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About Island Press
Island Press is the only nonprofit organization in the United States whose principal
purpose is the publication of books on environmental issues and natural resource
management. We provide solutions-oriented information to professionals, public
officials, business and community leaders, and concerned citizens who are shaping
responses to environmental problems.
In 2001, Island Press celebrates its seventeenth anniversary as the leading
provider of timely and practical books that take a multidisciplinary approach to crit-
ical environmental concerns. Our growing list of titles reflects our commitment to
bringing the best of an expanding body of literature to the environmental community
throughout North America and the world.
Support for Island Press is provided by The Bullitt Foundation, The Mary Fla-
gler Cary Charitable Trust, The Nathan Cummings Foundation, Geraldine R.
Dodge Foundation, Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, The Charles Engelhard
Foundation, The Ford Foundation, The George Gund Foundation, The Vira I.
Heinz Endowment, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, W. Alton Jones
Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, The Andrew W.
Mellon Foundation, The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, The Curtis and Edith
Munson Foundation, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, The New-Land Foun-
dation, Oak Foundation, The Overbrook Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard
Foundation, The Pew Charitable Trusts, Rockefeller Brothers Fund, The Winslow
Foundation, and other generous donors.

About The Shire Conference


The Shire: John Yeon Preserve for Landscape Studies is a center coordinated by the
School of Architecture and Allied Arts at the University of Oregon for Pacific
Northwest landscape studies. It comprises seventy-five acres of land in Washington
along the waterfront of the Columbia River. The land was donated to the University
of Oregon in 1995 by the John Yeon Charitable Trust as part of a landmark endow-
ment. The property is a carefully designed landscape created by John Yeon
(1910–1994), a Pacific Northwest architect, designer, conservationist, and visionary.
Activities at The Shire support research and education that advances an understand-
ing and respect for the land and for design inspired by place. The first Shire Confer-
ence was held in 1998. The Shire Conference provides an academic and professional
meeting ground for professional designers, educators, and scholars to explore critical
issues of landscape architecture, preservation, education, and design plus the com-
panion issues surrounding our relationship to landscape, land use, and environmental
planning.
Ecology and Design
Ecology and Design
Frameworks for Learning

EDITED BY

Bart R. Johnson and


Kristina Hill

Washington • Covelo • London


Copyright © 2002 Island Press

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.


No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Avenue,
N.W., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20009.

ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of The Center for Resource Economics.

ISBN 1-55963-813-3

Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress and the


British Library.

Printed on recycled, acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America


10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is the first volume of The Shire Papers, developed from The Shire Con-
ference of 1998, in cooperation between Island Press and the University of Oregon.
We dedicate this book to She-Who-Watches.
May her example help us learn patience and
wisdom in how we treat the land.

Tsagaglalal, “She-Who-Watches,”
is a petroglyph design that “is only found on the
lower Columbia river area and has been securely dated to the
Historic period between A.D. 1700 and A.D. 1840. Legend
tells how Coyote placed Tsagaglalal on the rock to watch over
her people” (Rock Art Research Education 1989).
Contents

Foreword by David W. Orr xiii


Preface by Robert Z. Melnick xvii
Acknowledgments xxi

Chapter 1. Introduction: Toward Landscape Realism 1


Bart R. Johnson and Kristina Hill

PART I. THEORIES OF NATURE IN ECOLOGY AND


DESIGN 27
Chapter 2. The Authority of Nature: Conflict, Confusion, and
Renewal in Design, Planning, and Ecology 29
Anne Whiston Spirn
Chapter 3. Ecology’s New Paradigm: What Does It Offer
Designers and Planners? 51
H. Ronald Pulliam and Bart R. Johnson
Chapter 4. The Missing Catalyst: Design and Planning with
Ecology Roots 85
Richard T. T. Forman

PART II.PERSPECTIVES ON THEORY AND PRACTICE


111
Chapter 5. Lead or Fade into Obscurity: Can Landscape
Educators Ask and Answer Useful Questions
about Ecology? 113
Carolyn A. Adams
x contents

