European Journal of Sustainable Development Research

2024, 8(1), em0249

e-ISSN: 2542-4742
https://www.ejosdr.com/ Research Article OPEN ACCESS

Fabrication of briquettes from charcoal fines using tannin

formaldehyde resin as a binder
Wilfred Chipangura 1* , Brian Masauli 1 , Chakanaka Pardon Mungwari 2 ,
Benias Chomunorwa Nyamunda 1 , Tapiwa Nancy Madziwa 1 , Lindrose Nyathi 1 ,
Henrietta Thandiwe Tom 1 , Marko Chigondo 1

1
Department of Chemical and Processing Engineering, Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences, Mutare, ZIMBABWE
2
Department of Chemical Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, ZIMBABWE
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Citation: Chipangura, W., Masauli, B., Mungwari, C. P., Nyamunda, B. C., Madziwa, T. N., Nyathi, L., Tom, H. T., & Chigondo, M. (2024).
Fabrication of briquettes from charcoal fines using tannin formaldehyde resin as a binder. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research,
8(1), em0249. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejosdr/14125

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Received: 04 Oct. 2023 Charcoal fines, a waste emanating from charcoal transportation and handling, were utilized in the fabrication of
Accepted: 29 Dec. 2023 briquettes using tannin-formaldehyde resin as a binder to meet ever expanding energy demand. A collection of
four briquette samples were fabricated with binder proportions of 25%, 30%, 35%, and 40%. These briquettes
were characterized using Fourier transform infra-red and thermogravimetric analyses techniques. Furthermore,
the briquettes were subjected to physical parameters namely bulk density, impact resistance index (IRI), water
resistance index (WRI), and water boiling test. The bulk density of the briquettes was 1.153-1.495 g/cm3, IRI was
6.79-73.33, and WRI was 99.24-99.29. The briquettes exhibited an ignition time of 5.38-6.21 minutes, boiling
time of 19.50-37.20 minutes, burning rate of 3.20-8.70 g/minute, and a specific fuel consumption of 54.70-64.30
g/L. Higher heating value range for the briquettes was 19.76-23.23 MJ/kg and the briquettes with 40% binder
showed the best physical qualities with great fuel potential. Therefore, the fabricated briquettes have
demonstrated great potential as a source of cleaner and sustainable energy.

Keywords: briquette, tannin-formaldehyde resin, charcoal fines, bulk density, calorific value

content residues that cannot be burnt by usual methods

INTRODUCTION (Kivumbi et al., 2021). These fines are typically considered
waste material and may be dumped, leading to environmental
Exploration for clean and sustainable alternative forms of pollution. Fines may present wide ranging challenges such as
energy have been on an increase globally, especially the high flammability; air pollution, water pollution and soil
valorization of biomass to solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. degradation.
Current research has revealed that biomass energy conversion As a result of lack of access to electricity, majority of people
is one of the few verified, cost-effective and available in the developing world rely on traditional biomass as fuel for
technologies that can reduce CO2 emissions (Onchieku et al., heating and cooking (Rawat et al., 2022), with charcoal playing
2012). These investigations are based on the impacts on an increasingly important role. The production of briquettes
climate change triggered chiefly by the utilisation of fossil from charcoal fines and organic residues has been identified as
fuels. The need for renewable and clean sources, especially a viable and economical option to reduce the environmental
those from lignocellulosic biomass, has been ratified in every impact resulting from the disposal of these waste materials
environmental and global commitment (Dias Júnior et al., (Barasa et al., 2013). Briquetting has been widely implemented
2021; Miao et al., 2023). Charcoal, a renewable and sustainable to valorize fines, but the choice of binder is a critical factor in
source of energy, has shown great potential as an alternative ensuring the process is both environmentally benign and
feedstock for energy production (Heinimo & Junginger, 2009; economically viable. Briquetting involves mixing a binder with
Milano et al., 2016; Onchieku et al., 2012; Taibi et al., 2012). fine charcoal and forming the mixture into a cake or briquette
Charcoal is produced by means of heating wood or other in a press, which is then cured in a drying oven by driving out
biomass in the absence of oxygen. The handling and the water so that the briquette is firm enough to be used in the
transportation of charcoal often result in up to 20% losses as same way as a regular piece of charcoal (Kivumbi et al., 2021).
fines are produced, which are of low-purity and high-ash

