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Tantra and Modern Neurosciences: Is there any Correlation?

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DOI: 10.4103/0028-3886.271263

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Tantra and Modern Neurosciences: Is
there any Correlation?
Anand Venkatraman1, Rajarshi Nandy2, Shyam Sudarshan Rao3,
Darshan Hemendra Mehta4,5, Anand Viswanathan6, Rama Jayasundar7

Website:
www.neurologyindia.com
Abstract:
DOI: Background and Aims: Many studies have conclusively proven that meditative techniques derived from
10.4103/0028-3886.271263 the Indian systems of philosophy, meditation and ritual classified as “Tantra” can bring about sustained
changes in the structure and function of the nervous system of practitioners. The aim of this study is to provide
PMID:
xxxx
neuroscientists a framework through which to interpret Tantra, and thereby provide a foundation upon which
future interdisciplinary study can be built.
Methods: We juxtapose Tantric concepts such as the subtle body, nadis and mantras with relevant
1
Department neuroscientific findings. Our premise is that through sustained internalization of attention, Tantric practitioners
of Neurology, were able to identify and document subtle changes in their field of awareness, which usually do not cross the
Massachusetts General threshold to come into our perception.
Hospital/Brigham and Results: The descriptions left by Tantric philosophers are often detailed and empirical, but they are about
Women’s Hospital/ subjective phenomena, rather than external objects. They also focus on individual experiences, rather than
Harvard Medical School, the group‑level analyses favored by modern medical science.
Boston, Massachusetts, Conclusion: Systematic exploration of Tantric texts can be of tremendous value in expanding our understanding
USA, 2Founder, of human beings’ experiential reality, by enabling us to build bridges between first‑person and third‑person
Adhyatmikta, New Delhi, approaches to the nervous system. This may open up new avenues for cognitive enhancement and treating
India, 3Department neurological diseases.
of Neurology, Brown Key Words:
University Medical Center, Buddhism, Hinduism, interoception, mantra, meditation, neuroscience, subtle body, tantra
Providence, Rhode
Island, 4Benson-Henry
Key Message:
Institute for Mind Body
Medicine, Massachusetts Tantra, an umbrella term for various traditions emanating from Shaivite-Shakta traditions of Hinduism,
contains insights that may be of relevance to neuroscientists. A systematic analysis of Tantric texts using
General Hospital, 5Osher
a framework based in modern neuroscience may help bridge first-person and third-person analyses of
Center for Integrative neurological functioning.
Medicine, Brigham
and Women’s Hospital
and Harvard Medical
School, 6Department H istorical narratives in neurology generally
trace the origins of the field entirely to the
European scientific tradition.[1] However, such
attempts at bridging the gaps between these
systems and modern medicine, with the aim
of discovering new approaches to health
of Neurology,
Massachusetts General narratives gloss over important contributions promotion and disease management. Among
Hospital/Harvard Medical from other parts of the world. For example, the Indian traditions, significant attention has been
School, Boston, MA, discovery of cocaine as the first local anesthetic focused on Hatha Yoga and Ayurveda.[4] Much
USA, 7Department was based upon the use of coca leaves for of the work on Yoga as alternative medicine
of Nuclear Magnetic numbing skin by Native Americans. The centers around its effectiveness in addressing
Resonance, All India antimalarial Artemisinin was extracted from an lifestyle diseases [5] and in examining the
Institute of herb prescribed for fevers in Traditional Chinese neurophysiological impact of Yogic breathing
Medical Sciences, Medicine.[2,3] and postures.[6] Current research in Ayurveda,
New Delhi, India on the other hand, is focused on clinical trials
Many of these non‑European traditional involving supplements and pharmaceuticals,[7,8]
Address for medical systems continue to be practiced today, documenting its use across the world[9] and
correspondence: but usually in parallel to, and separate from, on providing theoretical and experimental
Dr. Anand Venkatraman, modern medicine. There have been ongoing validation of its concepts from a modern
Department of Neurology, scientific perspective.[10,11]
Massachusetts General
Hospital/Brigham and This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms
Women’s Hospital/Harvard of the Creative Commons Attribution‑NonCommercial‑ShareAlike 4.0
How to cite this article: Venkatraman A, Nandy R,
Medical School, Boston, License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work
non‑commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new Rao SS, Mehta DH, Viswanathan A, Jayasundar R.
Massachusetts, USA. Tantra and Modern Neurosciences: Is there any
creations are licensed under the identical terms.
E‑mail: anandv123@ Correlation?. Neurol India 2019;67:1188-93.
gmail.com For reprints contact: [email protected]

