Index

1. Ancient Indian History......................................................................................1

2. Prehistoric Period in India..................................................................................2
3. Chalcolithic age...............................................................................................5
4. Iron Age in India..............................................................................................6
5. Megalithic culture in India.................................................................................7
6. Indus Valley Civilization...................................................................................8
7. Vedic Period......................................................................................................11
8. Mahajanapadas................................................................................................15
9. Rise of Magadh...............................................................................................17
10. Maurya Dynasty..............................................................................................19
11. Shunga Dynasty.................................................................................................22
12. Kanva Dynasty...............................................................................................24
13. Chedi Dynasty.................................................................................................26
14. Satavahana Dynasty........................................................................................28
15. Indo-Greek, Sakas and Parthians....................................................................31
16. The Kushanas.................................................................................................25
17. Sangam Age...................................................................................................39
18. Gupta Dynasty...............................................................................................42
19. Pushyabhuti Dynasty........................................................................................46
20. Chalukyas of Badami.....................................................................................48
21. Pallavas of Kanchi............................................................................................51
22. Foreign Travellers............................................................................................54
23. Pala Dynasty.....................................................................................................57
24. Rashtrakuta Dynasty........................................................................................60
25. Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty...............................................................................63
26. Chola Dynasty..................................................................................................65
27. Kakatiya Dynasty...........................................................................................68
28. Yadavas Dynasty............................................................................................70
29. Hoysala Dynasty............................................................................................72
30. Vijayanagar Empire.................................................................................. ......74
31. Bahmani Kingdom.........................................................................................78
32. Deccan Sultanate.............................................................................................80
33. Foreign Invasions............................................................................................83
34. Delhi Sultanate.................................................................................................84
35. Mughal Empire................................................................................................89
36. Sher Shah Suri..............................................................................................93
37. Bhakti and Sufi Movements in Medieval India.............................................94
38. Buddhism...............................................................................................................99
39. Jainism.........................................................................................................103
40. Indian Philosophy........................................................................................105
 1 Ancient Indian History
Scan to Read More

Ancient Indian history began around 2.5 million years ago with the Paleolithic Age, evolving through the Harappan civilization
(3300 BCE), the Vedic era (1500 BCE), and early kingdoms like Magadha (6th century BCE). It reflects cultural continuity,
socio-political transformations, and philosophical advancements.
Relevance of Ancient Indian History for Contemporary India
Aspect Ancient Indian History Contribution Relevance to Contemporary India
1. Cultural Heritage y Ritual bathing traditions from Harappan y Continued in practices like Kumbh Mela and
cities (Great Bath) temple rituals
2. Language & Arts y Sanskrit literature and Tamil Sangam y Influence on many modern Indian languages
poetry and judicial terminology
3. Urban y Well-planned Harappan cities with grid y Seen in modern planned cities like
Development systems Chandigarh and Navi Mumbai
4. Water y Advanced drainage systems and step y Modern water conservation programs
Management wells (Rani ki Vav)
5. Trade & y Extensive maritime trade networks (like y Reflected in India's current Sagarmala port
Commerce Lothal port) development project
6. Medical Science y Early Ayurvedic texts (Charaka Samhita) y Basis for India's AYUSH healthcare system
7. Social Systems y Early democratic systems (Licchavi y Echoed in modern Panchayati Raj
Republic) institutions
8. Religious y Ashoka's policy of religious tolerance y Model for India's secular constitution and
Harmony interfaith dialogue
9. Measurement y Standardized weights and measures in y Precursor to modern metric system and
Systems Indus Valley quality standards
10. Textile Industry y Early cotton cultivation and weaving in y Foundation for India's position as global
Harappan civilization textile leader today

Relevance of Geographical features in understanding Ancient Indian History

Aspect Geographical Influence Impact on Ancient Indian History
1. Rise of y The fertile river plains of the Indus, y Enabled the growth of civilizations like the Indus
Civilizations Ganges, and Yamuna provided Valley and later the Maurya and Gupta Empires,
abundant water and rich soil. which thrived on agriculture and trade.
2. Agriculture & y The alluvial plains and black soil of the y Led to surplus food production, the rise of cities,
Economy Deccan Plateau, along with monsoon-fed and the development of trade networks, shaping
rivers, made agriculture highly productive. the economic foundation of early societies.
3. Trade & y Coastal regions like Gujarat, Tamil y Encouraged maritime trade with Rome,
Commerce Nadu, and Odisha had natural ports, while Southeast Asia, and Persia, and facilitated
river networks and mountain passes like overland trade with Central Asia, making India a
Khyber and Bolan connected India to hub of commercial activity.
other regions.
4. Political y The Himalayas acted as a natural shield y Protected India from frequent invasions,
Boundaries & in the north, while the Thar Desert and allowing empires to flourish, though strategic
Defense Vindhya-Satpura ranges influenced passes like Khyber enabled occasional
settlement patterns. incursions.
5. Climatic Influence y The monsoon cycle dictated agricultural y Seasonal festivals like Pongal and Makar
on Culture activities, while resources like timber, Sankranti emerged around harvest times, and
iron, and cotton shaped economic and resource availability influenced craftsmanship,
technological advancements. warfare, and architecture.

1
 2 Prehistoric Period in India
Scan to Read More

UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a
fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. Critically evaluate this comment. (2015)

2. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of
early Indian art and history. Discuss. (2020)

The Stone Age (6,00,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE)

The Stone Age is a prehistoric era (before the invention of writing) characterized by the use of basic stone tools by humans. The
Stone Age in India (6,00,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE) is divided into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods, each defined by
distinct stone tools and technological progress.

Features of Stone Age in India

Dimension Palaeolithic Period (2.5 Mesolithic Period Neolithic Period
million to 12,000 years ago) (12,000 to 8,000 BCE) (8,000 to 1,500 BCE)
1. Tools and y Stone Tools: Choppers, flakes, y Microliths: Small tools for y Polished Stone Tools:
Technology scrapers. hunting. Axes, sickles, grinders.
y Acheulean Tools: Hand axes, y Composite Tools: Tools y Pottery: Handmade to
cleavers. fixed into handles for better wheel-made pottery at
functionality. Mehrgarh.
2. Social Life y Small Groups: Mobile hunter- y Larger Settlements: y Agricultural Settlements:
gatherer bands. Semi-permanent Villages based on wheat,
y Egalitarian: No social communities like Langhnaj. barley, rice
stratification. y Gendered Division: y Significant agricultural
Women gather, men hunt. settlements like Mehrgarh
3. Customs and y Burial Practices: Limited, but y Ritual Burials: Langhnaj y Formal Burials: Graves
Practices Bhimbetka shows signs of suggests early spiritual with pottery, tools,
ritualistic burials. beliefs. ornaments at Mehrgarh.
y Cave Art: Spiritual and ritualistic y Cave Art: Depictions of y Religious Practices:
depictions. hunting and rituals at Figurines, ceramics for
Bhimbetka. rituals.
4. Environment y Climate Change: Ice Age with y Climate Transition: End of y Agricultural Expansion:
and Climate varied environments (savannahs to Ice Age, warmer climate. Ideal climate for crop
forests). y Flora and Fauna: Shift to cultivation in river valleys.
y Flora and Fauna: Coexistence with smaller fauna like deer, wild y Flora and Fauna: Diverse
megafauna like elephants, tigers. boar. plants for domestication.
5. Economy and y Hunter-Gatherer: Hunting, y Hunting and Gathering: y Agriculture: Cultivating
Subsistence fishing, gathering. Increased fishing and wheat, barley, rice.
y Use of Fire: Cooking, warmth, hunting tools. y Animal Domestication:
protection. y Early Domestication: Cattle, sheep, goats.
Domestication of dogs.

Paleolithic Art and Architecture

Category Features Examples
1. Rock y Themes: Hunting scenes, animals (bison, elephants), y Bhimbetka (MP): Hunting scenes with
Paintings dancing figures, geometric patterns. injured hunters, communal dances.
(Cave Art) y Colors: Red ochre (haematite), white (limestone), y Lakhudiyar (Uttarakhand): Stick-like
green (chalcedony). humans, wavy lines, hand-linked dancers
y Techniques: Brush strokes from plant fibres; layered in white/black/red.
paintings (up to 20 layers at Bhimbetka). y Kupgallu (Karnataka): Red ochre
paintings of bulls and stylized humans.

2
 2. Engravings & y Geometric designs (dots, rectangles). y Kashmir: Slabs with engravings.
Petroglyphs y Animal motifs (fox, lizards). y Bhimbetka: Linear animal figures (Upper
y Rare human figures. Paleolithic).
3. Home Art y Personal adornments (necklaces, pendants). y Kurnool Caves (AP): Bone tools (awls,
(Mobiliary y Bone/ivory tools with engravings. arrowheads) from Upper Paleolithic
Art) y Rare figurines (like, female statuettes). layers.
4. Architecture y Rock shelters: Natural caves used as dwellings. y Bhimbetka: 800 rock shelters, some with
y Quarry-cum-camps: Sites like Isampur (Karnataka) habitation evidence.
for tool-making. y Isampur (Karnataka): Limestone quarry
with tool debris.

