GEOMORPHOLOGY

Geomorphology is devoted to the study of landforms, their evolution and related processes.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

• The whole 4.6-billion-year geological history of the
Earth is divided into a number of eons. Eons are
further divided into eras, eras into periods and
periods into epochs. Eons->Era->Periods->Epoch.
• Read the chapter, ‘The Origin and Evolution of the
Earth’ given in Fundamentals of Physical Geography.
• Archean- Lifeforms appeared on the surface of the
Earth in the form of unicellular organisms (Blue green
algae).
• Cambrian Explosion- The sudden spurt of life forms
on the surface of the Earth (marine invertebrates).
• Ordovician- Evolution of fish.
• Silurian- Evolution of plants (first trace of life on land).
• Devonian- Evolution of Amphibians.
• Carboniferous- Evolution of Reptiles.
• Mesozoic- Age of reptiles (Jurassic- Age of Dinosaurs).
• Cenozoic- Age of mammals.
• Pliocene- Early human ancestor.

• We had five extinction phases in the geological

history. Permian extinction was the largest in which
more than 90% of life forms got extinct. We are
probably living in the 6th and the largest extinction
phase.
• Anthropocene: A proposed new geological epoch to denote the present geological time in which
human activities have altered the conditions and processes on the surface of the Earth.

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

• Earth is not a monolith. It is layered and consists of series of concentric spheres.
• Since the interior of the Earth is not physically accessible, we are not yet sure about the precise
composition and structure of the Earth interior.
• But there are direct and indirect evidences about the interior of the Earth.
• There are many interpretations about the structure of the Earth’s interior and one of the earliest
was suggested by Eduard Suess, who considered the interior to be differentiated into SIAL, SIMA
and NIFE.
1. SIAL: Continents are made up of SIAL and is dominated by silica and aluminium.
2. SIMA: SIAL floats over SIMA, which is denser and has silica and magnesium as the main
constituents. Ocean floors are exposed SIMA layers.
3. NIFE: NIFE layer mainly consist of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe) and is the densest layer.

MODERN OR RECENT INTERPRETATION ABOUT THE EARTH’S INTERIOR

The recent interpretations divide the Earth’s interior into three layers: crust, mantle and core
based on seismic studies.
 CRUST
• The crust account for only 1% of the Earth’s volume and
0.5% of its mass. It is the lightest (density: 2–3) and the
thinnest layer of the Earth.
• The crust beneath the continental interiors is called the
continental crust which averages about 40 km in
thickness and oceanic crust averages only 5 km.
• The continental crust is mainly granitic and SIAL in
nature. The continental crust is lighter (density: 2–2.5)
and thicker (30–60 km) compared to the oceanic crust.
• The continental crust has two layers:
o The upper layer is FELSIC which is dominated by feldspar (a kind of aluminosilicate mineral)
and silica.
o The lower layer is MAFIC which is dominated by Magnesium and Iron.
o Conrad’s discontinuity is considered as the boundary between the two layers.
• The oceanic crust is mainly basaltic. It is also called as the SIMA layer and MAFIC layer. It is
heavier (density: 3–3.5) and thinner compared to continental crust.

MANTLE
• It is approximately 2900 km thick.
• It occupies 82.5% of Earth’s volume and 66% of its mass. It is further divided into:
1. Upper Mantle
2. Middle or Intermediate Mantle
3. Lower or Inner Mantle
• Mantle is rich in oxides and silicates of Iron and Magnesium (Ferromagnesium Silicates).
• The density of the mantle is higher than crust (density: 3.5–5.5).
• Within the mantle, the deep mantle portions have the highest density.
• The dividing line which separates the crust and mantle is called Mohorovicic or Moho
discontinuity.
• Birch/Repetti discontinuity separates middle mantle from deep mantle regions.

CORE
• The radius of the core is about 3500 km (3475 km).
• It accounts for 16% of Earth’s volume and 33% of its mass.
• Temperature inside the core is in the range of 3000–6650°C.
• The core is further divided into:
o Inner Core: It has the highest density (density 11–13.5). Despite the high temperature, the
inner core is in solid state because of the high-pressure conditions existing at the centre of
the Earth.
o Outer Core: It has a density in the range of 9–11 and it is in a molten state (plasma state).