Copyright © 2024 by Author/s and Licensed by Modestum DOO, Serbia. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which
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2/9 Chipangura et al. / European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 8(1), em0249

The type of binder used is critical since it should improve schweinfurthii) resin (Kivumbi et al., 2021). Such studies have
the binding strength and quality of the finished briquette reportedly produced briquettes with desirable bulk densities,
(Benk, 2010). A flammable binder is preferred, however a non- calorific values and other properties. Nevertheless, limited
combustible binder that is effective at low concentrations may research is available on the use of TFR as binders in the
also be appropriate. Starch, molasses, and oils are common fabrication of coal fine-based briquettes. Researchers have
briquette binders (Marreiro et al., 2021). The use of low-cost, assessed the compatibility between a plethora of binder and
locally accessible organic binders in briquette manufacture is raw biomass in testing the physical, chemical, mechanical, and
a promising alternative to synthetic resins (Idah et al., 2013). energy properties of the as-fabricated briquettes.
Various techniques have been used for briquetting and the Nevertheless, when charcoal fines are used, there is a need for
main setback in commercializing them is high binder cost and research intended at utilizing them effectively, since to
poor mechanical integrity (Miao et al., 2023). Numerous types agglomerate it with no binders is problematic (Dias Júnior et
of binders have been utilized in the literature to date, with al., 2021; Rawat & Kumar 2022). Thus, there is ample scope for
several possessing favorable adhesive properties such as study on the use of this cheap and locally available binder
biodegradable paper soaked in water, lignin, fibers, glycerin, judging by the ever-increasing concerns on the economics of
pitch, and plastics (Miao et al., 2023). Condensed tannins, briquettes fabrication and marketing. More studies are
oligomers of flavan-3-ol units derived mostly from black imperative to investigate the possibilities of using natural
wattle bark are used as a natural phenol alternative in binders in briquette manufacture, such as condensed tannins,
thermosetting resins such as adhesives (Miao et al., 2023; and their effect on the mechanical and thermal properties of
Venter et al., 2012). Previous studies have investigated the use the briquettes. In one study, phenolic resin was used as a
of condensed tannins as a binder in briquette manufacture, binder for the production of metallurgical grade briquettes
demonstrating that they have high binding characteristics and from coke breeze (Benk et al., 2008) with commercial phenol
can greatly improve the mechanical strength of the briquettes (95%) and formaldehyde (37% aqueous solution) as the main
(Radebe et al., 2013; Velenzuela et al., 2012). These materials raw materials and a catalyst was added to produce the resin
are a sustainable, cost-effective, and ecologically benign binder. In another study, phenol formaldehyde was utilized as
alternatives to synthetic resins in briquette production a binder to produce coal-based briquettes (Nag et al., 2017).
(Marreiro et al., 2021). The economic feasibility of briquetting The resins produced were thermosetting, a three-dimensional
lies in the fact that the total cost must be below or comparable polymer was formed upon heating, as a result of condensing a
to fossil fuel. Thus, the conversion of charcoal fines into phenol with a molar excess of formaldehyde in the presence of
briquettes with tannin-formaldehyde resin (TFR) as a binder a basic catalyst. TFR is a type of adhesive created by combining
offers a promising solution to the growing demand for tannin and formaldehyde through the addition of methylene
sustainable energy sources while minimizing waste and and methylene ether bridges between the tannin molecules,
improving process sustainability. TFR is an organic binder. resulting in the formation of a three-dimensional network of
These types of binders have several advantages like reduced crosslinked polymers that offer the resin’s adhesive
silica concentration in briquettes (Miao et al., 2023). It has capabilities (Amaral-Labat et al., 2013). TFR offers various
been observed that lowering silica levels can save energy and advantages as a binder (Hussein et al., 2011), it is a natural and
money (Alsaqoor et al., 2022). Furthermore, organic binders renewable resource that can be obtained through sustainable
have enhanced the porosity and reducibility of burned forestry techniques, is relatively inexpensive, and has good
briquettes giving them good bonding superior combustion bonding characteristics that improve the strength and
performance, high crush strength, extraordinary drop test longevity of the briquettes. Upon heating, the resin undergoes
strength, and low ash (Alsaqoor et al., 2022; Kivimbu et al., a gradual decomposition process, which generates volatile
2021). Such desirable properties have given motivation to this compounds that act as a fuel source, thereby enhancing the
study to explore the use of TFR as a binder for producing combustion performance of the briquette (Zhang et al., 2018a;
briquettes from charcoal fines. Zhou & Du, 2020). There is limited information on the use of
Several studies have been conducted, where several TFR a binder for the production of briquettes hence, the need
binders have been tested in the production of briquettes from to investigate its potential. The sticky nature of TFR is
diverse biomass such as rice husk/cassava peel gel, rice exploited for use as a binder. Tannin have been used in the
husk/banana peel, maize cob/cassava peel gel, maize production of phenolic adhesives (Zhou & Du, 2020) and due
cob/banana peel, groundnut shell/cassava peel gel, groundnut to its vast availability in Zimbabwe at the Wattle Company
shell/banana peel, sugarcane bagasse/cassava peel gel, plantations it was envisaged to be a cheaper resource to use as
sugarcane bagasse/banana peel (Abdulmalik et al., 2020; Idah a binder in charcoal fines briquetting.
et al., 2013; Miao et al., 2023; Rawat & Kumar 2022), coal fines/ Therefore, this study explored the use of TFR as a binder
sugarcane baggase binder (van der Westhuizen et al., 2023), using available technologies to valorise coal fines into
charcoal fines and schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum briquettes and produce a cleaner and sustainable alternative
(paricá) wood (Dias Júnior et al ., 2020), spent coffee form of energy that is cost-effective and reduces CO2
grounds/xanthan gum (Seco et al., 2019), coal fine-torrefied emissions. Furthermore, the study characterized the as-
wood/pitch (Adeleke et al., 2021), idigbo (terminalia ivorensis) synthesised briquettes, explored the impact on the mechanical
charcoal particles, pinewood pi (nus caribaea) sawdust/cassava and thermal properties of the as-fabricated briquettes.
peels (Ajimotokan et al., 2019), coal fines/polyacrylic binder Therefore, the fabrication of briquettes from charcoal fines
(Botha et al., 2021), coal fines-sawdust/molasses (Manyuchi et using tannin formaldehyde resin as a binder could be a novel
al., 2018), and charcoal fines/African elemi (canarium investigation.
 Chipangura et al. / European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 8(1), em0249 3/9