Mesolithic Art and Architecture

Features Description Examples
1. Rock Art y Natural pigments: Red ochre, white, y Bhimbetka Rock Shelters (Madhya Pradesh): Largest
yellow, black Mesolithic art site with paintings of hunting,
y Depictions: Animals, humans, daily life. dancing, and social life.
y Geometric designs and community y Lakhudiyar Rock Shelters (Uttarakhand): Human
scenes. stick figures, animal motifs, and geometric patterns
y Style: Dynamic, naturalistic painted in red, black, and white.
y Superimposition of paintings indicating y Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh): Hunting and animal
different time periods depictions.
2. Cave y Found in rock shelters and caves with y Bhimbetka: Hunting scenes, community dancing,
Paintings limited light and honey collection depicted.
y Themes include hunting, traps, group y Pachmarhi Caves: Representation of human and
activities, and rituals animal figures in distinct hues.
y Painted in both symbolic and stylized y Jogimara Caves, Chhattisgarh: Early depictions of
forms human activities.
y Representation: Fear & tenderness
towards animals
3. Animal y Animals: Frequent portrayal of wild y Vindhya Ranges (Madhya Pradesh): Stylized
Depictions animals such as bison, deer, elephants, and depictions of animals such as leopards, deer, and
rhinoceroses tigers, often chasing or being chased by humans.
y Scenes: Some paintings depict animals y Adamgarh (MP): Animal hunting scenes.
chasing humans or being hunted
y Animals painted with great accuracy and
tonal effects
4. Geometric y Motifs: Wavy lines, filled rectangles, hand y Lakhudiyar (Uttarakhand): Wavy patterns, hand-
Patterns imprints, and dot groups linked figures, and geometric shapes in red and
y Engravings: Found on cave walls & black.
portable objects y Edakkal Caves (Kerala): Carved inscriptions and
geometric signs.
5. Rock Shelters y Natural shelters modified by humans for y Bhimbetka Rock Shelters: About 700 shelters; 400
living contain paintings over successive periods.
y Evidence of prolonged occupation y Adamgarh: Multi-layered occupation evidence with
y Used as spaces for dwelling and artistic Mesolithic tools.
activities
y Over 500 painted rock shelters identified
6. Tools and y Microlithic tools made of siliceous stones y Bagor (Rajasthan): Micro blades and querns found
Artifacts like chert and jasper alongside housing remains.
y Bone tools and grinding implements y Sarai Nahar Rai (UP): Stone tools associated with
y Used for hunting and domestic purposes burial practices.
7. Burial y Simple burial pits with associated grave y Langhnaj (Gujarat): Burials with tools and
Practices goods ornaments.
y Skeletal remains depict social and cultural y Bagor (Rajasthan): Burial remains unearthed
traditions alongside decorated tools.
8. Artistic y Depictions: Hunting, dancing, food y Bhimbetka (MP): Elaborate hunting scenes, family
Themes gathering, and social rituals, Family and depictions, and honey collection activities.
communal life are depicted through group y Pachmarhi Caves: Communal dancing and
scenes. celebration scenes.
y Evidence of spiritual or ritualistic
practices

3
9. Temporary y Huts: Circular/oval huts with stone y Bagor (Rajasthan): Evidence of hut foundations
Dwellings foundations, Thatch roofs likely with microlithic tools.
constructed with wood and organic y Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai (UP): Evidence of
material seasonal dwelling and distinct burial sites.
y Settlements: Small, seasonal dwellings

Neolithic Art and Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. New Stone Age y Introduction of polished and ground stone y All Indian sites exhibit evidence of
Tools axes (celts) and other pecked and groundstone polished axes
tools. y Evidence of microliths continuing
y Tools were more refined and durable compared alongside new tool types
to earlier flaked implements. y Development of specialized tools for
y Innovations aligned with the advent of agricultural activities
agriculture and pastoralism.
2. Settlement y Transition from temporary shelters to y Kashmir: Evidence of pit dwellings
Patterns & permanent or semi-permanent settlements. y South India: Distinctive ash mounds
Architecture y Use of simple circular/oval huts, pit dwellings, y Circular and rectangular houses with
and ash mound structures. wattle-and-daub walls
y Architectural organization reflected early
village planning and the adaptation to local y Post holes indicating structured dwellings
ecological settings. y Evidence of mud floors and thatched roofs
3. Pottery and y Neolithic communities produced pottery often y Cord-marked pottery in Vindhyan-Ganga
Decorative Arts marked with cord impressions or paddle- sites
impressed designs. y Handmade grey and brown burnished ware
y Earthenware became a distinctive marker in in South India
later Neolithic phases. y Storage jars and bowls with distinctive
y Decorative motifs often coexisted with regional patterns
utilitarian forms and illustrate regional y Painted designs on select pottery pieces
variations in style.
4. Sculptural and y Emergence of terracotta figurines and clay y Terracotta figurines of humped bulls,
Iconographic artefacts that may depict animals, human forms, birds, and snakes
Expression or deities. y Clay images of mother goddesses
y These art forms not only served decorative y Decorative beads and bangles
purposes but also had ritualistic and symbolic y Animal figurines indicating pastoral life
significance in early village life.
y Integration of art with everyday life is evident.
5. Social and Ritual y Early Neolithic settlements incorporated y Child burials within settlements
Spaces communal spaces, suggesting a nascent form of y Communal areas for grain storage and
organized social life. processing
y Evidence of buried dead within or near y Evidence of water harvesting structures
dwellings hints at ritual and funerary practices. y Specialized activity areas within
y The spatial organization of houses and public settlements
areas provides clues to social stratification and
emerging belief systems.
6. Regional y Neolithic cultural expressions in India were not y North-western sites: Early agricultural
Variations uniform; they varied regionally based on practices and settled life
ecological and societal factors. y Kashmir: Pit dwellings and unique
y The north-western region shows early evidence settlement patterns
of plant and animal domestication. y South India: Ash mounds and distinctive
pottery styles
y Vindhyan and Mid-Ganga Valleys:
Cord-marked pottery and structured
domestic spaces
y Eastern India: Shouldered axes and
distinctive tool types

Key measures for the preservation of Rock art:

y Global Conventions: India adheres to UNESCO's Hague Convention (1954), 1970 Convention on Cultural Property, and
2005 Convention on Intangible Heritage.
y UNESCO Role: India holds a seat on the World Heritage Committee (2021-25).
y National Efforts: Strengthening the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), GIS-based National Database, and leveraging
technology for conservation.

4
 3 Chalcolithic age
( c. 2000-700 BCE ) Scan to Read More

The Chalcolithic Age marked the transition to metal use alongside stone tools. Copper was the first metal used, earning it the name
Copper-Stone Age. While technologically a pre-Harappan phase, in many regions, Chalcolithic cultures succeeded the Bronze
Age Harappan civilization.
Art and Culture of the Chalcolithic Age
1. Pottery Art and Ceramics
Culture Distinctive Pottery Features Examples
1. Ahar-Banas y Black-and-red ware with geometric/floral designs used for storage y Balathal, Gilund.
Culture and daily activities.
2. Kayatha Culture y Featured Chocolate-slipped glossy ware. Storage jars and bowls y Kayatha, Eran.
were common.
3. Malwa Culture y Red/buff pottery with intricate geometric and floral designs. y Navdatoli, Maheshwar
4. Jorwe Culture y Fine red/buff painted ware with simple motifs, including storage jars y Inamgaon, Daimabad.
and vessels.
2. Sculpture and Terracotta Art
Aspect Description Examples
1. Terracotta y Figurines of animals, humans, and deities, y Balathal (bull figurines), Inamgaon (female
Figurines reflecting religious beliefs and daily life. figurines).
2. Metal y Early metallurgy led to the creation of y Daimabad (bronze sculptures) – Notable for a
Artifacts simple copper tools, weapons, and some unique set of bronze chariots, bull, and elephant,
figurines. indicating early metal artistry.
3. Beads and y Beads made of carnelian, jasper, and shells y Kayatha (bead necklaces), Jorwe (etched carnelian
Ornaments were used as ornaments, suggesting trade beads) – Found in burials, symbolizing status and
connections. adornment.
3. Architecture and Settlement Patterns
Culture Housing and Settlement Features Examples
1. Ahar-Banas y Mud-brick houses, some fortified enclosures, and y Balathal, Gilund – Fortifications hint at
Culture evidence of copper mining. emerging complex societies.
2. Kayatha y Simple thatched-roof huts with wattle and daub y Kayatha – Excavations reveal small,
Culture walls, indicate small, settled communities. scattered settlements.
3. Malwa y Multi-roomed rectangular houses with well-rammed y Navdatoli, Maheshwar – Well-organized
Culture floors show an early attempt at planned settlements. houses suggest social advancements.
4. Jorwe y Large settlements with granaries and basic drainage y Inamgaon – Evidence of stored food grains and
Culture systems suggest organized village planning. water conservation structures.
4. Religion and Symbolism
Aspect Description Examples
1. Mother Goddess y Female figurines indicate fertility cults and y Inamgaon, Jorwe – Numerous mother
Worship goddess worship, similar to later Hindu traditions. goddess figurines were found.
2. Bull Symbolism y Bulls depicted in terracotta & metal, symbolizing y Ahar-Banas Culture (Balathal) – bull
prosperity and agricultural importance. figurines found in burials.
3. Fire Worship y Some sites contain fire altars, suggesting early y Malwa Culture (Navdatoli) – Structures
ritualistic fire worship, later seen in Vedic traditions. resembling fire altars hint at rituals.
4. Burial Practices y Varied burial styles, including urn burials for y Inamgaon (urn burials), Kayatha
children and extended burials for adults, show – Suggests belief in the afterlife.
evolving funeral customs.
The Chalcolithic Age in India bridged Stone and Bronze Ages with copper tools, farming, and pottery. Its decline paved the way
for urbanization and later civilizations.

5
 4 Iron Age in India
(c. 1200–600 BCE)
The Iron Age (c. 1200–600 BCE) is a period marked by the widespread use of iron tools and weapons and is believed to have
begun around 1200 BCE, though recent findings suggest potentially earlier evidence in Tamil Nadu, with some sites dating
back to 3345 BCE.
Key Features Social Life Economy
y Use of iron tools & weapons y Stratified society y Improved agriculture with iron
y Megalithic architecture in South, (seen in grave goods) ploughs
Central and Eastern India. y Ancestor worship y Permanent settlements
y PGW culture in North y Later, Vedic era rituals and customs y Early trade & craft specialisation
predominated.

Art and Culture of the Iron Age in India (~1200 BCE – 600 BCE)
Key Features Significance
1. Megalithic Architecture
y Use of large unhewn stones (megaliths) for burials and commemorative y Showcases early architectural skills
purposes. Types include dolmens, cairn circles, menhirs, and stone circles. and symbolic burial traditions.
y Example: Dolmens in Kerala and Karnataka; Cairn Circles at Brahmagiri and Indicates social hierarchy and ritual
Adichanallur; Menhirs in North Cachar Hills and Bastar; Stone Circles in significance associated with the dead.
Vidarbha.
2. Pottery Traditions
y Distinct pottery styles emerged due to improved firing technology. Pottery was y Pottery styles mark cultural zones
used for domestic, ritual, and possibly trade purposes. and reflect aesthetic evolution. PGW
y Example: Black and Red Ware (BRW) at Atranjikhera, Hastinapur; Painted and NBPW are linked to emerging
Grey Ware (PGW) at Mathura and Ahichhatra; Northern Black Polished Ware urbanism and surplus economy.
(NBPW) at Ujjain, Kaushambi.
3. Terracotta Art
y Terracotta figurines of female forms (fertility symbols) and animals were y Indicative of popular worship
common, reflecting folk religious beliefs and household rituals. practices, early iconography, and
y Example: Female figurines and animal forms (bulls, elephants) from PGW and symbolic expression in domestic
BRW sites. religious life.
4. Iron Objects and Symbolism
y Widespread use of iron tools like ploughshares, arrowheads, sickles; these y Though utilitarian, these represent
facilitated agriculture, surplus production, and a transformation in socio- cultural shifts—such as permanent
economic life. settlement and agricultural rituals.
y Example: Iron ploughshares and tools from Raja-Nal-Ka-Tila, Hallur, and Tools also became part of burial
Gufkral. goods.
5. Literature
y Composed orally, these texts reflect religious ideas, rituals, and socio-political y Serves as a key cultural legacy of the
ethics of the Iron Age. Philosophical depth appears in Upanishads. Iron Age. Provides insights into ritual
y Example: Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda; Upanishads like Chandogya, architecture (such as altars), cosmology,
Brihadaranyaka; Dharmasutras and Grihyasutras. and early ethical philosophy.
6. Proto-Temple & Ritual Architecture
y Transition from open-air rituals to structured altars and early shrines. y Marks the beginning of built ritual
Emergence of sacred space within domestic and social contexts. architecture. Influences future
y Example: Fire altars referenced in Later Vedic texts (such as Satapatha temple designs in form and function.
Brahmana) and references to wooden temples in Grihyasutras.
7. Cultural Continuity
y Burial practices, stone use, and symbolic traditions carried into later temple y Demonstrates cultural integration
architecture and rituals in historic South India. from tribal-megalithic to classical
y Example: Stone circles and pillars resembling features in early South Indian Hindu traditions. Useful for tracing
temples; symbolic parallels in Sangam literature. continuity in Indian art history.