DENSITY AND TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

• The density variations and the trend of increasing density through the interiors is not mainly
because of pressure but because of the rock and mineral composition, where the heavier metals
and minerals are concentrated at the core.
• There is no trend in temperature pattern as such through the interiors. For the first few
kilometers from the surface till about 100 km, there may be a distinct trend, but thereafter the
temperature pattern depends on the geophysical activities of the region.
• Locations of volcanic eruptions and active trenches can have temperature exceeding 1000°C
even at shallow depths.

ASTHENOSPHERE & LITHOSPHERE

• Below the Earth surface, from about 70 to 250
km is the asthenosphere, which is plastic or
soft in nature (‘astheno’ means weak). It is the
lower part of upper mantle.
• The average temperature is around 1300°C,
and this layer is susceptible to slow
convection currents of hot materials.
• It is generally believed that magma is formed
in the asthenosphere.
• The rigid layer above the asthenosphere is called lithosphere (cold, hard, brittle and lighter). It
includes the crust and brittle upper part of upper mantle.
• Since the asthenosphere is soft and plastic, the rigid lithosphere can easily move over it.

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
• Landform: It refers to the Earth’s surface configurations such as valleys, plateaus, plains etc.
• Landscape: It refers to the total assemblage of landforms in a given region.
• Structure: It refers to the details about the rocks of an area.
• Relief: It refers to differences in elevations on the Earth surface. The differences create features
called relief features.
• Topography: It refers to the Earth surface features including the relief, the soils, the vegetation
and all other features created in the landscape by human enterprise.

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
• The Earth is not a static body. It is highly dynamic and is undergoing continuous changes because
of processes operating within and outside the surface of the Earth.
• Endogenic and exogenic processes are collectively referred to as geomorphic processes.

EXOGENIC PROCESSES
• Exogenic processes are the action of outside agents like wind, glacier, river etc which are referred
to as exogenic forces.
• Exogenic forces are mainly land-wearing forces, i.e., they tend to decrease the relief.
• The relative terms are:
1. Weathering: Disintegration and decomposition of the rocks in-situ.
2. Erosion: The movement of weathered material primarily by agents like wind, river, glacier
etc.
3. Mass movement / Mass wasting: The movement of weathered material primarily because
of gravity. (e.g., landslides)
4. Deposition: Process where materials transported by agents of erosion are deposited.
 ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
• Endogenic processes are the processes operating within the Earth surface. They are generated
by internal forces called endogenic forces.
• Endogenic forces are mainly land-building forces, i.e., they tend to increase the surface relief.

ENDOGENIC MOVEMENTS
Classified into sudden and slow movements:
• Diastrophic Movements / Slow Movements
1. Epeirogenetic movements – Movements because of radial forces (up or down). These
movements lift or sink a continent.
§ Emergence / upwarping: radially upward movement.
§ Subsidence / downwarping: radially downward movement.
§ Warping refers to a slow deformation of a large area of the Earth surface because of
radial forces.
2. Orogenetic movements – Mountain building movements because of tangential forces.
§ Folding
§ Faulting
• Sudden Movements
1. Earthquake
2. Volcanic eruptions

FOLDING
• Folding refers to the buckling of the Earth surface. It is because of compression.
• Folding produces mountains called fold mountains. Fold mountains are also referred to as
mountains of elevation as they go to great heights.
• Folding depends on factors like strength of the force applied, strength of rocks etc.
• All types of rocks can undergo folding, though it gets manifested more clearly in sedimentary
rocks.
• Anticline and Syncline - An anticline is a fold in rocks that bends
upwards like an arch, and a syncline is a fold that bends downwards
like a trough.
• Geosyncline – Large sized syncline.
• Geoanticline – Large sized anticline.
• Axial Plane – An imaginary surface that divides the fold as
symmetrically as possible.
• Dip – Acute angle that a rock surface makes with a horizontal
plane.
• Strike – Line formed by intersection of a rock surface with a
horizontal plane.

Types of Folds
1. Symmetrical / Neutral folds – No limb is steeper than the
other.
2. Overturned fold – One limb is almost vertical.
3. Isoclinal folds – Two or more limbs are parallel.
4. Recumbent fold – One limb lies over the other limb.
5. Over thrust fold – On further increase in force, the recumbent fold may be sheared or sliced by
fault planes lying almost horizontally.
6. Nappe – Further increase in pressure leads to the forward movement of upper limb along the
plane of shearing.