Figure 2. Manual briquettes press (Source: Authors’ own

elaboration)
Figure 1. Charcoal & charcoal fines at a local market (Source:
Authors’ own elaboration)

MATERIALS & METHODS

Materials

Charcoal fines were obtained from the local market and

tannin powder was obtained from the Wattle Company,
Mutare, Zimbabwe, whilst analytical grade formaldehyde (37%
w/w) and sodium hydroxide were obtained from sigma-aldrich.
Charcoal Fines Preparation
Figure 3. A sample of coal fines-based briquettes (Source:
Charcoal fines had a lot of sand as a result of poor handling
Authors’ own elaboration)
as it is merely considered for any meaningful use. The charcoal
was therefore cleaned first followed by screening using a 400
µm sieve and the larger particles further ground into fine 40 mm of a manual briquetting machine of weight 500 N
particles to increase binder-charcoal contact points as (Figure 2). This was then manually pressed for a constant time
recommended (Chaney, 2010; Kivumbi et al., 2021). A of five minutes before removing the briquettes from a tray
representative sample was produced and then thoroughly underneath the press for drying.
mixed to attain homogeneity. Figure 1 shows charcoal and After densification, the as-fabricated briquettes (Figure 3)
charcoal fines at a local market. were sun-dried for a week so as to remove the excess moisture
Binder Synthesis and improve briquette binding.