6
 5 Megalithic culture in India
Scan to Read More

Megaliths refer to large stone structures used for monuments or burials, built across various periods, including the Neolithic,
Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages. It is predominantly associated with the Iron Age (1500–500 BCE) in India.

Features of Megalithic Culture

Dimension Key Features Examples

1. Burial y Varied rituals (full/partial burials, urns, cists) y Urn burials at Adichanallur, horse
Practices reflecting afterlife beliefs. sacrifices at Khapa.
2. Material y Iron tools, Black-and-Red Ware pottery, ornaments y Iron axes at Mahurjhari, BRW at Takalghat
Culture indicate technological and artistic skills. , gold beads at Naikund
3. Economy y Agriculture (rice, ragi) and hunting; iron tools y Rice at Kunnattur, hunting scenes at
boosted productivity. Hire-Benkal rock paintings.
4. Social y Stratified society with warriors, smiths, farmers; y Warrior graves at Mahurjhari (iron
Organisation community effort in construction. weapons), large cists at Brahmagiri suggest
group labor.

Art and Architecture of Megalithic Culture

A. Art
Category Key Features Examples
1. Pottery y Distinctive Black-and-Red Ware (BRW) and other y BRW at Adichanallur, Takalghat; pottery
Traditions styles; used for domestic, ritual, and burial purposes. lids with goat motifs at Mahurjhari.
2. Terracotta y Small figures of humans (female fertility symbols) y Female figurines at Maski, bull
Figurines and animals; linked to folk beliefs. figurines at Paiyampalli.
3. Rock Art y Hunting scenes and symbolic motifs on rock surfaces; y Hire-Benkal rock paintings (hunting
reflect lifestyle and beliefs. scenes) in Karnataka.
4. Ornaments & y Gold, copper, and iron objects (beads, bangles, bells) y Gold leaves at Mahurjhari, copper bells
Metalwork as grave goods; showcases craftsmanship. at Khapa, iron axes at Naikund.

B. Architecture
Category Key Features Examples
1. Megalithic y Large stone constructions (dolmens, cists, cairns) for y Dolmens at Hire Benkal, cists at
Structures burials; engineering ingenuity. Brahmagiri, stone circles at Junapani.
2. Construction y Use of unhewn stones, portholes, and passage y Passage chambers at Hallur, porthole
Techniques chambers; region-specific adaptations. cists at Heggadehalli.
3. Habitation y Rare evidence of wattle-and-daub houses with mud y Takalghat floors with lime coating,
Sites floors; and temporary settlements. mud walls with bamboo supports.
4. Symbolic y Stone use and burial layouts influenced later temple y Khasi menhirs resemble early temple
Continuity architecture in South India. pillars; cairns echo in tribal memorials.

7
 6 Indus Valley Civilisation
(2,600 BCE - 1900 BCE) Scan to Read More

The Indus Valley Civilization (2600 to 1900 BCE), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the earliest urban
civilizations in northwest India, discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. It flourished along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra
River (also known as the Sarasvati River).
UPSC Previous Year Question

1. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provided
inputs to the present day urbanization? Discuss (2014)

2. The ancient civilization in the Indian sub-continent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia
and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without a breakdown to the
present day. Comment (2015)

Salient Features of IVC and their continuity in contemporary India

Continuity in
Features of IVC Description Contemporary
India
1. Town Planning
1. Grid Pattern & y Highly developed and systematic town planning with cities
Layout divided into rectangular blocks by roads intersecting at right
angles.
y Example: Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. y Modern Urban
2. Citadel & Lower Town y Distinct separation between administrative/religious (citadel) Design: Planned cities
and residential zones. like Chandigarh
y Example: citadels contained important structures like the Great emulate grid layouts.
Bath and the Great Granary.
y Modern cities often
3. Standardized Building y Uniform, baked bricks uniform in size and ratio (typically
separate
Materials 4:2:1).
administrative zones
4. Planning precision y Well-laid streets, drainage channels, and public spaces.
(like government
5. Fortifications y Defensive structures around cities, possibly for protection complexes) from
and City Walls against floods or invasions. residential areas.
y Example: Dholavira had a well-preserved, fortified city and
cemetery.

2. Drainage System, Navigation & Sanitation

1. Advanced Drainage y Shows Focus on Sanitation and Hygiene y Modern Urban
Networks y Example: Mohenjo-Daro featured systematically arranged Sanitation: Current
drainage channels. cities incorporate
2. Water Storage sophisticated sewage
y Wells, reservoirs, and water tanks indicate robust water
Structures and drainage systems.
management
y Example: Swacch
y Example: Evidenced by Dholavira’s water conservation
Bharat Mission
system.
y Water Management
3. Maritime Trade & y Indicates skill of seamanship. Systems: Continued
Navigation y Example: Port sites like Lothal reveal organized maritime trade focus on water
practices. conservation and
4. Sanitation Practices y Regular maintenance and urban cleanliness are evidenced by efficient resource
waste disposal systems and covering of drains with bricks management.
y Example: Kalibangan had a sophisticated drainage system. y Example: Jal Jeevan
Mission

8
 3. Belief Systems and Customs
1. Ritual Bathing y Possibly linked to religious practices
y Example: Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro
2. Nature Worship y Evidence of totemic symbols and reverence for natural y Contemporary
elements. practices such as
y Example: Mother Earth Seal depicting a female figure, with a temple baths (such as
plant-like object emerging from her womb Kumbh Mela) echo
ancient ritual
3. Symbolic Seals y Seals possibly represent early religious or mythological cleansing.
figures. y Continued cultural
y Example: the Pashupati seal depicts a seated figure surrounded emphasis on nature
by animals and environmental
4. Burial System y Conducted in large pits, finding jewellery, pots and mirrors in worship in festivals
pits points towards belief in the afterlife. and traditions: sacred
Example: Rakhigarhi is known for its well-preserved cemetery, groves.
including a "mystery couple" grave, and burial sites with pottery
and other artifacts.

4. Architecture
1. Standardized Brick y Layout and design indicates systematic construction techniques. y Public
Construction y Example: Harappa used Standard baked bricks Infrastructure: The
construction of civic
2. Harappans valued y Suggested by private bathrooms, no ground-level windows, centres, municipal
privacy and indirect entrances. buildings, and
3. Granaries and y Highlight community organizations. community halls
assembly areas mirrors ancient public
structures.
4. Advanced Masonry y Use of mud mortar and precise stone cutting for durability.
Techniques

5. Art and Crafts

1. Terracotta Figurines: y Early artistic expressions were found in clay figurines. y Traditional Crafts
y Example: Standing Mother Goddess Revival: Many rural
and urban artisans
2. Beadwork & Jewellery y Sophisticated bead-making techniques and ornament continue using ancient
production. beadwork and
y Example: Chanhudro bead-making factory terracotta art
3. Seals Engravings y Intricate seals are used in administration and possibly ritual techniques.
contexts. y Continued prevalence
of Lost Wax Method
4. Pottery y Decorated pottery with distinct motifs reflecting cultural y Example: Dhokra art,
aesthetics. a traditional lost-wax
y Example: Pottery included Perforated jars, S-shaped jars, casting technique, is
plates, bowls, etc. primarily known from
5. Early Metalwork y Initial experimentation with metals for tools and decorative the states of
items. Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Odisha, and
y Example: Dancing Girl figurine, a bronze sculpture discovered West Bengal.
at Mohenjo-Daro made using the lost-wax casting technique

6. Society and Polity

1. Egalitarian Social y The lack of ostentatious royal tombs and palaces suggests y Democratic Ethos:
Structure a more communal societal organization. Modern India’s
emphasis on
2. Collective Governance y Urban layouts imply an organized municipal or council-
democracy and
based system.
egalitarian principles
3. Uniformity in Cultural y Standardized weights, measures, and material culture can be seen as an echo
Practices across regions. of early societal
organization.
4. Trade and Integration y Extensive internal and external trade hints at a cohesive
economic interaction.
5. Non-monarchical y The absence of grandiose royal structures indicates a
Leadership possible non-hereditary system of administration.

9
 7. Economy and Subsistence
1. Agriculture y Cultivation of wheat, barley, and evidence of early cotton
usage in later phases. used wooden ploughs y Agricultural
y Example: Kalibangan is known for its evidence of a ploughed Backbone:
field Agriculture remains
2. Irrigation vital in India’s
y Utilizing river floods and constructing canals and reservoirs
economy, with
to distribute water for agriculture
modern techniques
y Example: Traces of canals have been found at the Shortughai
built on ancient
in Afghanistan.
practices.
3. Animal Husbandry y Domestication and rearing of cattle and other livestock. y Livestock Rearing:
4. Craft Specialization y Skilled production of beads, pottery, and metal tools indicates Animal husbandry
a diversified artisan economy. continues as a key
y Example: Lapis Lazuli from Shortughai used for bead making. component of rural
livelihoods.
5. Trade Networks y The use of standardized weights and seals facilitated y Before India's
extensive trade, both inland and maritime. currency
y Example: The basic unit of weight was approximately 13.7 decimalization in
grams (16th ratio). 1957, the rupee was
6. Market Regulation y Evidence of uniform commercial practices hints at early divided into 16 annas
market regulation.