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Venkatraman, et al.: Tantra and neuroscience

Alongside these two major channels, a small but steadily Being’, the touching or bodily felt awareness of the Pulsating Heart
growing interest has developed among neuroscientists in the (of consciousness).” While multiple terms were used to describe
Indian systems of philosophy, ritual and meditation collectively these internally‑perceived sensations of embodiment,[20,21] here,
known as ‘Tantra’. The initial impetus for this was provided by we choose to discuss all of them under the heading of subtle
the study of transcendental meditation,[12] Kundalini Yoga,[13] body for ease of understanding.
Tibetan Buddhism[14] and related Tantra‑derived practices. Many
current and historical Tantric schools held that the exploration Loizzo, in an exhaustive interdisciplinary review, [22] has
of one’s mind and subjective experiences was essential to gain suggested that the subtle body represents an “interoceptive
a full understanding of consciousness, which was considered map” of the nervous system. Interoception can be broadly
the ultimate reality.[15] However, it was felt that any attempt to thought of as encompassing afferent signals about the state of
reduce ultimate reality to words, categories and conventional the body through neural, immune and endocrine channels, the
logic would always end in paradox[16] ‑ instead bodily and mental neural encoding and integration of this information, the influence
techniques such as breathing, visualization, postures (asana), of this information on other perceptions, and the psychological
gestures (mudra) and chanting (mantra) were recommended. expression of these changes as presented to our consciousness.[23]
An interoceptive ma therefore would be something similar to
This focus on mind and body is where we believe the overlap the somatosensory homunculus [Figure 1a and b],[24] but more
with neuroscience arose. The main point of distinction from comprehensive. It would incorporate internal sensations, such
European‑derived modern neuroscience is that when a modern as those arising from heartbeat and lung expansion as well as
neuroscientist describes a certain structure, he or she usually other modalities such as taste and vision [Figure 1c].
means that one can find it when dissecting a cadaver. When
a Tantra practitioner describes something, on the other hand, Some suggestive evidence from the nascent neuroscience
he usually means it can be sensed within yourself, through the literature on interoception supports our hypothesis that it is
inward direction of attention. relevant to understanding the Tantric subtle body. Interoceptive
ability is not evenly distributed across all humans,[25] but it can
In this paper, we discuss four important Tantric ideas that we be modulated by specific forms of meditative training,[26,27]
believe have relevant correlations in neuroscience. which is consistent with the claim that the subtle body can
only be detected by people who have honed their perceptual
The Subtle Body and Interoception apparatus. Interoceptive sensation from the viscera is carried
primarily by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves, and in the
The Tantrics, like most other Indian traditions, distinguished various segments of the anterolateral system. In the brainstem,
between the gross and subtle realms. The physical body that interoceptive visceral‑sensory pathways run through the
one could touch and see was the gross body; the subtle body nucleus of the tractus solitarius, the parabrachial nucleus and
was something else, something that was perceived internally. other structures of the reticular formation, and finally project to
The subtler aspects of reality were not readily apparent to the insula and other cortical sensory areas.[28] It is notable that
most people; instead, the careful cultivation of concentrated the reticular formation and the insular cortex are postulated to
attention and maintenance of a clear mind were essential to be closely associated with the maintenance of consciousness[29]
detect them.[17] The writings of Abhinavagupta (c. 10th century and the creation of a coherent sense of “I am”,[30] respectively.
AD), the foremost representative of a school of Hindu Tantra,
now referred to as Kashmir Shaivism,[18] are good examples of The Nadi and Chakra Systems
the importance assigned to internal bodily sensory signals in
Tantric thought. Skora[19] notes that “the central act of salvation for Based on the information derived from their close study of
Abhinavagupta was understood precisely as the ‘body’s recollection of bodily sensations, the Tantric philosophers described channels

a b c
Figure 1: (a) The human somatosensory cortex, in coronal section, based on an illustration from.[73] The body parts sketched alongside depict the source of the sensory
inputs conveyed to that particular zone. (b) An approximation of the human somatosensory homunculus, based on an illustration from[24] ‑ each body part is resized according
to the amount of cortical territory devoted to processing signals from it. (c) Multiple other forms of sensory input go into creating the “brain’s‑eye view” of the body; it is
possible that Tantric concepts of the subtle body are based on such multi‑modality maps