TFR binder was prepared using a method proposed in Briquettes Characterization

literature with ameliorations (Li et al., 2016). The synthesis of Fourier transform infra-red & thermogravimetric analyses
the tannin formaldehyde resin binder was done in an 800 ml briquettes characterization
borosilicate glass beaker equipped with a thermometer and a
magnetic stirrer. Wattle tannin (94 g) and 115 g of distilled The functional groups contained in the fuel were analyzed
water were mixed in a flask using a magnetic stirrer to attain using Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy. FTIR
homogeneity. After that, 31 g of sodium hydroxide solution (50 spectra was measured over 1,500-4,000 cm-1 in a resolution of
wt. %) were added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min at 4 cm-1 by means of a Nicolet 6700 Spectrometer
room temperature. Finally, 162 g of formaldehyde solution (Thermoscientific, SA) with 32 scans. Thermogravimetric
were added to produce a brown solution. The mixture was analyses (TGA) on the fuel were performed in air at a flow rate
gradually heated to 80 °C and the temperature maintained for of 50 mL/min and a heating rate of 10/min using TGA 550
an hour before quenching the reaction by submerging the flask instrument (Shimadzu, Japan)
in a cold-water bath (Kivumbu et al., 2021) Impact resistance index
Briquettes Production Impact resistance index (IRI) gives a measure on the
Binder-charcoal mixing ratios were varied so as to evaluate briquette durability. For IRI determination, the briquette was
the most appropriate binder concentration to use for briquette placed in a plastic bag and repeatedly dropped on a tiled floor
production. Binder ratio had four levels (B1=25%, B2=30%, from a height of two meters until the briquette fractured
B3=35%, and B4=40%) of the charcoal fines weight, making the (Bazargan et al., 2014). IRI was then calculated using Eq. (1).
ratio of charcoal fines: binder 3:1, 7:3, 13:7, and 3:2, 𝑛𝑑
respectively. Charcoal fines were added to the hot viscous
𝐼𝑅𝐼 =
𝑛𝑝
𝑥 100, (1)
binder and stirred manually for five minutes to produce a
homogenous mixture. A manual briquetting press was used for where 𝑛𝑑 is number of drops and 𝑛𝑝 is number of pieces.
densification by feeding 100 g of the charcoal-binder mixture
into each of cylindrical 16 dies of height 50 mm and diameter
4/9 Chipangura et al. / European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 8(1), em0249

Briquettes density determination

The desirability of the briquettes in terms of

transportation, handling, storage and burning time is
indicated by the density (Gilvari et al., 2019).
For density calculation, Eq. (2) was applied. Vernier
calipers were used to measure the dimensions (height and
diameter) of a pre-weighed cylindrical briquette.
𝑚
𝜌 = 𝜋(𝑑 2 )ℎ, (2)
4

where m is the mass of briquette, ρ is the briquette density, h

is the briquette height, and d is the briquette diameter.
Water resistance index determination Figure 4. FTIR spectra for briquettes (Source: Authors’ own
The briquette water resistance index (WRI) was determined elaboration)
through weighing a briquette and then placing it in a beaker
filled with a known volume of tap water at room temperature
and left for 30 minutes (Bazargan et al., 2014). The briquette Higher heating value determination
was then removed wiped and reweighed to calculate the The calorific value of the fuel was determined using a bomb
percentage water absorbed using the Eq. (3). calorimeter according to ASTM D240 standard (Sukarta et al.,
𝑤2 −𝑤1
2017). Higher heating value (HHV) of the briquettes was
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 (%) =
𝑤1
𝑥 100, (3) calculated from WBT results using a well-known method
(Sukarta et al., 2017) of calculating heat capacity. The energy
where 𝑤1 is the briquette weight before water submersion and required to boil one liter of water during the test was
𝑤2 is briquette weight after 30 minutes water immersion. WRI calculated using Eq. (7).
for the briquette was then calculated using Eq. (4) (Kpalo et al.,
2020). 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑞 ) = 𝑚 × 𝑐𝑝 × ∆𝑇, (7)