Comparison of Cultural Continuity: India vs. Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece

Aspect Indian Subcontinent Egypt Mesopotamia Greece
1. Religious and y Hinduism, Buddhism, y Egyptian religion y Polytheism y Pagan Greek
Philosophical Jainism evolved but retained declined with disappeared after beliefs faded with
Resilience core beliefs; Vedic traditions Christianity and Persian, Greek, and Christianity and
continue. Islam. Islamic influences. Roman
influence.
2. Social y The varna-jati system y Pharaoh led y City-states and y Social structures
Structure & maintained societal continuity, system collapsed monarchies failed changed with
Caste System preserving knowledge and after Persian, under foreign rule. Roman conquest
traditions. Greek, and Roman and
invasions. Christianization.
3. Cultural y Absorbed foreign influences y Hellenistic and y Persian, Greek, y Roman and later
Adaptation (such as Mughals, and British) Islamic influences and later Islamic Ottoman
without losing core identity. replaced native influences erased influences led to
traditions. original traditions. cultural shifts.
4. Resilience to y Despite invasions (Turks, y Fell to Persians, y Frequent y Greek culture
Civilizational Mughals, British), India Greeks, and invasions erased was absorbed
Collapse retained its identity. Romans, leading Mesopotamian into Roman and
to cultural shifts. identity. later Byzantine
traditions.

Theories on the Decline of IVC

Theory Description
1. Invasion by Aryans y Decline due to the invasion and annexation by Aryan people.
2. Climate Change y Eastward-shifting monsoons may have caused environmental damage, affecting
(Monsoon Shift) agriculture.
3. Indus River Shifting y Repeated floods due to river shifting caused agricultural loss and decline.
and Flooding
4. Migration Due to River y Migration of artisans and tradesmen to Saurashtra and Haryana due to river changes
Changes (Ghaggar-Hakra).

This advanced urban civilization declined around 1900 BCE due to climate change and river shifts but left enduring legacies in
Indian urban planning, crafts, and possibly later cultural traditions.

10
 7 Vedic Period
(1500–600 BCE) Scan to Read More

The Vedic Period laid the foundation of Indian civilization, transitioning from the pastoral Rig Vedic era (1500–1000 BCE) to the
agrarian Later Vedic phase (1000–600 BCE).
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. What are the main features of Vedic society and religion? Do you think some of the features are
still prevailing in Indian society? (2023)
2. Underline the changes in the field of society and economy from the Rig Vedic to the later Vedic
period.(2024)

Early Vedic/Rig Vedic Period (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)

The Rig Vedic period marks India's earliest documented history, characterized by pastoral tribes, oral Vedic hymns, and a fluid
social hierarchy centred around cattle wealth and nature worship.
Aspect Key Features
1. Geography y Centered in the Sapta Sindhu region (modern Punjab/Haryana), with the Saraswati River valley as
the cultural heartland.
2. Politics y Tribal pastoral society led by elected chiefs (Rajans). Governance through tribal assemblies
(Sabha and Samiti). Frequent cattle raids and tribal conflicts like the famous Battle of Ten Kings.
3. Economy y Primarily pastoral economy centered around cattle wealth. Limited agriculture (barley
cultivation). Barter system using cattle as wealth standard.
4. Society y Flexible social structure based on occupation rather than birth. Women had relatively high status,
participating in rituals and assemblies.
5. Religion y Nature worship such as deities like Indra (thunder), Agni (fire), and Varuna (cosmic order).
Emphasis on fire sacrifices (yajnas) and oral hymn traditions.
6. Art/ y Simple lifestyle reflected in temporary thatched huts and functional pottery. No permanent
Architecture structures or temples. Rich oral poetic traditions.

Later Vedic Period(1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

The Later Vedic Period witnessed a significant eastward expansion into the Gangetic plains, marking a transition from tribal
pastoralism to settled agricultural kingdoms. This era saw the composition of the Yajur and Sama Vedas, the emergence of a more
rigid varna system, and early urbanization supported by iron technology.

Aspect Key Features

1. Geography y Expansion eastward into Ganga-Yamuna plains.
y Emergence of important kingdoms like Kuru-Panchala and urban centres.
2. Politics y Transition to hereditary monarchy with powerful kings performing elaborate rituals like
Ashvamedha to assert authority.
3. Economy y The agricultural revolution with iron ploughs enabled rice cultivation.
y Emergence of trade guilds and proto-currency (Nishka gold pieces).
4. Society y Rigidification of varna system into hereditary castes.
y Declining status of women. Complex household rituals under a patriarchal system.
5. Religion y The shift from nature worship to philosophical concepts (Brahman/Atman).
y Elaborate priestly rituals and early Upanishadic thought emerged.
6. Art/ y Painted Grey Ware pottery culture. First fortified settlements and early urban planning.
Architecture y Development of fire altars as temple precursors.

11
Vedic Literature: Features & Examples
Category Key Features Examples
1. Rigveda y Oldest Veda (1500–1000 BCE), composed in Sanskrit. y Gayatri Mantra: A sacred chant
y Consists of 10 Mandalas (Books), with Mandalas dedicated to the Sun God, Savitr.
II-VII being the oldest. y Purusha Sukta: Describes the origin
y Contains hymns (Suktas) dedicated to nature gods like of the four varnas (Brahmin,
Indra, Agni, and Varuna. Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra).
2. Samaveda y Derived from Rigveda, but set to melodies for chanting y Tandya and Daivatam Brahmanas:
in rituals. Provide insights into ritualistic chants.
y Played a crucial role in sacrificial ceremonies performed
by the Udgatri priest.
3. Yajurveda y A manual for performing rituals and sacrifices, y Priest: Adhvaryu, responsible for
written in prose. executing rituals.
y Divided into two branches:
‰ Shukla Yajurveda (White): Contains only mantras.
‰ Krishna Yajurveda (Black): Includes mantras with
explanations.
4. Atharvaveda y Collection of folk traditions, spells, and charms, y Hymns to cure diseases, ward off evil
reflecting popular beliefs. spirits and bring prosperity.
y Deals with medicine, magic, and daily life concerns. y Gopatha Brahmana: The only
y Associated with the Brahma priest, who supervised Brahmana text of Atharvaveda.
rituals.
y Contains early references to Ayurveda (Indian medicine
system).
5. Brahmanas y Prose texts explaining rituals and sacrifices (Yajnas). y Aitareya Brahmana (Rigveda):
y Provide detailed guidelines on how and why rituals Explains coronation rituals.
should be performed. y Shatapatha Brahmana (Yajurveda):
Describes fire sacrifices in detail.
6. Aranyakas y Known as "Forest Texts", composed by sages living in y Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
forests. (Yajurveda): One of the earliest and
y Bridge between Brahmanas and Upanishads, moving most important philosophical texts.
towards philosophical discussions.
7. Upanishads y Philosophical texts (total 108), focusing on self- y Isa, Katha, Mundaka Upanishads:
realization and metaphysics. Among the 13 principal Upanishads.
y Introduce key concepts like Atman (soul), Brahman y Maitrayaniya Upanishad: Discusses
(universal reality), and Moksha (liberation). asceticism and self-discipline.
y Shift focus from rituals to knowledge (Jnana Marga).

Vedic Science and Technology: Features & Examples

Feature Description Examples
1. Metallurgy (Iron y Involves crafting iron for tools and weapons; y Iron arrowheads and spearheads found at
Technology) Rig Veda uses "ayas" for copper or bronze, archaeological sites.
while Yajur Veda calls iron "Syama ayas." y A single iron ploughshare unearthed at Jakhera.
2. Agriculture y Shifted to settled farming with iron tools and y Rice, wheat, and sugarcane grown;
varied crops; Rig Veda mentions barley, Later y Double cropping practiced with barley and rice.
Vedic texts list rice (Vrihi, Sali) and wheat.
3. Astronomy y Observing celestial cycles for rituals and y Seven rivers of Sapta-Sindhu region noted.
farming; Rig Veda (10th Mandala) suggests y Improved understanding of seasons for
cosmic origins, with rituals linked to seasons. agriculture.
4. Medicine (Early y Healing with herbs and chants; Atharvaveda y Hymns for curing diseases, prayers for health,
Ayurveda) includes spells for health and cures, like those and charms to ensure prosperity.
against worms.
5. Engineering y Building lasting settlements for a settled life; y Early wattle-and-daub huts replaced by sturdy
(Settlement Rig Veda describes chariots, Later Vedic texts earth-walled houses at sites like Bhagwanpura
Planning) hint at stable communities. and Jakhera.
6. Chemistry (Ritual y Using plant extracts in rituals; Rig Veda y Sesame (tila) oil used in rituals; offerings
Materials) features soma. included ghee and milk.

12
 7. Mathematics y Counting and measuring for rituals and land; y Ploughs described with 8, 12, or 24 oxen,
Sulba Sutras guide altar designs, while 8–24 showing practical use of numbers.
oxen symbolize ploughing teams.

Comparison of Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Period

A. Economy
Aspect Rigvedic Period Later Vedic Period Similarities
1. Main Activity y Pastoralism; cattle rearing (such y Mixed farming; agriculture y Both relied on land-based
as cows as wealth—gomat). dominant (rice, wheat, barley). resources.
2. Agriculture y Limited; barley known, no y Advanced; iron ploughs, y Agriculture present, though
iron tools. double cropping, diverse crops. scale differed.
3. Exchange y Barter; voluntary gifts (bali) to y Gifts (Dana, Dakshina) and y Gift economy persisted,
chiefs. tributes (Bali, bhaga). though formalized later.
4. Key y Nomadic, cattle-centric y Sedentary, agriculture-driven
Difference economy. with settlements.

B. Society
Aspect Rigvedic Period Later Vedic Period Similarities
1. Social y Egalitarian; no rigid caste, arya y Varna system (Brahmana, y Family as basic unit in
Structure vs. dasa distinction. Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra). both.
2. Family y Patriarchal, monogamous, y Joint families; grhapati y Patriarchal structure
small units. (householder) gained prominence. retained.
3. Women’s y High; participated in sabha/samiti, y Declined; restricted roles, y Women present in
Status chose husbands (Swayamvara). viewed as a vice in some texts. society, roles shifted.
4. Key Difference y Flexible, tribal society. y Stratified, hierarchical with
gotra exogamy.