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Venkatraman, et al.: Tantra and neuroscience

in the subtle body, which they termed nadis. Two nadis is also evidence for cycling between left and right nostril
were particularly important, running from the anogenital dominance through the course of the day, which may represent
region to the head [Figure 2a]. The Ida nadi was the cooling, an ultradian rhythm controlled through the hypothalamus.[13]
calming, “lunar” nadi, while the Pingala nadi was the hot, There is also evidence linking the parasympathetic nervous
“solar”, activating nadi. Tantric texts recommended inhaling system to the default mode network, involved in self‑related
through one nostril at a time to differentially activate these processing and mind wandering, while the sympathetic
two nadis – the left nostril for the Ida and the right for the nervous system is linked to executive and salience‑processing
Pingala.[31,32] networks.[38] This may be of relevance to the statements in the
Tantras which recommend different activities according to
The Ida and Pingala nadis were reported to cycle in dominance whichever nadi is dominant at that time.
multiple times through the day.[13] Periods of Ida dominance
were recommended for activities such as establishing peace, Over the last two centuries, multiple attempts have been
tasks requiring mental creativity, and learning. Periods of made to link the chakras to anatomical structures such as
Pingala dominance were suitable for performing physical specific nervous plexuses.[39] In our opinion, these efforts
activity and exercise, violent acts in war, and for outstanding are not likely to be fruitful, since chakras were subtle body
achievements that required dynamism and versatility.[33,34] structures, perceived within oneself – and not something to
Apart from the Ida and Pingala nadis, the texts also describe a be detected on cadavers. However, over the last few decades,
third major nadi, named Sushumna, that ran in the midline,[15] increasing evidence has been found to support the idea that
but we choose to leave it out of this discussion for the autonomic nervous system activity in particular areas of the
time being. body, centered around particular organ systems, is closely
linked to mental states and personality. For instance, the tone
Alongside the nadis, Tantric texts also described structures of the rectum and anus in one study on patients with Irritable
termed chakras within the subtle body. Standard lists mention Bowel syndrome predicted the reactivity of patients’ brains to
seven chakras,[15] arranged along the midline in a vertical emotional words.[40,41] Some other reports support a connection
line, starting from the anogenital area to the top of the head between the nervous control of the heart and social behavior,
[Figure 2b]. This seven‑chakra system is not the only model, particularly with the degree of interpersonal hostility. [42,43]
nor is it fixed. It is merely the most commonly encountered Conversely, advanced practitioners of yoga and Tantra have
one in the Hindu Tantric corpus.[35,36] shown the ability to exert conscious control over what are
thought to be “autonomic” functions such as pulse and heart
When judged from a European‑derived neuroscientific rate variability.[44‑46] Based on these findings, it is prudent to
perspective, the functions of the Ida and Pingala nadis bear a keep open the possibility that the chakras represent some
strong resemblance to the descriptions of the parasympathetic experiential aspects of neurological functioning.
and sympathetic nervous systems.[37] Interestingly, there is
some evidence in the neuroscience literature that uninostril The Stages of Speech Production
breathing can indeed lead to changes in autonomic function,
with the left nostril more likely to cause calming effects, and The Tantric understanding of speech is the same as that of most
the right nostril activating sympathetic effects.[31,32] There other Hindu traditions and organizes speech production into
four stages [Table 1].[47,48] The most gross was the form which
was heard through the ear, termed Vaikhari. It involved moving
the organs of voice production in a coordinated way. Subtler
than this was Madhyama – this was speech at the level of mind
and memory, where the task was to select the appropriate
words and arrange them in grammatical order. Subtler still
was Pashyanti, which was at the level of motivation, and
therefore, non‑verbal. This might be just a visualization or
feeling of what needs to be said, without sequencing in time,
and undifferentiated. The most subtle was the unmanifest
Para, the root consciousness which underlay everything else.
Vocalization thus unfolded in a sequence, beginning with the
most subtle Para stage, progressively becoming less subtle until
it manifested from the throat outwards grossly as Vaikhari.

There is some precedent for such introspection‑based analysis

of “inner speech” in early modern Europe, which is the basis
a b
for several lines of scientific research today.[49‑51] Though there
Figure 2: (a) The standard conception of the three main nadis within the Tantric is no clear evidence that Indian tradition had anything akin
subtle body. The dotted line represents the Ida, the arrow line the Pingala, and the to the deep neuroanatomical knowledge that developed in
thick line in the middle, the Sushumna. (b) One of the most widely‑used chakra
Europe over the last 200 years, some connections can be made
systems within the subtle body, as described in the Hindu Tantras. From the base
of the spine upwards are located the Muladhara, Svadhisthana, Manipura, Anahata, between these stages and modern concepts derived from
Visuddhi, Ajna, and the Sahasrara. Each chakra has a syllable associated with aphasia research. One can see clear correlates between a deficit
it (written in Devanagari script), and is visualized as having varying numbers of in Vaikhari and conditions such as dysarthria and apraxia of
petals. Figures based on descriptions in[35] speech. A deficit in Madhyama might be similar to that seen in