𝑊𝑅𝐼 = 100 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 (%). (4) where m is the mass of water in grams, 𝑐𝑝 is the specific heat
capacity of water (4.18 J/g °C) and ∆T is the change in
Water boiling tests temperature of the water in °C. With the mass of briquettes
used to produce this amount of energy deduced from WBT
Water boiling tests (WBTs) were determined by burning a results and the specific fuel consumption in g/L known, HHV
100 g briquette sample on a charcoal stove to assess the estimated by a method described by Sukarta et al. (2017).
combustibility of the fuel and the briquette binder ratio that
enabled faster cooking. One liter of water at room temperature
was boiled recording temperature at one-minute intervals DISCUSSION
(Onuegbu et al., 2011). The time taken for water to boil was
recorded. Eq. (5) was used to compute the specific fuel FTIR spectra of the fuel is important for determining the
consumption during WBT. functional groups in the briquets so as to elucidate the
distribution of pyrolysis products (Ngangyo Heya et al., 2022).
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = . (5) Figure 4 shows FTIR spectrum of the briquette samples. Some
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
widening vibrations bands ranging 1,060-1,200, 1,530-1,570,
3,300-3,400 cm-1 can be observed ascribed to stretching of C-
Ignition time
OH (phenolic and ethers), quinones, carboxylic acid, and
Briquette sample (100 g) briquette was ignited at the base alcohols, respectively (Nag et al., 2017). The presence of
in a drought free set up and the time taken for the flame to alcohols is indicated by the broad O-H stretching vibrations
ignite the briquette was recorded (Thulu et al., 2016). between 3,300 and 3,400 cm-1 (Nyakuma et al., 2014). The two
bands at 2,912 and 2,840 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H
Burning rate
vibrations found in the methyl (CH3) groups and methylene
Briquette samples (100 g) of different blends were burnt (CH2) groups (Ngangyo Heya et al., 2022; Nyakuma et al.,
recording time from ignition to flame extermination. The 2014). The presence of the carbonyl group (C=O) stretching
burning rate (BR) was calculated using Eq. (6) (Li et al., 2016). typical of carbonyl groups is displayed by the broad intensity
band between 1,490 and 1,710 cm-1 confirming the
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑(𝑔) formaldehyde group occurrence in TFR binder in briquettes
𝑊𝐵𝑅 = . (6)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠) (Nyakuma et al., 2014). The peak at 1,461 cm-1 is attributed to
the C-H deformation vibrations for alkenes (CH2) (Ngangyo
Heya et al., 2022; Nyakuma et al., 2014). Band between 1,000
and 1,300 cm-1 may be due to the presence of the ether groups
 Chipangura et al. / European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 8(1), em0249 5/9

Figure 5. TGA profile of coal fines-based briquettes (Source: Figure 6. Effect of binder concentration on IRI (Source:
Authors’ own elaboration) Authors’ own elaboration)

(Nyakuma et al., 2014) whilst peaks 768 and 683 cm-1 are
attributed to C-H bending vibrations (Yang et al., 2016).
The thermal stability determination of the briquettes was
accomplished using the TGA technique and is shown in Figure
5. The weight loss occurred in three stages with the initial of
about 6.12% is a result of surface water and light volatile
matter losses in the temperature range of 18.46-124.65 °C. A
second weight loss of 24.14% around 332.76 °C is associated
with the volatile matter degradation, as well as the
hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin portions (Kumar et al.,
2021; Raiaseenivasan et al., 2016).
A third loss in weight of 12.70% around 540.85 °C is
attributed to the remaining ash content (Kumar et al., 2021;
Raiaseenivasan et al., 2016). This suggests a high ash content
of volatiles in the briquettes, which may affect spontaneous
ignition. Similar results were reported in a study analysing Figure 7. Effect of binder concentration on bulk density
briquettes obtained from coal and pretreated wood fines, (Source: Authors’ own elaboration)
biomass and coal-fine waste, coal fines polymer binder and
saw dust briquette blending with neem powder, respectively increased IRI (Manyuchi et al., 2018; Sen et al., 2016).
(Adeleke et al., 2020; Balraj et al., 2021; Botha et al., 2021; Briquettes B35 and B40 met IRI value of 50 that was
Raiaseenivasan et al., 2016). This means ignition of these recommended in literature for commercial briquettes
briquettes takes place around 332.76 °C and beyond that there (Bazargan et al., 2014). This trend can be attributed to the fact
is less energy produced. Also, to produce a briquette with good that as amount of binder increases, briquette becomes more
mechanical integrity and a stable or improved combustion compact and less porous, which leads to a higher degree of
properties (ultimate, proximate, and calorific value) from bonding between charcoal particles (Manyuchi et al., 2018).
charcoal fines, curing should be around 332.76 °C (Adeleke et
al., 2020). Density