C. Polity
Aspect Rigvedic Period Later Vedic Period Similarities
1. Leadership y Rajan (chief) elected, non- y Hereditary chiefs; territorial y Chiefs led tribes/
hereditary, cattle-focused. rajas, divine legitimacy. communities.
2. Assemblies y Sabha and samiti active, y Sabha dominant, samiti y Tribal assemblies existed,
women included. faded, power centralized. though roles changed.
3. Administration y Simple; purohita, senani y Rudimentary officials; taxes y Chiefs supported by
aided chief, no taxes. (bali, shulka, bhaga). advisors.
4. Key Difference y Tribal, mobile polity. y Territorial janapadas emerging,
rituals like Rajasuya.

D. Religion
Aspect Rigvedic Period Later Vedic Period Similarities
1. Gods y Nature-based (Indra, Agni, y Shift to Prajapati, Vishnu, y Polytheistic worship
Varuna); few goddesses. Rudra; Indra less prominent. continued.
2. Rituals y Simple yajnas for cattle, y Elaborate sacrifices (Ashvamedha, y Fire rituals (yajnas)
victory; collective focus. Vajapeya); brahmana-led. central to both.
3. Beliefs y No temples/statues; folk y Atharvaveda’s folk magic, y Emphasis on
elements minimal. Upanishadic philosophy emerged. propitiating deities.
4. Key Difference y Tribal, practical religion. y Complex, priest-dominated with
philosophical depth.

D. Technology
Aspect Rigvedic Period Later Vedic Period Similarities
1. Metallurgy y Copper/bronze (ayas); no y Iron introduced (Syama ayas); y Metal use in daily life
iron evidence. weapons, some tools. and warfare.

13
 2. Tools/ y Stone, copper tools; y Iron ploughs, axes; chariots y Chariot technology
Implements chariots for mobility. enhanced with iron. persisted.
3. Settlements y Temporary camps, y Permanent villages (PGW sites), y Settlements tied to
nomadic lifestyle. earth-walled houses. economic needs.
4. Key Difference y Basic, mobility-focused y Advanced, sedentary tech with
tech. iron’s limited impact.

Contemporary Relevance of Vedic Traditions in India

Vedic Tradition Modern Application Examples
1. Yoga & y Global wellness practices rooted in Vedic y International Yoga Day (June 21), popularity
Meditation philosophy (Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras). of Ashtanga/Vinyasa yoga.
2. Ayurveda y Holistic healthcare system recognized by y Patanjali, Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala,
WHO. Ayurvedic resorts like Somatheeram (Kerala).
3. Sanskrit y Revival in academia and digital tools. y Sanskrit departments in universities, AI tools
Language for Sanskrit (IBM’s AI translation).
4. Yajna (Fire y Eco-friendly rituals and community y Havan in weddings
Rituals) bonding.
5. Vegetarianism y Ethical and sustainable dietary choice. y ISKON’s “Food for Life,” vegan movements.
6. Varna vs. Caste y Debates on social equity (original fluidity y Reservations, anti-caste movements (Bhim
vs. rigid casteism). Army).
7. Vedic Maths y Simplified calculation techniques taught y Vedic Mathematics introduced into the
globally. curriculum in some places (UK/India)
8. Environmental y Vedas’ reverence for nature (such as Prithvi y Chipko Movement, river conservation
Ethics Sukta). (Namami Gange).
9. Democratic y Early republics (Sabha/Samiti) vs. modern y 73rd Constitutional Amendment (Panchayati
Ideals panchayats. Raj).
10. Festivals y Continuity of Vedic festivals. y Diwali (linked to Ramayana), Makar
Sankranti (Surya worship).
The Vedic period laid the socio-economic and political foundations for the later Mahajanapadas. The shift from pastoralism to agriculture,
coupled with iron technology, fostered settled life and territorial identities (Janapadas). This eventually led to the rise of 16 powerful
Mahajanapadas, setting the stage for empires. The Vedic emphasis on Dharma and societal order continues to influence Indian values,
while practices like yoga and meditation, rooted in Vedic traditions, remain relevant globally for well-being.

14
 8 Mahajanapada Period
(c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE) Scan to Read More

The Mahajanapadas were sixteen powerful kingdoms and republics in ancient India, spanning from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE.
They marked a significant shift from semi-nomadic tribal settlements to larger, organized political entities with defined territories
and administrative structures.

List of 16 Mahajanapadas
Anga (Champa) Vajji (Vaishali) Kuru Assaka (Potana/Podana)
Magadha (Rajgir, Girivraja) Malla (Kushinagar) Panchala (Ahichchhatra, Kampilya) Avanti (Ujjain, Mahishmati)
Kashi (Varanasi) Chedi (Shuktimati) Matsya (Viratnagar) Gandhara (Taxila)
Kosala (Shravasti) Vatsa (Kaushambi) Surasena (Mathura) Kamboja (Rajapura)
1. Political Structure and Administration
Aspect Details Examples
1. Types of Polities y Two main types: Monarchies (Rajyas) and y Monarchies: Magadha (King
Republics (Ganasanghas). Bimbisara), Kosala (King Pasenadi).
y Monarchies had a king as ruler; republics had y Republics: Vajji (Vaishali), Malla
collective governance by assemblies. (Kusinara).
2. Nature of y Monarchies: Centralized with kings, councils, and y Magadha: King with ministers; fortified
Administration departments (finance, defense). capitals like Pataliputra.
y Republics: Oligarchic with elected leaders and clan y Vajji: Assembly of clan heads governed
assemblies. collectively.

2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Agrarian base with surplus production; y Paddy cultivation in Ganga plains (sali rice).
Economy supplemented by trade and crafts. Transition y Iron tools boosted agriculture (such as in
from barter to coin based economy. Magadha).
2. Trade y Flourished via land (Uttarapatha, y Uttarapatha: Taxila to Rajagriha trade route.
Dakshinapatha) and sea routes (ports like y Dakshinapatha: Pataliputra to Pratishthana.
Tamralipta). Goods: textiles, iron tools, salt. y Champa’s overseas trade to Suvarnabhumi.
3. Coins y Punch-marked coins (silver/copper) y Coins like kahapana, masaka found at Taxila
introduced as a medium of exchange, (Bhir mound).
symbolizing economic growth. y Kosala Karshapana (c. 525-465 BCE).

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Aspect Details Examples
1. Social Classes y Hierarchical: Nobles, traders (setthis), farmers y Gahapati Mendaka (Magadha): Wealthy
(gahapatis), labourers, slaves. landowner with slaves.
y Caste system evolving y Setthi Sona Kolivisa (Rajagriha): Rich trader.
2. Varna vs. Jati y Varna: Four-tier ritual status (brahmanas, y High jatis: Scribes, accountants.
kshatriyas, vaishyas, shudras). Jati: Numerous y Low jatis: Chandalas (hunters), sweepers
occupational groups, more rigid. (pukkusa).
3. Slavery y Prevalent; slaves (dasas) used for manual labor. y Vinaya Pitaka: “Antojatako” (born slaves) in
y Types: born slaves, bought slaves, captured households.
slaves. y Mendaka employed dasakarmakaras.
4. Urban Diversity y Cities had diverse professions: physicians, y Vaishali’s courtesan Ambapali boosted
entertainers, craftsmen, reflecting social prosperity.
complexity. y Craft specialists: potters (kumbhakara),
goldsmiths (suvannakara).

15
 4. Art and Literature
A. Art
Aspect Details Examples
1. Paintings, y Early sculptures and carvings emerged; y Terracotta figurines of humans/animals at
Sculptures terracotta figurines marked artistic Purana Qila (Delhi).
beginnings. y Sculpted ringstone fragments.
2. Performing y Dance, music, and drama flourished in urban y Actors (nata), dancers (nataka), drummers
Arts centres, often at fairs (samajas). (kumbhathunika) performed in cities like
Vaishali and Rajagriha.
3. Popular Art y Craft-based arts like pottery (NBPW) and y Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) at
ivory work reflected cultural identity. Hastinapura.
y Ivory worker (dantakara) products traded widely.
B. Architecture
Aspect Details Examples
1. Temples and y Early stupas and sacred centres emerged, y Vaishali: Sacred centre for Buddhist gatherings.
Religious laying the foundation for later religious y Jetavana monastery in Shravasti gifted by
Places architecture. Anathapindika.
2. Palaces and y Fortified cities and palaces with moats, y Rajagriha: Stone fortification walls (5th century
Fortifications ramparts, and brick structures showcased BCE).
urban planning. y Pataliputra: Jaladurga at river confluence.
3. Urban y Burnt bricks, drainage, and ring wells y Kaushambi: Brick ramparts and soakage pits.
Features indicated advanced civic architecture. y Taxila (Bhir mound): Houses around courtyards.

C. Literature
Aspect Details Examples
1. Oral to Written y Oral traditions evolved into written y Jataka tales (Sutta Pitaka): Stories of Buddha’s past
Texts forms; Buddhist and Jain texts lives.
laid literary foundations. y Upanishads: Philosophical discourses.
2. Religious y Canonical texts of Buddhism y Tripitakas: Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma (5th-3rd
Literature (Tripitakas) and Jainism shaped century BCE).
philosophical and moral thought. y Jain Uttaradhyayana Sutra mentions kings like Isukara.
3. Epics and y Early references to epics and y Mahabharata mentions Kuru’s Chakravyuha.
Grammar grammatical works reflected y Panini’s Ashtadhyayi has Agricultural terms like
intellectual growth. “suhali” (ploughed land).

D. Edicts and Inscriptions

Aspect Details Examples
1. Early y Limited in this period; mostly on coins y Punch-marked coins with symbols (such as Avanti,
Inscriptions and pottery; edicts prominent later 400 BCE).
under Mauryas. y Clay sealing at Purana Qila.

5. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Agricultural y Iron technology improved tools (ploughs, y Magadha’s iron ore mines for tools and weapons.
Tools sickles), boosting surplus production. y Panini’s “suhali” (well-ploughed land).
2. Urban y Burnt bricks, drainage, and ring wells in y Kaushambi: Brick ramparts, soakage pits.
Infrastructure cities; marked technological advancement y Taxila (Bhir mound): Houses with courtyards.
in urban planning.
3. Military y Use of war chariots, elephants, and y Mahabharata’s Chakravyuha (Kuru).
Technology formations like Chakravyuha enhanced y Magadha’s elephant corps from forests.
warfare capabilities.
The Mahajanapadas period (600-300 BCE) marked India's transition to urban statehood, with Magadha emerging supreme. This
era laid the institutional foundations for the Mauryan Empire and shaped early Indian polity, economy and urban culture.