Chapter 6. What from Ecology Is Relevant to Design and


Planning? 133
James R. Karr
Chapter 7. Toward an Inclusive Concept of
Infrastructure 173
William E. Wenk
Chapter 8. Human Health and Design: An Essay in Two
Parts 191
One. Exquisite Communion: The Body, Landscape, and
Toxic Exposures 192
Sandra Steingraber
Two. Design and Planning as Healing
Arts: The Broader Context of Health
and Environment 203
Kristina Hill

PART III. EDUCATION FOR PRACTICE 215


Chapter 9. Ecological Science and Landscape Design:
A Necessary Relationship in Changing
Landscapes 217
Joan Iverson Nassauer
Chapter 10. On Teaching Ecological Principles to
Designers 231
Carl Steinitz
Chapter 11. Looking Beneath the Surface: Teaching a
Landscape Ethic 245
Michael Hough

PART IV. PRESCRIPTIONS FOR CHANGE 269


Chapter 12. In Expectation of Relationships: Centering
Theories around Ecological Understanding 271
Kristina Hill, Denis White, Miranda Maupin, Barbara Ryder,
James R. Karr, Kathryn Freemark, Rebecca Taylor, and
Sally Schauman
contents xi

Chapter 13. The Nature of Dialogue and the Dialogue


of Nature: Designers and Ecologists in
Collaboration 305
Bart R. Johnson, Janet Silbernagel, Mark Hostetler, April Mills,
Forster Ndubisi, Edward Fife, and MaryCarol Rossiter Hunter
Chapter 14. Interweaving Ecology in Design and Planning
Curricula 357
Ken Tamminga, Louise Mozingo, Donna Erickson, and John
Harrington
Chapter 15. Integrating Ecology “across” the Curriculum of
Landscape Architecture 397
Jack Ahern, Robert France, Michael Hough, Jon Burley, Wood
Turner, Stephan Schmidt, David Hulse, Julia Badenhope, and
Grant Jones
Chapter 16. Building Ecological Understandings in Design
Studio: A Repertoire for a Well-Crafted Learning
Experience 415
Kathy Poole, Susan Galatowitsch, Robert Grese,
Douglas Johnston, J. Timothy Keller, David Richey,
Lee R. Skabelund, Carl Steinitz, and Joan Woodward
Chapter 17. From Theory to Practice: Educational Outcomes
in the World of Professional Practice 473
René Senos, Carolyn A. Adams, Dean Apostol, and Jurgen Hess
Chapter 18. Conclusions: Frameworks for Learning 493
Kristina Hill and Bart R. Johnson

Notes on Primary Authors 503


List of Contributors 509
Index 513
Foreword

The editors of this volume propose a “deep reconceptualization” of landscape


design, planning, and land management oriented around standards of
“ecosystem health, biotic integrity, and cultural well-being.” Their purpose is
to explore the implications of that change for the education of landscape
designers and the design professions in general. Because of resistance from
one established interest or another, intellectual transformations of this kind
are very rare. The changes proposed in this volume, accordingly, are likely to
meet resistance within the design and planning fields not because they don’t
make sense, but because they run against the grain of academic fragmenta-
tion and our cultural proclivity to conquer by dividing. An education that
equips a new generation of practitioners to see landscapes realistically is one
that will equip them to see new and better possibilities for places and people.
The challenge and excitement revealed in the pages that follow lie in the pos-
sibility that we might tap the professional skills and moral energy of a new
breed of ecologically based landscape designers to heal, restore, and make
whole. What does this mean for professional education and for the design
professions?
It means, first, that education must equip such professionals with the
capacity to work effectively both within the academy and beyond. Despite
the rapid increase in numbers of journals, books, conferences, and advances
in the technology of geographic information systems, society has continued
to sprawl, pave, and pollute. Few educators have taken seriously the need to
equip a new generation for the kind of thoroughgoing transformation pro-
posed here. We will need a corps of ecologically grounded professionals with
wide-angle vision willing to risk a great deal, including their professional
standing. Some of these, hopefully soon, must emerge as “public intellectu-
als” able to convey complex ideas of land to a wider audience now largely
removed physically and emotionally from the landscapes in which they live.
In other words, to be effective, the “landscape realism” envisioned in this vol-
ume (Chapter 1, Chapter 18) must be embedded in a larger realism that