FAULTING
• Fault refers to a fracture in rocks along which blocks of rock slip past each other.
• Faulting is primarily because of tension.
• Faulting can also take place because of extreme compression.
• Earthquakes are usually but not exclusively associated with faulting.

Types of Faults
1. Normal Fault – Formed when blocks of
rock slip straight down because of tension.
Also called dip-slip fault.
2. Reverse Fault – Formed when one block of
rock slides up over another rock because of
compression.
3. Thrust Fault / Over-thrust Fault – Reverse
fault with an angle of 45° or less.
4. Strike-slip Fault / Tear Fault / Wrench Fault / Transform Fault – Blocks of rocks slip sideways
past each other (along the strike).

Effects or Results of Faulting

1. Block Mountain / Horst
• Block of fault thrown up between normal faults.
• Creates huge higher plateau or mountain range.
• Examples: Sinai Desert (Egypt), Black Forest
(Germany), Ruwenzori (East Africa)

2. Rift Valleys / Graben

• Huge trough-shaped valley created by faulting.
• Floor of a rift valley is called Graben.
• Examples: Rhine Graben (Europe), Death Valley (California), East African Rift Valley

3. Fault-scarp / Cliff – High steep rock face formed as a result of faulting.

4. Slickensides – Striated and polished surfaces formed due to faulting.
5. Fault-Breccia – Rock fragments created because of faulting.
 THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
• The Continental Drift Theory was
proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 .
• According to Wegener, there existed a
supercontinent called Pangaea (meaning
"all earth"). Pangaea was surrounded by a
super ocean called Panthalassa (meaning
"all water").
• He argued that around 200 million years
ago (mid-Mesozoic), Pangaea broke up. At
first, it split into two large continents,
which were separated by the Tethys Sea:
1. The northern Laurasia (also called
Ankaraland). Laurasia consisted of present-day North America,
Europe, and Asia.
2. The southern Gondwanaland, which consisted of present day South
America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia, and Antarctica.
Subsequently, both Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break
apart and drift into the smaller continents that exist today. There is
evidence that suggest the existence of Pangaea:

1. The Matching of Continents (Jig saw fit): The shorelines

of Africa and South America facing each other have a
remarkable match.
2. Identical rock and mountain structures: The age of rocks
of both the coasts of Atlantic are identical. The
Appalachians’ rocks seem to continue through
Newfoundland into Greenland and into Pennines. The
Kjolen mountains seem to extent as the Scottish
Highlands.
3. Age of the ocean sediments: The earliest
marine deposits along the coastline of
South America and Africa are of the
Jurassic age. This suggests that the ocean
did not exist prior to that time.
4. Fossil evidence: The peculiar distribution
of some Mesozoic lifeforms was not
convincingly explained before Wegener. It
seemed improbable for the lifeforms to
have swum across and crossed the oceans.
5. Paleoclimatic evidence: Paleoclimatic
evidence refers to clues about past
climates preserved in geological and biological records, helping us to understand Earth's climatic
history and continental movements. Some notable anomalies in these records can only be
explained by the continental drift:
a) Present-day warm, humid, and tropical regions with their dense forests surprisingly lack coal
fields, while coal deposits are abundant in colder temperate and mid-latitude regions.

b) Additionally, evidence of ancient glacial activity has been found in tropical regions, such as the
glacial till in Durban, South Africa, and glacial striations in Talcher, Odisha, India.

Limitation of the continental drift theory

Wegener could not explain the forces which were driving the continents. The forces that he put
forward were:
1. Tidal force: because of the gravitational force exerted by the sun and the moon.
2. The pole-fleeing force: because of the rotation of Earth.
But these forces are too small to move continents which prompted the scientific community to
discard his theory. But his theory became the basis of the present-day plate tectonics theory.