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Venkatraman, et al.: Tantra and neuroscience

Table 1: Parallels between Tantric conceptions of the stages of speech and modern neuroscientific concepts
Level Tantric term Characteristics When deficient, might be akin to
Most gross Vaikhari The speech which is heard by others, created by moving the Dysarthria, Apraxia of speech
tongue and voice production organs
Madhyama At the level of mind and memory, selecting the appropriate Expressive aphasia
words and arranging them grammatically
Pashyanti Motivational level, nonverbal, undifferentiated, without Abulia, Akinetic mutism
sequencing in time, may only be visualizations or feelings
Most Subtle Para Unmanifest Coma, Brain death; some argue there is no
condition where Para is absent[52]

expressive aphasia. An individual with akinetic mutism from

mesial frontal injury might represent a deficit of Pashyanti.
Coma and brain death might correlate with an absence of Para,
if we equate it to individual consciousness, though it has been
argued that a traditionalist would say there is no state in which
Para is absent since it is something beyond this world.[52]

There is fascinating EEG and fMRI research on the physiological

changes that happen in the brain prior to the production of
speech, which might allow for a fuller exploration of this
correspondence. When a subject is shown a picture and
asked to name them out loud, lexical selection appears to
occur after 200 ms, phonological encoding between 275 and
400 ms, and morphological processing starts after 350 ms.[53]
1‑1.5 seconds before speech is produced, a “readiness” potential
is demonstrable on EEG, which is thought to be the time when
the decision to speak has been made, which might correlate
with motivational processes.[54] Figure 3: Examples of “Bija” or seed mantras, some of which are described in.[74]
These are usually single syllables, without any clear semantic meaning in Indian
languages
Mantra

Almost all Tantric schools paid significant attention to mantras, prosody networks might need to be investigated to decipher
especially “Bija mantras”.[55,56] Mantras were collections of their effects.
syllables, which in the traditional understanding represented
a certain deity or archetype. Bija mantras, literally “seed” Introspective practices are not all the same
mantras, are usually single‑syllable sounds without clear The vast diversity of meditative and introspective traditions
semantic meaning [Figure 3]. Traditionally, it was believed makes it difficult to extrapolate from the limited literature
that with sufficient repetition, mantras could bring about that we have currently. Wynne[68] theorized that Buddhist and
various changes, such as enhancing one’s meditative abilities Hindu meditative practices would have different effects on
or improve one’s circumstances in life.[57] brain structure, based on the differences in the metaphysics and
goals that underlay the two traditions. Evidence in support of
It has been established that Sanskrit mantra repetition can this was provided by a meta‑analysis of imaging studies from
induce brain changes.[58] Indeed, much of the literature on Tomasino et al.,[69] whose authors suggested that Buddhist
Transcendental Meditation (TM) is an investigation of the mindfulness practices act on executive attention networks
impact of mantra repetition.[59,60] There is evidence from in the frontal lobe, while the Hindu practices affect parietal,
functional MRI[61] and EEG studies[62,63] that brain activity temporal and cingulate areas involved in autonomic control,
changes during TM practice. Some EEG differences have self‑related processing, bodily sensation and visualization.
been found to persist even during sleep, indicating that these The effects of Tantric meditative practices on resting state and
changes are not necessarily transient.[64] Another study showed
task‑positive networks may also be different from what we
lowered breathing rates, lowered skin conductance and
have seen from studies of mindfulness,[70] which is important
increased respiratory sinus arrhythmia during TM sessions,
because most modern Hindu meditative practices show
suggesting the sessions rapidly induced state changes in the
autonomic nervous system.[65] At this time, what these brain significant Tantric influences.
changes mean and how they affect the individual are still to
be understood in full. Some preliminary evidence suggests Conclusion
that the neurochemical asymmetries in the brain induced by
mantra chanting are language‑dependent,[66,67] but further In this brief review, we have discussed some ways in which
research is needed to resolve this question in its entirety. Tantra, an umbrella term for a collection of Indian philosophies
Given that Bija mantras are just sounds without any semantic and rituals emanating from the Shaivite‑Shakta traditions[71,72]
meaning, it is possible that their primary target was not the of Hinduism, can be analyzed from a modern neuroscientific
language networks. The role of auditory, vocalization and perspective.
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Venkatraman, et al.: Tantra and neuroscience

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Neurology India | Volume 67 | Issue 5 | September-October 2019 1193

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