xiii
xiv foreword

enables a new generation of designers to deal creatively with the many inter-
ests indifferent to or threatened by the ideas of ecosystem health, biotic
integrity, and cultural health. But here, too, are new and creative possibilities
for rethinking the economic and political factors that affect landscapes.
It is unlikely, however, that the educational changes implied by landscape
realism can flourish without wider changes in the priorities of educational
institutions. In other words, there will be no revolution of the sort imagined
in these pages without a larger idea of education and the obligations that
attend professional training. For the transformation proposed here to take
root and flourish, the academy itself must be transformed into a more effec-
tive agent of ecological and cultural health, and no amount of “tweaking
around the margins” here will do either. But this is not the direction in which
education is heading. Instead, the academy is being reshaped to fit corporate
interests that have little understanding of land beyond its cash value. Not sur-
prisingly, a majority of students faithfully emulating the larger society now
have more interest in making money than in developing a moral worldview.
Educators must come to grips with the fact that they have been complicit in
the larger problems of land and land management. A good place to begin the
institutional transformation is to harness the talents and energies of faculty
and students to redesign their own campuses so that one day they are cli-
matically neutral, discharge no waste, enhance biological diversity, and sup-
port the emergence of locally sustainable economies. This means converting
the university from just a place where education happens to one that educates
ecologically. The campus, in its entirety, is a means to a larger end of improv-
ing how we think about land. No student ought to leave twelve or sixteen
years of education oblivious and unfeeling toward the land community. Can
design educators take a lead in such collaborative efforts to make their pro-
posals come alive in the settings in which they work?
Second, we will need a larger idea of the land and our place in it—some-
thing like the “science of land” that Aldo Leopold once proposed—an idea
big enough to embrace farmland, wilderness, urban areas, and that every-
where and nowhere zone called suburbia. That larger vision of land must
include the entire biotic community, it must protect evolutionary processes,
and it must work for people as the foundation for a fair and durable prosper-
ity. We need as well a larger idea of design in which human intentions are
informed by ecological realism and disciplined by a competent affection for
particular places. How will these ideas be manifested in practice? The best
example I can offer is that given by Jaquetta Hawkes, who once described the
evolution of human life on the land in preindustrial Britain as a “creative,
patient and increasingly skillful love-making” (1951, p. 202).
Third, ideas alone will find no fertile ground unless accompanied by a rev-
olution in public attitudes, but few people are paying attention to fundamen-
foreword xv