CONVECTIONAL CURRENT HYPOTHESIS

• Arthur Holmes, in the 1920s, proposed that the Earth's mantle is a dynamic system, challenging
the earlier notion of it being static. He suggested the presence of molten material in the mantle
that circulates in the form of convection currents or cells.
• He proposed that convection currents in the mantle are the driving force behind the continental
drift. A proper driving mechanism had been lacking in Alfred Wegener's Continental Drift Theory,
leading to its initial rejection.
• Holmes emphasized the significance of endogenic processes in driving Earth's surface
dynamism, laying the groundwork for later theories, such as the Plate Tectonics Theory of the
1960s.

SEA FLOOR SPREADING HYPOTHESIS

Given by Harry Hess (assisted by Dietz). Based on extensive ocean floor surveys, they made some
observations:
1. Oceans are not featureless and flat and the most remarkable feature being the mid oceanic
ridge.
2. The ocean floor is nowhere older than mid-Mesozoic times and oceans become progressively
older away from the ridge.
3. There are trenches in ocean floor with high heat and thermal activity. There the sea mounts
and guyots seem to have deformed, crushed and broken.
Harry Hess explained these features using Arthur Holmes’ mantle convection current
hypothesis. Rift valleys and mid-oceanic ridge (MOR) systems with volcanic eruptions are
formed at locations where mantle convection currents ascend and diverge.
 Key principles of seafloor spreading
• At the locations of ascending and diverging mantle convection currents (sometimes referred as
mantle limbs), are the MOR systems with volcanic eruptions. The diverging currents stretch the
ocean floors apart forming the normal fault.
• With every subsequent eruption along the MOR, the older rocks are pushed apart because of
which the ocean floor has progressively increasing age away from the ridge.
• At the locations of descending mantle convection currents, trenches are formed, where the
ocean slabs are dragged into the mantle and destroyed.
• Thus, the ocean floor is both destructible and recyclable.

Evidences of seafloor spreading (self-read)

1. Paleomagnetic evidence (refer explainer
video): Paleomagnetism refers to the
preservation of magnetic properties in the older
rocks of the earth.
• As the lava cools to result in the formation of
igneous rock systems, it gets magnetized,
and the records are preserved. Newly formed
rocks are magnetized in the direction of existing geomagnetic field.
• The new oceanic crust is continuously formed along the mid oceanic ridges. The newly formed
layers are divided into alternating strips of positive and negative magnetic anomalies. The
rocks formed during normal geomagnetic field contained positive magnetic anomaly while
the rocks formed during reverse polarity (reverse geomagnetic field) denote negative
magnetic anomaly. This anomaly is because of the historic reversals in the geomagnetic field.
• Alternating magnetic stripes on the ocean floor, aligned symmetrically on either side of mid-
ocean ridges are considered as a major evidence for seafloor spreading.
2. Formation of MOR systems with volcanism and rift valley.
3. Age of oceanic crust: Ocean floor rocks are youngest at mid-ocean ridges and progressively older
farther away, consistent with new crust forming and spreading outward.
4. Heat patterns: Higher heat flow is recorded near mid-ocean ridges, where magma rises, and
decreases with distance from the ridges.
5. Destruction of features at trench: Underwater features such as sea mounts and guyots are
deformed, crushed and broken at trenches, where the ocean floors are destroyed.

PLATE TECTONICS
• It is the modern interpretation about the dynamism of interiors and that of the surface. It can
explain most of the processes and features of the Earth such as the formation of fold mountains,
volcanism, earthquakes, tsunami etc.
• Tectonics Theory revived the idea of moving continents, but its interpretations differed
significantly from those of the Continental Drift Theory of Alfred Wegener. Plate tectonics theory
was inspired by the Convection current hypothesis of Arthur Holmes and the Seafloor spreading
hypothesis of Harry Hess.
• The understanding of plate tectonics was based on the concept of lithosphere and
asthenosphere. The tectonic theory rejects the idea of SIALic continents floating over SIMAtic
oceans. Rather, the oceans and the continents as a part of the lithosphere are floating over the
semi-molten asthenosphere.
• Earth’s outer layer lithosphere (cold, hard and brittle) is not a continuous layer but is broken into
plates called lithospheric plates. The term ‘Plates’ was first used by Tuzo Wilson. Contributions
were also given by McKenzie and Parker.
• It is not the continents that moves as believed by Wegener. Continents are part of a plate and
what moves is the plate. The lithospheric plates may be entirely oceanic or continental, but
mostly are both. The science of lithospheric plate motion is called plate tectonics.