As depicted in Figure 7, the density of charcoal briquettes

Impact Resistance Index
bound by tannin formaldehyde resin generally increases with
IRI measures resistance to mechanical impact, which is increasing binder ratio. This is due to the fact that addition of
mainly encountered during transportation and handling of the more binder to the briquette enhances compaction and
briquettes. Figure 6 demonstrates IRI of the briquettes. IRI bonding between the charcoal particles, resulting in a denser
increased with increasing binder concentration because of and more homogeneous briquette. Such observation agrees
improved binding performance (Zhang et al., 2018a, 2018b). with reported density increases as the binder ratio increases
Briquette B25 fractured into 12-18 fragments on impact, with from 25% to 40% (Li et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2018b).
an IRI of 6.79 whilst briquette B30, with an IRI of 16.97, broke This pattern can be explained by the fact that when the binder
into four-12 pieces on the first/second impact. Briquettes B35 content increases, the briquette becomes more compact and
and B40 fractured into two-four pieces on the first and second less porous, resulting in a higher total density. A similar trend
impact, respectively, with IRIs of 60.00 and 73.33. These was reported previously by Adeleke et al. (2021). Moreover,
findings agree with previously reported results where it was these conform to a widely referenced report on properties of
discovered that increase in briquette density result in briquettes, most of the briquettes surpassed the 1.25-1.30
6/9 Chipangura et al. / European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 8(1), em0249

Figure 8. Effect of binder concentration on WRI (Source:

Figure 9. Effect of binder concentration on WBT (Source:
Authors’ own elaboration)
Authors’ own elaboration)

g/cm3 recommended for briquettes of strong quality (Adeleke

et al., 2021). Hence thee briquets are adequate for both
domestic and industrial applications.

Water Resistance Index

The evaluation of the briquettes’ water resistance results
are illustrated in Figure 8.
All of the briquettes had WRI values ranging from 99.24%
to 99.29%, which exceeded the recommended WRI of 95%
(Adeleke et al., 2021; Gilvari et al., 2019). This study’s
outstanding WRI can be attributable to the use of a binder that
is insoluble in water. The binder efficiently coated the charcoal
particles, forming a strong bonding and making the briquettes
more water resistant. It is worth noting that briquettes B25 and
B30 with a smaller amount of binder had a slightly lower WRI
due to the loose binding of the particles. As a result, some
Figure 10. Effect of binder concentration on ignition time
charcoal particles broke free during briquetting, reducing the
(Source: Authors’ own elaboration)
overall water resistance. These findings are consistent with
previous studies, where starch used as a binder for briquettes
made from palm kernel shell biochars exhibited a WRI of less (Nwaube et al., 2017), who used cassava starch as a binder to
than 50%, indicating a lower resistance to water absorption in create smokeless bio-coal briquettes from plastic trash. The
comparison to the briquettes in this study (Bazargan et al., ignition duration for the briquettes was 0.88-2.60 minutes,
2014). which was lower than that observed in this investigation. The
addition of biomass and plastic components in their study
Water Boiling Test contributed to the lower ignition time as compared to results
obtained in this study.
Figure 9 depicts the time taken to boil water. Briquettes
B30, B35, and B40 boiled water faster than briquette B25. Also,
because it contained more binder, briquette B40 boiled water Burning Rate
in the shortest time. But because briquette B25 had the least
quantity of binder and burned with white smoke at first, it took Briquette BR increase with increasing binder
a long time to boil water. concentration, owing to the higher volatile component of the
binder utilized. The greater chemical reactivity accelerates
Ignition Time ignition and enhances combustion efficiency (Lubwama &
The briquettes manufactured using TFR as a binder burned Yiga, 2018). In some study (Nwaube et al., 2017) it was
with a yellow flame emanating from burning volatile discovered that smokeless bio-coal briquettes containing
formaldehyde indicating simple ignition and a corresponding plastic trash burned at a rate of 1,300-3,800 g/min, whereas in
increase in flame length (Kivumbi et al., 2021). These findings this study the briquettes burned slowly with a range of (3.2-8.7
provide light on the combustion behavior of briquettes made g/min), requiring less frequent fuel loading of the cook burner
with TFR as a binder, emphasizing the significance of binder (Figure 11). These findings shed light on the combustion
concentration in the ignition process and the consequent behavior of briquettes made with TFR as a binder, emphasizing
flame color. The ignition time for the briquettes ranged from the importance of binder concentration in terms of BR and
5.38 to 6.21 minutes (Figure 10). Similar results were disclosed combustion efficiency. This also shows the potential of
 Chipangura et al. / European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 8(1), em0249 7/9