16
 9 Magadha Empire
(~600 BCE to ~321 BCE)
The Magadha Empire, rising in the 6th century BCE with its capital at Rajagriha (later Pataliputra), became a dominant force
in ancient India under dynasties like the Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda, who ruled until 321 BCE.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Type of Governance y The Magadhan rulers followed y Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda dynasties.
monarchical governance, where
power was concentrated with the king.
2. Major Events y Wars for supremacy against Kosala, y Ajatashatru vs. Vajji: Conquered Vajji using war
(Wars, Battles, Vajji, and Avanti; diplomatic alliances machines (~484 BCE).
Contemporaries) via marriages. y Bimbisara vs. Anga: Annexed Anga, a key trade region.
3. Nature of y Centralized monarchy with advisory y Bimbisara’s Council: Ministers and nobles advised
Administration councils; local governance through the king.
appointed officials. y Village Administration : Local headmen
(Gramani) managed rural areas.
4. Military y Magadha maintained a strong y The Nandas had a massive army of 200,000
Organization standing army, including elephants, infantry, 80,000 cavalry, and 6,000 elephants
cavalry, and infantry. (Megasthenes, in his "Indica”).
2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Agrarian economy with surplus y Rice and barley cultivation in Magadh’s fertile
Economy production; early urbanization supported lands.
by fertile Gangetic plains. y Rajgir and Pataliputra as emerging urban centers.
2. Trade y Internal trade via Ganga river; external y Anga’s annexation gave access to Champa, a trade
trade limited but growing with hub.
neighboring regions. y Barter system dominant, with early coin
(karshapanas) use under Nandas.
3. Social Organisation and Structure
Aspect Details Examples
1. Social Structure y Varna system prevalent; rise of Kshatriya rulers y Bimbisara supported Buddhism, reducing
and Brahmin priests; merchants gained prominence. Brahmin dominance.
y Traders (Setthis) emerged in urban areas.
2. Social Practices y Patriarchal society; slavery existed but was not y Buddhist texts mention dasas (servants).
widespread; rise of heterodox sects.

17
 4. Art and Literature
Aspect Details Examples
1. Art (Paintings, y Limited evidence of paintings; sculptures y Early Buddhist relics
Sculptures, rudimentary; performing arts tied to religious (such as stupas at Rajgir).
Performing Arts) events. y Folk dances during festivals.
2. Literature y Oral traditions in Pali and Prakrit; religious and y Buddhist Suttas composed during
administrative texts developed. Bimbisara’s reign.
y Jain Agamas linked to Mahavira’s
teachings.
3. Edicts and y No formal edicts like Mauryas; inscriptions rare y Piprahwa vase inscription (early Brahmi,
Inscriptions but early Brahmi script emerged. linked to Buddhist relics) first phase started
4. Coins y Punch-marked coins introduced under Nandas; y Karshapanas with geometric marks found
silver-based with symbols. in Magadh region.
y Facilitated trade and taxation.

5. Architecture
Architectural Feature Description Examples
1. Use of Wood and y Structures primarily built with wood and y Rajgir (Rajagriha): Early capital with
Mud-Brick mud-brick due to abundant timber, used wooden structures and mud-brick
for fortifications, palaces, and homes. reinforcements within cyclopean stone walls.
2. Cyclopean Stone Walls y Massive, irregularly shaped stone blocks used y Rajgir: Fortified walls surrounding the city,
for defensive fortifications around cities. some sections still visible today.
3. Stone Foundations y Limited use of stone for foundational y Bimbisara’s Jail: A rudimentary stone
structures or key buildings, marking a structure in Rajgir, attributed to early
shift to durability. rulers.
4. Large-Scale y Expanded defensive systems reflecting y Pataliputra: Grand wooden fortifications
Fortifications wealth and military power, including walls and gates (noted in texts like the
and gateways. Arthashastra).
5. Wooden Palaces y Multi-room palaces made of timber, often y Pataliputra: Wooden palace complex
elevated, showcased administrative and (described by Megasthenes, though no
royal functions. remains survive).
6. Irrigation and Public y Canals and water management systems to y Kalinga Irrigation Works: Early irrigation
Works support agriculture and urban needs. projects linked to territorial expansion.

6. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Innovations y Advances in metallurgy and military y Ajatashatru’s mahashilakantaka (catapult) and
technology; basic irrigation systems. rathamusala (chariot weapon).
y Iron tools for agriculture.
2. Urban y Fortified cities with basic planning; use of y Rajgir: Surrounded by hills and walls.
Development wood and mud-brick structures. y Pataliputra: Early settlement phase under Nandas.
The Nanda Dynasty's reign paved the way for a new era as Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya, overthrew
the Nandas in 321 BCE, establishing the vast and influential Mauryan Empire, which would further shape the course of
Magadh Empire.

18
 10 Maurya Dynasty
(321 BCE–185 BCE) Scan to Read More

The Mauryan Dynasty, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE, was a powerful empire that unified much of the Indian
subcontinent, with Pataliputra as its capital, reaching its zenith under Ashoka.
Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) began excavating the Mauryan period assembly hall at Kumhrar in Patna, focusing
on assessing the condition of the buried stone pillars and the water table, with the goal of uncovering the 80-pillar hall.

1. Political Structure
Features Description Examples
1. Centralized y The Mauryan Administration was a highly centralised y Ashoka’s edicts reflect his direct control
Monarchy monarchy with the king as the supreme authority. over policies (like Dhamma propagation).
2. Council of y A advisory body (Mantri Parishad/ Astadasa- y Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions
Ministers Tirthas-) assisted the king in governance. ministers like Amatyas aiding
Chandragupta Maurya.
3. Provincial y Empire divided into provinces governed by royal y Ashoka appointed his son as governor of
Administration princes or trusted officials (Kumara/Mahamatras). Ujjain, showcasing provincial delegation.
4. Local y Villages managed by local officials (Gramika); y Pataliputra’s administration mentioned by
Administration cities by Nagarikas. Megasthenes, with a municipal board of
30 members.
5. Espionage y Extensive spy network ensured loyalty and gathered y Arthashastra details spies disguised as
System intelligence. merchants or ascetics under Chandragupta.

2. Nature of Administration
Features Description Examples
1. Bureaucratic y Well-organized with officials like Rajukas (revenue) y Ashoka’s Rock Edict 3 mentions Rajukas
System and Dhamma Mahamatras (moral overseers). settling disputes.
2. Revenue y Land tax (Bhaga) was the primary source; efficient y Megasthenes notes taxes collected
Collection tax system supported the empire. systematically from peasants.
3. Judicial y King was the highest judge; local courts handled y Ashoka’s edicts emphasize justice and
System petty cases. fairness (such as in Pillar Edict IV).
4. Military y Large standing army with infantry, cavalry, y Chandragupta’s army of 600,000 men
Organization elephants, and chariots. defeated Seleucus, as per Greek accounts.

3. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Agrarian-based economy with trade and crafts y Arthashastra mentions state farms and
Economy as supplements; state-controlled key industries granaries under Chandragupta.
like mining, metallurgy, salt, textiles, and arms.
2. Trade y Internal trade via roads/rivers; external trade y Pataliputra linked to Taxila; trade goods like
with Hellenistic world and Southeast Asia. spices and gems exported to Seleucid Empire.
3. Currency y Punch-marked silver coins (Pana) facilitated y Mauryan coins found across India, inscribed
trade and taxation. with symbols like the sun and elephant.

19
4. Social Organisation and Structure
Aspect Details Examples
1. Caste y Varna system prevalent; Brahmins and Kshatriyas y Megasthenes describes seven classes, though
System held high status, Shudras as laborers. likely an outsider’s simplification of varnas.
2. Gender y Patriarchal society; women had limited public y Ashoka’s queen Kaurvaki donated to Buddhist
Roles roles but some were educated. stupas, indicating some influence.
3. Slavery y Existed but regulated; slaves mostly prisoners of y Arthashastra advises humane treatment of
war or debtors. slaves under state supervision.
4. Religious y Coexistence of Vedic traditions, Buddhism, y Ashoka’s edicts promote tolerance (like in Rock
Diversity Jainism, and Ajivikas. Edict XII).

5. Art, Edicts and Inscriptions

Subcategory Details Examples
1. Pottery y Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) was a y Found in archaeological sites across North India​
distinct type of pottery used in Mauryan times. like Pataliputra(Patna), Kosambi, Taxila, etc.
2. Edicts and y Ashokan edicts in Prakrit (Brahmi script) y Major Rock Edict at Girnar – details Ashoka’s
Inscriptions propagated Dhamma and governance principles. welfare measures.
3. Coins y Punch-marked coins with symbols; no y Coins with elephant and tree motifs unearthed
portraits, reflecting simplicity. in Mauryan sites like Patliputra, Ujjain, Sarnath

6. Architecture
I. Key Characteristics
Characteristics Description Examples
1. Material Shift y Transition from wood/terracotta to stone y Mauryan art used stone in huge
masonry (such as polished sandstone). dimensions, like at Sanchi
2. Achaemenid- y Persian-inspired pillars, palatial designs (like y The Mauryan dominions touched
Persian Influence Pataliputra’s 80-pillared hall). Achaemenid regions like Afghanistan.
3. Indigenous Roots y Folk motifs (lotus, animals) and wooden y Stupa railings imitate wooden designs.
prototypes replicated in stone.
4. Monumental Scale y Grand structures with precise engineering (like y Pillars are monolithic, lustrous, and
Ashokan pillars). tapering
5. Polished Surfaces y Unique Mauryan polish (glass-like finish on y Didarganj Yakshi showcases high polish.
sculptures/pillars).

II. Major Architectural Forms

A. Palaces & Secular Structures
Example Features Significance
1. Pataliputra Palace y 80-pillared hall (Kumrahar excavations). y Demonstrates Mauryan architectural
y Wooden walls with gold motifs (Megasthenes’ grandeur and synthesis of Persian and
account). indigenous Indian styles.
2. Bulandibagh y Wooden palisades (flood-resistant). y Shows advanced urban planning with
Fortifications flood-resistant structures, crucial for
Pataliputra’s location near the Ganga.

B. Pillars (Stambhas)
Example Features Symbolism
1. Sarnath Lion y Four addorsed lions, 24-spoke wheel. y Represents Dharmachakrapravartana
Capital y National Emblem of India. (Buddha’s first sermon).
2. Rampurva Bull y Zebu bull on inverted lotus. y Achaemenid influence in palmette
Capital y Mix of Indian/Persian motifs (rosettes). designs.
3. Allahabad Pillar y Edicts of Ashoka + later Gupta/Mughal y Schism Edict warns against monastic
inscriptions. divisions.