Important Plates
• The theory of plate tectonics identifies 7 major and 20 minor types of lithospheric plates.
• The major plates are- 1. North
American 2. South American 3.
African 4. Eurasian 5. Indo-
Australian 6. Antarctic 7. Pacific
• Important minor plates include-
1. Juan de Fuca 2. Cocos 3.
Caribbean 4. Nazca 5. Scotia 6.
Arabian 7. Philippines 8. Caroline
(North of New Guinea) 9. Fuji
(Northeastern side of Australia)

PLATE BOUNDARIES
The lithospheric plates while floating over the asthenosphere interact with one another and all
the features of the earth surface and the processes associated are essentially the consequences
of such interactions. Plate margins or boundaries are the most important parts as all tectonic
activities occur along the plate margins. Plate boundaries are of three types:
1. Divergent / Constructive / Accreting plate boundaries
2. Convergent / Destructive / Consuming plate boundaries
a. Ocean-Ocean collision
b. Ocean-Continent collision
c. Continent-Continent collision
3. Transform / Conservative plate boundaries

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Here the plates are moving away from each other. Divergent plate boundaries are created at the
locations of ascending and diverging mantle convection currents. This will result in tensile force.
They can happen under the ocean floor or under the continental crust region.
 Divergent boundaries under oceanic crust:
• If it happens under the ocean floor, it will result in seafloor spreading and MOR systems will be
created. If active, it will have volcanism and a rift valley (normal fault). It can also have transform
faults.
• Divergent boundaries are usually associated with continuous upwelling of lava. This lava spreads
on the adjacent ocean floors thus creating new ocean floor, hence the name constructive or
accreting plate boundary.

Divergent boundaries under continental crust:

• Most plate divergence occurs
along mid-oceanic ridges, but
if it happens under the
continental crust, then it will
break up the continents. An
example of divergence on a
continent is the East African
rift valley.
• Domal upliftment: The rising
magma from the
asthenosphere leads to
upwarping of the continental
crust and results in domal
upliftment (Example -
Ethiopian Highlands).
• Volcanism: Domal uplifts can cause cracks and localized volcanic eruptions, though these
phenomena are rare (Example – Erta Ale in Ethiopia).
• Rift valley: The rising magma would eventually diverge out and leads
to the narrowing of the continental crust. The faulting activity can
result in rift valleys, which can be filled with water over the years to
create rift valley lakes (Example – Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi
of Africa).
• Block mountains: In this phase, block mountains can be created by
the normal faults (due to tensile forces) (Example – Ruwenzori
mountains of Africa).
• Nascent ocean: The continental lithosphere will ultimately
completely break, and the two blocks will start to separate away. A
formation of young narrow nascent ocean (linear ocean) with ocean
floor can also be seen. (Example-Red Sea)
• Proper ocean: Eventually the nascent ocean will be converted into a proper ocean having a MOR
system at the ocean floor (Example – Atlantic Ocean). The Atlantic floor was formed when the
continent that included South America and Africa broke up and moved apart. The Pangea of
Wegener must have broken apart due to the development of such divergent boundaries.
 CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Here the two plates are moving towards each other and colliding. There are three types of
convergent plate boundaries:
1. Ocean-Ocean collision
2. Ocean-Continent collision
3. Continent-Continent collision

1. OCEAN-OCEAN COLLISION
Occurs when two oceanic plates are collided. The plate with the denser or larger oceanic crust
will subduct below the other plate. The process in which one plate is carried beneath another is
called subduction. As the subducting plate grinds downward, enormous friction is produced
which can create earthquakes in the region. The subducting plates will be dragged down towards
the mantle. This plate will be heated and its rocks will be melted in mantle.
Features of ocean-ocean collision
i. Trenches: Ocean trenches occur in
regions where the oceanic crust is
dragged downwards.
Example: Aleutian trench, Kurile
trench, Japanese trench, Mariana
trench, Philippine trench, Tonga trench,
Kermadec trench are all trenches in the
margins of Pacific ocean.
ii. Volcanic accumulations (Archipelago/
Island arc) : The melted sediments of the
subducted plate being less denser
compared to the mantle rocks begins to
rise and forms an island arc (a chain of
volcanoes paralleling the subduction
trench) on the overriding plate.
Example: The Aleutians, the Kuriles, the
Marianas, Japanese archipelago,
Philippine archipelago, Tonga-
Kermadec islands etc.