tal things implied by landscape realism. That larger transformation will


require educating the public to understand land issues and to respect and care
deeply about the land—a marriage of competence and affection. This would
be considerably easier if many or most adults had as children “soaked in” a
place, as Paul Shepard once put it. All too often, however, the young, in
Thomas Berry’s words, are initiated into “an economic order based on
exploitation of the natural life systems of the planet” (1999, p. 15). The result
is a kind of “soul deprivation that diminishes the deepest of their human
experiences” (p. 82). Deprivation of this sort also means that there is no emo-
tional peg in the mind on which the adult can later hang the important facts
about the land and land health. People are not inclined to care much about
what they have not first come to love, and the romance with land must begin
early in the small and safe places of childhood. For landscape professionals
the challenge of creating a new public aesthetic is, in part, a practical one of
helping to design and create the kinds of places and communities that
instruct by exhibiting the elements of landscape realism.
Finally, after all of the reconceptualizing and educating is done, it remains
to transform the larger political and economic forces that will impede the
advance of landscape realism. The people who strip-mine, clear-cut, pave,
and poison the land are hard at work and they don’t give a damn about deep
reconceptualizations or any other ideas beyond those accruing to their pecu-
niary advantage. They will lobby, advertise, and spend millions to preserve
their ability to do what they’ve done all along. They are supported by a judi-
cial system that perversely defines the corporation as a person while failing to
grant legal standing to land, ecosystems, or future generations. It would be
difficult to imagine a more mischievous way to organize human affairs. The
upshot is that landscape realists must reckon with issues having to do with
who owns how much land and by what terms and tenure, and must help
define and elevate a public dialogue surrounding issues at the confluence of
ecology, politics, ethics, and economics. Too often that dialogue has bogged
down in the dreary defense of exaggerated ownership rights stripped of obli-
gations. Someday we may arrive at a more sane and sustainable relation with
the land in which land ownership is widely distributed and regarded as a
sacred trust (Freyfogle 1998).
Challenges and obstacles notwithstanding, a revolution in human atti-
tudes toward land and nature has already begun to gather considerable
momentum. Looking back from a century or more hence, that revolution will
appear as a kind of ecological enlightenment beginning with the likes of
Henry David Thoreau, George Perkins Marsh, Frederick Law Olmsted, Jens
Jensen, Rachel Carson, Aldo Leopold, John Lyle, and Ian McHarg. It is now
a global movement. And like that of the eighteenth century, it will be incom-
pletely realized and full of surprises and paradox. But it will fundamentally
xvi foreword

change how humans engage the land. Landscape realism—taking nature on


its terms, not ours—is the bedrock upon which that enlightenment must pro-
ceed. It will require seeing nature and ourselves as co-evolving partners, not
as servant and master. It is not too much to say that the fate of humankind
hangs on this simple but profound change in perception and behavior. This
collection of essays and the work of the scholars represented here are impor-
tant as a landmark in that transformation.

DAVID W. ORR
Chair, Environmental Studies Program, Oberlin College

Citations
Berry, T. 1999. The great work. Bell Tower, New York, New York, USA.
Freyfogle, E. 1998. Bounded people, boundless lands. Island Press, Washington,
D.C., USA.
Hawkes, J. 1951. A land. Random House, New York, New York, USA.
Preface

Along the grand Columbia River, which joins together Washington and Ore-
gon, there is a place of remarkable beauty within the majestic landscape of the
Columbia Gorge and the Columbia River Basin. This place—The Shire—75
acres of designed and wild landscape, was a gift in 1995 to the School of
Architecture and Allied Arts, University of Oregon, by the trustees of the
estate of John Yeon. John Yeon (1910–1994) was an architect, designer, envi-
ronmentalist, visionary, and fierce advocate for beauty in our everyday world.
Throughout his life, he held fast to his beliefs of what was right for architec-
ture, the decorative arts, and protection of our landscape heritage. These
ideals lead him to save, protect, and enhance The Shire, through enlightened
stewardship and elegant design.
As a member of a long-standing Oregon family, Yeon understood well
both the natural and cultural values of the Gorge and its importance to both
Washington and Oregon and to the people who live there. He understood
that this powerful, often unforgiving, landscape was of national importance.
He knew that the Columbia Gorge was a landscape to be savored, revered,
treasured—and vigilantly protected and guarded.
The breadth of John Yeon’s vision cut across disciplines. His love for the
land, and for design attuned to the spirit of places, has left a legacy that
reaches from the protection of the Columbia Gorge and the establishment of
Olympic National Park to the development of a regional architecture. Yeon
himself designed a number of critically acclaimed and style-setting houses in
Portland and elsewhere in the West. The Watzek House (1937), his best-
known design, was recognized in an exhibit of important architecture by the
Museum of Modern Art in 1939, and again in 1944 as part of the Built in the
USA, 1932–1944 publication. The Watzek House, too, was gifted to the Uni-
versity of Oregon by Richard L. Brown, one of the trustees of the Yeon Trust.
John Yeon purchased The Shire in 1965. His intent was to conserve the
land and to create a personal landscape preserve. From then until his death
in 1994, Yeon created a landscape of both designed and natural features. In

xvii
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