhaustive data base providing the availability of biomass from forest,

agriculture and agro industries available in India should be developed.
• All the physicomechanical, physicochemical and thermo chemical properties of
biomass should be determined to asses their suitability for densification.
• Developed densification machines should be tested with different biomass.
• Efforts must be made by the government to motivate this industry.
• Special binders have been developed by some foreign industries, which facilitates
the compaction process can add to better quality of briquettes in India also.

53
• Biomass preheating should be tested at the developed densification plants for
optimization of process.
• Industrial area should be planned in a way that transportation cost to be low.
Industries requiring briquettes can have their own plantation area and a
briquetting plant also.
• An economic evaluation of the briquetting plant may be undertaken.

54
CHAPTER6

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