20
 C. Stupas
Example Features Evolution
1. Sanchi Stupa y Brick core (Ashokan), stone veneer (Shunga). y Enlarged by Sungas; gateways added
y Jataka tales on gateways. later.
2. Bharhut Stupa y Red sandstone railings with Yaksha carvings. y Early Buddhist narrative art (symbolic
y Toranas imitate wood. Buddha).
3. Dhamek Stupa y Commemorates Buddha’s first sermon. y Mriga-daya-vanam (animal sanctuary).
(Sarnath) y Cylindrical design.

D. Rock-Cut Caves
Example Features Patronage
1. Barabar Caves y Lomus Rishi (chaitya arch facade). y Ashoka’s dedication inscriptions.
y Polished interiors for Ajivikas.
2. Nagarjuni Caves y Gopi ka Kubha (largest chamber). y Dasaratha gifted caves to the Ajivikas.
y Dasaratha’s donations.

E. Sculptures
Example Features Significance
1. Didarganj Yakshi y Polished sandstone, flywhisk holder. y Exemplifies Mauryan sculptural realism.
y Voluminous physique.
2. Dhauli Elephant y Rock-cut; near Kalinga war site. y Likely depicts Airavata (Indra’s elephant).
y Symbolizes Ashoka’s pacifism.

III. Comparative Analysis

Aspect Mauryan vs. Achaemenid Mauryan vs. Post-Mauryan
1. Pillars y Mauryan: Monolithic, Indian motifs. y Mauryan: Polished, tapering.
y Persian: Segmented, floral motifs. y Shunga: Carved narratives (Bharhut).

7. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Statecraft and y Mauryan literature primarily focused on y Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya), a
Administration governance, economy, and political philosophy. treatise on statecraft and economics​.
2. Foreign Accounts y Greek and Latin writers provided firsthand y Indica by Megasthenes, which describes
accounts of the Mauryan Empire, its governance, Pataliputra, Mauryan administration, and
and social structure. social life​.
3. Buddhist y Buddhist texts recorded Ashoka’s policies, the y Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan
Literature spread of Buddhism, and Mauryan rule. chronicles), Ashokavadana​.
4. Jain Literature y Jain texts mentioned Chandragupta Maurya’s y Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra,
conversion to Jainism and his last years at Kalpasutra by Bhadrabahu​.
Shravanabelagola.
5. Religious Edicts y Ashoka’s inscriptions were written in Prakrit, y Ashoka’s Major and Minor Rock Edicts,
and Inscriptions using Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, spreading Pillar Edicts​.
his Dhamma.

8. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Metallurgy y Advanced iron tools and weapons; high- y Iron pillars (Delhi Iron Pillar, though later,
quality steel production. reflects Mauryan influence).
2. Engineering y Construction of roads, canals, and reservoirs y Grand Trunk Road (Uttarapatha) initiated under
for agriculture and trade. Chandragupta; Ashoka’s irrigation projects.
3. Medicine y State-supported hospitals and veterinary care; y Ashoka’s Edict II mentions medical facilities for
influenced by Buddhist compassion. humans and animals.
The Mauryan Empire, India's first major empire, peaked under Ashoka, who promoted Buddhism. After his death, weak successors
led to decline, and the Shunga Dynasty (185–73 BCE) overthrew the Mauryas, restoring Brahmanical influence.

21
 11
Shunga Dynasty
(185 BCE – 73 BCE) Scan to Read More

The Shunga dynasty ruled northern India from 185 to 73 BCE. Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga after overthrowing the Mauryas,
they are known for their patronage of art and literature, and a revival of Brahmanical traditions.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples/Substantiation
1. Nature of Polity y Decentralized monarchy; shift from Mauryan y Pushyamitra maintained control over
centralization to regional autonomy. Magadha, but provinces like Mathura
became independent.
2. Kingship y Hereditary rule; kings acted as military leaders y Pushyamitra performed Ashvamedha
and religious patrons. sacrifices to legitimize power.
3. Administration y Local governors and feudal lords had significant y Vidisha inscriptions show local rulers
autonomy; less bureaucratic than Mauryas. managing affairs under Shunga oversight.
4. Military y Strong army to counter external threats y Pushyamitra repelled invasions by
Organization (Indo-Greeks) and internal dissent. Demetrius (Indo-Greek king).

2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples/Substantiation
1. Nature of y Agrarian base with growing trade y Land grants to Brahmins increased
Economy y less centralized than Mauryan economy. (Example: Vidisha inscriptions).
2. Trade y Internal trade flourished; y Coins found in Vidisha suggest trade with
y limited external trade compared to Mauryas; western regions.
y Indo-Greek contacts.
3. Revenue y Taxes collected by local lords; y Pushyamitra’s military campaigns funded
System y less systematic than Mauryan taxation. through local tributes.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Aspect Details Examples/Substantiation
1. Social y Revival of Varna system, Brahmins regained y Example: Manusmriti reflects
Hierarchy dominance, Rigid caste structure emerged. Brahmanical influence during this period.
2. Religion y Brahmanism revived; Buddhism tolerated but y Pushyamitra’s Ashvamedha vs. Sanchi
declined in royal patronage. Stupa renovations.
3. Position of y Limited to domestic roles; strict codes of conduct y Manusmriti codified women’s
Women enforced. subservience.
4. Cultural y Assimilation of foreigners (like Indo-Greeks) into y Heliodorus (Greek) adopting Vaishnavism
Integration Indian society. (Besnagar Pillar).

4. Art and Architecture

Feature Description Example
1. Stupas and Railings y Expansion of Buddhist stupas with y Sanchi Stupa railings, commissioned
decorated stone railings. under Shunga rule​.
2. Toranas (Gateways) y Carved gateways with narrative reliefs y Bharhut Stupa’s Torana, showing scenes
depicting Jataka tales. from Buddha’s past lives​.

22
 3. Terracotta Art y Small figurines and plaques showing y Shunga terracotta plaques found in
human figures, deities, and animals. Kaushambi and Mathura​.
4. Floral and Geometric y Lotus, vine scrolls, and intricate foliage y Decorative elements in Bharhut and
Motifs patterns. Sanchi stupas​.
5. Yaksha and Yakshi y Large free-standing sculptures y Yakshi figure from Bharhut, symbolizing
Sculptures representing nature spirits. fertility​.
6. Chaityas and Viharas y Rock-cut Buddhist prayer halls and y Early Chaityas at Bhaja and Karle, built
monasteries. in Shunga style​.

5. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Patronage of Sanskrit y The Shunga rulers encouraged the composition y Mahabhashya by Patanjali.
Literature and refinement of works in Sanskrit, elevating
its status as a literary language.
2. Grammatical and y Works focused on refining Sanskrit grammar y Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.
Linguistic Refinement and syntax, building on earlier traditions.
3. Philosophical and y Literature included philosophical treatises and y Yoga Sutras by Patanjali – foundational
Commentarial Works commentaries, reflecting intellectual text on yoga philosophy (composed or
advancements of the time. compiled during this era).
4. Narrative and y Emergence of narrative poetry and drama, often y Malavikagnimitram by (Kalidasa)–
Dramatic Elements with historical or romantic themes linked to a Sanskrit play narrating the love story of
the dynasty. Agnimitra, a Shunga king, and Malavika.
5. Integration of Vedic y Literature often reinforced Vedic traditions and y References to Vedic sacrifices
Themes Brahmanical values, aligning with the dynasty’s (Ashvamedha) in texts like
ideological stance. Malavikagnimitram.
6. Didactic and Moral y Some works provided ethical or legal y Manusmriti – traditionally dated to this
Literature guidance, reflecting societal norms and the period, codifying laws and social duties.
revival of the caste system.
7. Historical and y Texts preserved historical events, such as y Yuga Purana – describes Indo-Greek
Cultural conflicts with the Indo-Greeks (Yavanas), attacks on Pataliputra, blending
Documentation blending fact with literary flourish. prophecy and history.

6. Edicts and Inscriptions

Aspect Details Examples/Substantiation
1. Inscriptions y Written in Brahmi script (Prakrit); reflect y Heliodorus Pillar (Vidisha) dedicated to
diplomacy, religion, and patronage. Vasudeva (Vishnu).
2. Significance y Evidence of cultural exchange and Shunga y Ayodhya inscription of Dhana mentions
legitimacy; less extensive than Mauryan edicts. Pushyamitra’s sacrifices.

7. Coins
Aspect Details Examples/Substantiation
1. Nature of Coins y Copper and silver coins; simpler designs than Mauryan y Coins with king’s name
punch-marked coins. (Pushyamitra, Agnimitra).
2. Significance y Indicate trade and economic activity; limited y Found in Vidisha and Pataliputra, not
circulation beyond core regions. Mathura.

8. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples/Substantiation
1. Astronomy y Refinement of astronomical observations y Use of lunar and solar calendars; possible influence on
and calendrical systems. later texts like the Jyotisha Vedanga.
2. Technology y Stone-working techniques improved for y Bharhut and Sanchi stupa railings show advanced
sculptures and architecture. masonry.
The Shunga dynasty, founded by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE after overthrowing the Mauryas, ruled for 112 years. They are
known for reviving Brahmanical traditions, patronizing Sanskrit and art, including stupa renovations, and defending against foreign
invasions before being succeeded by the Kanvas.

23
 12 Kanva Dynasty
(73 BCE to 28 BCE) Scan to Read More

The Kanva Dynasty ruled for a brief 45 years, succeeding the Shunga Dynasty in Magadha. Founded by Vasudeva Kanva after
assassinating the last Shunga ruler, Devabhuti, it was a transitional phase in ancient Indian history, marked by political instability
and cultural continuity, ending with its overthrow by the Satavahanas.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of Polity y A Brahmanical monarchy established y Vasudeva Kanva, a Brahmin minister, overthrew
through a coup; power centralized but weak Devabhuti, signaling a shift from military to
due to short reign. priestly rule.
2. Administrative y Ruled from Pataliputra (as per Puranas), y Coins found in Vidisha suggest a practical
Base though influence likely limited to central administrative center beyond Pataliputra.
India (Vidisha).
3. Succession y Hereditary kingship passed from father to y Vasudeva → Bhumimitra → Narayana →
son across four rulers. Susharman, a clear dynastic lineage.
4. Weaknesses y Limited territorial control; overshadowed y Susharman’s defeat by Satavahanas in 28 BCE
by rising powers like Satavahanas and marked the dynasty’s end.
Indo-Greeks.
2. Nature of Administration
Feature Description Examples
1. Centralized y King as supreme authority; likely relied on y Vasudeva’s ministerial background suggests a
Rule Brahman ministers. priestly council.
2. Local y Continuation of Shunga systems; limited y No new administrative reforms recorded in
Governance evidence of innovation. Puranas or inscriptions.
3. Military y Weak military presence; unable to resist y Susharman’s defeat highlights military
Satavahana aggression. inadequacy.
3. Economic Organisation and Nature of Economy
Aspect Details Examples
1. Agriculture y Primary economic base; relied on fertile y Continuity from Shunga agrarian economy; no
Gangetic plains. new irrigation noted.
2. Craftsmanship y Metalworking and textile production y Bronze and iron artifacts found in Vidisha
continued from Shunga traditions. region.
3. Economic y Limited to central India; disrupted by external y Coin finds concentrated around Vidisha, not
Reach threats (Indo-Greeks, Shakas). widespread.
4. Internal Trade y Localized trade in central India; no major y Bhumimitra’s coins suggest regional
expansion recorded. commerce.
4. Social Organisation and Structure
Aspect Details Examples
1. Caste y Brahmanical dominance reinforced; continuity of y Kanva rulers were Brahmins, reflecting priestly
System varna system. supremacy.
2. Society y Hierarchical; no major social reforms or upheavals y Puranas indicate stability in social norms from
recorded. Shunga times.