from several types of biomass residues, such as sawdust, rice

husk, and sugarcane bagasse, utilizing varied binder ratios and
processing conditions (Dias Júnior et al., 2020; Nagarajan &
Prakash, 2021; Tamilvanan, 2013). HHV values reported in the
study ranged from 25.7 to 30.5 MJ/kg, which are greater than
HHV values achieved in this investigation (19.7-23.23 MJ/kg).
These findings emphasize the need of selecting raw materials,
binders, and processing conditions carefully so as to optimize
the fuel properties and HHV of charcoal briquettes. It is worth
mentioning that differences in HHV levels observed in this
investigation and those obtained in other studies (Nagarajan
& Prakash, 2021; Tamilvanan, 2013) could be related to
variance in raw materials, processing conditions, and testing
methodologies used.

Figure 11. Effect of binder concentration on burning rate

(Source: Authors’ own elaboration) CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that charcoal briquettes had a low

moisture content of less than 5%, which contributed to their
smokeless combustion. Although the briquettes’ HHV was
lower than that of coal, which typically ranges from 25-30
MJ/kg, and higher than that of wood, which typically ranges
from 15-20 MJ/kg, the ecological impact of conventional solid
fuels such as coal and wood makes fine charcoal briquettes a
sustainable and efficient alternative for household use. Coal is
a nonrenewable fossil fuel with major environmental
consequences, whereas wood, is less dense and emits more ash
and smoke when burned. Charcoal briquettes, on the other
hand, have a similar HHV to coal and are a more
environmentally beneficial option than both coal and wood.
The findings also showed that using tannin formaldehyde resin
as a binder produced high-quality briquettes with appropriate
Figure 12. Effect of binder concentration on HHV (Source:
fuel characteristics. Furthermore, quantity of tannin in
Authors’ own elaboration)
Zimbabwe shows that the creation of charcoal briquettes could
be a viable and sustainable fuel production option. The study’s
briquettes as a sustainable and environmentally friendly findings provide important insights into potential of charcoal
alternative to traditional fuels, with a slower burning rate that briquettes as a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to
reduces the need for regular fuel loading and minimizes the traditional solid fuels, particularly for residential use.
environmental impact.
Author contributions: All co-authors were involved in all stages
of this study while preparing the final version. They all agree with
Higher Heating Value
the results and conclusions.
HHV is a key factor in determining the fuel value of Funding: No funding source is reported for this study.
charcoal briquettes. The findings, which are reported in Figure Declaration of interest: No conflict of interest is declared by the
12 show that HHV levels ranged from 19.76 to 23.23 MJ/kg. authors.
HHV of charcoal briquettes become more as the binder ratio Ethical statement: The authors stated that the study does not
increased from 25% to 40%. The briquettes with a binder ratio require ethics approval as it does not deal with humans or animals
of 40% had the greatest HHV of 23.23 MJ/kg, while the neither does it directly affect human social life.
briquettes with a binder ratio of 25% had the lowest value of Data sharing statement: Data supporting the findings and
17.76 MJ/kg. This trend can be attributed to greater binder conclusions are available upon request from corresponding
author.
ratios increasing briquette density and decreasing porosity,
which improves fuel characteristics and leads to an increase in
HHV. These findings imply that adjusting the binder ratio is a
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