2. OCEAN-CONTINENT COLLISION
When oceanic crust collides with
continental crust, the oceanic crust, which is denser, is subducted beneath the less denser
continental crust. Since the continents are lighter, it will resist subduction into the mantle.
Features of ocean-ocean collision
i. Trenches: Ocean trenches occur in regions where the oceanic crust is dragged downwards.
Examples for O-C collision trenches include: Peru-Chile trench, Middle American trench etc.
ii. Fold Mountains: The subduction of the oceanic slab
will result in the accumulation of sediments on the
leading edge of the continents. When the sediments
are compressed and uplifted along the edges of
continents, the sediments contributes to the formation
of fold mountains.
Examples of such mountain ranges formed at
convergent plate margins include the Andes, Rockies, Cascade Range, Atlas, Great Dividing
Range, Kjolen Mountains. They are all on the periphery of continents. These mountain ranges
are referred as Andean type mountain ranges.
iii. Volcanoes: As the oceanic slab subducts into the mantle, it melts, generating magma that rises
to the overriding plate, forming volcanic peaks. Examples include Chimborazo, Cotopaxi,
Aconcagua, and Ojos del Salado in the Andes, as well as Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier
in the Cascade Range.
THE PACIFIC RING OF FIRE
• The Pacific margins with its active destructive earthquakes and volcanoes (about 80% of the
world) is referred to as ‘The Pacific Ring of Fire’, also called the ‘Circum- Pacific Belt of
Earthquake and Volcanoes’.
• It is created by lithospheric plate subductions associated with O-O and O-C convergence.
• It is a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean basin and stretches across 40,000 km,
encompassing regions like South America (Andes), North America (Cascade Range), Asia (Japan,
Philippines), and Oceania (New Zealand).

3. CONTINENT-CONTINENT COLLISION
Here, two continental crust lithospheric plates are colliding with each other. Due to their lighter
and buoyant nature, continental crusts resist subduction into the mantle. This results in two
continental crusts to collide and fuse, forming a larger unified landmass.
• Fold Mountains: Intense compressive forces during continent-continent collisions uplift
sediments, forming massive fold mountains, such as the Himalayas. Other examples include
Alps, Ural, Zagros and Elburz. (detailed mechanism of formation of Himalayas will be covered in
Indian Physiography)
• Since there are no longer subducting oceanic slabs, they lack active volcanism.
• In continent-continent collisions, one continental crust may override the other, resulting in a
doubling of crust effect. This process significantly contributes to the elevation of features such
as the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayan Mountain system.
• Intense compressive forces can create reverse faults and lead to the development of complex
structural formations, including isoclinal folds, overturned folds, recumbent folds, and nappe
structures.

THE PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

• The Pacific margins with its active destructive earthquakes and volcanoes (about 80% of the
world) is referred to as ‘The Pacific Ring of Fire’, also called the ‘Circum- Pacific Belt of
Earthquake and Volcanoes’.
• It is created by lithospheric plate subductions associated with O-O and O-C convergence.
• It is a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean basin and stretches across 40,000 km,
encompassing regions like South America (Andes), North America (Cascade Range), Asia (Japan,
Philippines), and Oceania (New Zealand).

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARY

• Here two plates are slipping past one another resulting in a parallel movement without plate
creation or destruction, hence they are also called conservative plate boundaries. The two plates
are in contact along a vertical fracture called transform fault.
• Example- The San Andreas fault in California, which is a part of the boundary between the North
American Plate and the Pacific Plate.
• The friction between the plates can result in earthquakes. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906
was created by an earthquake from the San Andreas fault.

Forces Driving Plate Movements

The driving mechanisms of plate tectonics can be scientifically explained through convection
cells and the process of seafloor spreading. There are three main forces that moves the plates:
1. Mantle drag force: The convective motion within the mantle generates a drag force that
moves the plates.
2. Ridge push force: This force arises from volcanic material accumulating at mid-ocean ridges,
pushing plates apart.
3. Slab pull force: A heavy subducting oceanic plate getting dragged into the mantle under its
own. Weight.