24
 3. Religion y Patronage of Hinduism (Brahmanism) but tolerated y No anti-Buddhist actions recorded, unlike
Buddhism Shunga’s Pushyamitra.

5. Art and Literature

Category Details Examples
1. Popular Art y Simple motifs on coins; no grand artistic legacy. y Bhumimitra’s coins with basic designs.
2. Literature y Sanskrit literature flourished; scholarly works y Continued patronage of texts like Manusmriti.
supported.

6. Coins
Aspect Details Examples
4. Material y Copper and possibly bronze; no gold or y Bhumimitra’s copper coins with "Kanvasya"
silver noted. legend.
5. Distribution y Found in Vidisha, Panchala, and Kaushambi. y Indicates a regional rather than empire-wide economy.
6. Design y Simple; ruler names and basic symbols. y Contrast with elaborate Satavahana or Kushan coinage.

The Kanva dynasty, while short-lived (73-28 BCE), exemplifies the political instability that followed the Mauryan decline.
Their Brahmin origins indicate a revival of Brahmanical influence. They are located between the Shungas and Satavahanas
and play an important role in ancient India's dynastic history.

25
 13 Chedi Dynasty
(1st–4th Century CE) Scan to Read More

The Chedi dynasty of Kalinga rose to power in eastern India after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. King Kharavela, its
most prominent ruler, is known for the Hathigumpha inscription.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Political y Centralized monarchy with a strong king (Maharaja); y Kharavela titled himself
Structure dynastic title "Mahameghavahana" symbolized power "Kalingadhipati" (Lord of Kalinga).
akin to Indra.
2. Kingship y Hereditary succession; kings trained in administration y Kharavela became Yuvaraja (crown
and warfare from youth. prince) at 15, king at 24.
3. Administration y Efficient bureaucracy with officials like Mahamatyas y Hathigumpha Inscription mentions
(ministers), Senapatis (generals), and Dandanayakas administrative roles.
(law officers).
4. Nature of y Inclusive and welfare-oriented; emphasized Dharma y Kharavela repaired Kalinganagari
Governance (righteous rule) and public works. after a cyclone in his 1st year.

2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Agrarian base with trade-driven prosperity; y Kalinga’s rice fields and Tosali, an
Economy inland trade routes. important urban center.
2. Trade y Land-based trade: Connected to Magadh and y Kharavela’s conquests suggest trade route
Deccan. control.
3. Infrastructure y Ports, roads, and irrigation projects supported y Kharavela built steps for cool tanks and
economic growth. gardens.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Aspect Details Examples
1. Social y King at apex, followed by officials, merchants, y Kharavela’s Chedi clan linked to ancient
Hierarchy artisans, and farmers; Kshatriya dominance. Kshatriyas.
2. Religion y Jainism flourished under royal patronage; tolerance y Kharavela supported Jain monks but
for other faiths (Buddhism, Hinduism). repaired all shrines.
3. Community y Urban centers with guilds (such as artisans, traders); y Kalinganagari’s gates and ramparts rebuilt
Life rural agrarian society. by Kharavela.

4. Art and Literature

Category Details Examples
1. Sculptures y Intricate rock-cut reliefs and Jain iconography; focus y Udayagiri cave carvings of
on religious themes. Tirthankaras.
2. Performing y Music, dance, and theatre patronized by kings; linked to y Kharavela held performances in his 3rd
Arts Gandharva-Veda (art science). year.
3. Literature y Prakrit writings; no surviving texts, but inscriptions y Hathigumpha Inscription in Kavya style
show literary skill. (poetic prose).

5. Cave Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Rock-Cut y Caves were carved directly into sandstone hills y Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves: Made in the
Technique using chisels and hammers, requiring precise first or second century BC, close to present-day
engineering for stability and functionality. Bhubaneswar under Kalinga King Kharavela.

26
 2. Purpose y Designed as viharas (monastic residences) for Jain y Ranigumpha Cave (Udayagiri): The double-
and Layout monks; typically single or double-storeyed with storey Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri is home
small cells and verandahs. Simple, functional to some exquisite sculptures.
layouts reflect ascetic needs.
3. Natural and y Combined natural rock formations with man- y Udayagiri and Khandagiri: Have both artificial
Artificial made excavations, adapting to the hill’s contours and natural caves (possibly carved out as
Integration for structural harmony. residences of Jain monks).
4. Decorative y Early sculptural reliefs with floral, animal, and y Khandagiri Caves: Reliefs of elephants and
Elements human motifs; less ornate than later periods but guardians;
significant for their narrative art. y Ranigumpha Cave: Exquisite carvings.
5. Entrances y Low entrances with rudimentary pillars or y Mancapuri Cave (Udayagiri): Inscription
and Pillars pilasters; some caves have arched doorways, mentions Kharavela’s successor Kudepasiri,
showing early architectural experimentation. with simple pillars

6. Edicts and Inscriptions

Feature Description Examples
1. Material and y Carved into rock surfaces, typically sandstone, y Famous for the Hathigumpha inscription,
Medium ensuring durability and permanence. carved out in Brahmi script.
2. Script y Written in Brahmi script, an early Indian writing y Carved out in Brahmi script, which starts with
system, adapted for Prakrit language. 'Jain Namokar Mantra ', The Sanskrit
language was written using the variant version
of Brahmi script .
3. Language y Composed in Prakrit, the vernacular language of y Inferred from the Hathigumpha Inscription’s
the time, making them accessible to a broader style, typical of post-Mauryan Prakrit
audience. inscriptions.
4. Content y Chronicles royal achievements, military y Highlights various military campaigns
Focus campaigns, religious patronage, and dynastic undertaken by King Kharavela like expeditions
lineage. westward to Asika (capital of Assaka), against
the Satavahanas, and into northern India.

5. Religious y Often begins with invocations or mantras, y Starts out with 'Jain Namokar Mantra';
Significance reflecting the dynasty’s Jain affiliation. Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.
6. Dynastic y Emphasizes lineage and titles, showcasing royal y Took pride in describing himself as a
Pride legitimacy and power. descendant of Rajarsi Vasu;
y The dynasty also carried for its kings a grand
designation or title, Mahameghavahana.

7. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Engineering y Advanced rock-cutting for caves; urban planning y Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves,
with drainage systems. Kalinganagari repairs.
2. Water y Irrigation via tanks and wells; steps for water y Kharavela developed flight of steps in
Management access in public spaces. cool water tanks.
3. Knowledge y Kings trained in mathematics, law, and music y Kharavela’s education in Lekha, Rupa,
(Gandharva-Veda). Ganana.
The Chedis, led by Kharavela, revived Kalinga’s power through military conquests, Jain patronage, and cave architecture,
leaving a legacy in Odisha’s art and inscriptions.

27
 14 Satavahana Dynasty
(230 BCE-220 CE) Scan to Read More

The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, ruled for nearly 450 years in the Deccan region of India after the decline of the
Mauryan Empire. Emerging as a powerful dynasty, they conneted northern and southern India, blending Vedic traditions
with local cultures and excelling in trade, art, and administration.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of Polity y Feudal monarchy with a strong king; semi- y Gautamiputra Satakarni’s inscriptions highlight
independent local lords (Maharathis, Mahabhojas). centralized authority over feudatories.
2. Administrative y Divided into Aharas (districts) managed by y Naneghat inscription mentions
Units Amatyas (officials). administrative divisions under Simuka.
3. Military y Robust army; reclaimed territories from Shakas y Gautamiputra Satakarni defeated Nahapana
Strength and other invaders. (Western Kshatrapa) around 124 CE.
4. Succession y Hereditary; occasional succession disputes y Transition from Pulamavi to Yajna Sri
weakened later rulers. Satakarni shows dynastic continuity.

2. Nature of Administration
Feature Description Examples
1. Central y King as supreme ruler; issued grants and y Nasik inscription by Gautamiputra’s mother,
Authority inscriptions. Gautami Balashri.
2. Local y Feudal lords (Maharathis) managed regions; y Naneghat inscription lists officials like
Governance taxes collected locally. Mahasenapati.
3. Taxation y Land revenue and trade taxes; exemptions for y Land grants to Buddhist monks in Nasik
Brahmins. caves.

3. Economic Organisation and Nature of Economy

Aspect Details Examples
1. Agriculture y Backbone of economy; rice, cotton, and y Land grants in inscriptions (such as Karle
sugarcane cultivated in Deccan. caves) mention fertile lands.
2. Craftsmanship y Textiles, metallurgy, and jewelry flourished; y Roman glassware and Satavahana beads
supported trade. found at Arikamedu.
3. Economic Reach y Extended from western Deccan to eastern y Ports like Sopara and Bharuch linked to
coast (Andhra). Roman trade; Kalyan.

4. Trade
Aspect Description Examples
1. Internal Trade y Connected Deccan towns and ports; guilds y Coins of Yajna Sri found across Deccan
(Shrenis) active. trade routes.
2. External Trade y Robust maritime trade with Rome, Southeast y Roman amphorae at Ter; Periplus of the
Asia, and Arabia. Erythraean Sea mentions trade with
Satavahana ports.
3. Trade Goods y Cotton textiles, spices, pearls, semi-precious y Lead coins indicate trade in base metals;
stones, and metals. pearls from Krishna delta.

28
 5. Social Organisation and Structure
Aspect Details Examples
1. Caste y Varna system followed; Brahmins favored, but social y Land grants to Brahmins; traders (Vanijas)
System mobility existed. rose in status.
2. Society y Urbanized; traders and artisans prominent alongside an y Guilds mentioned in inscriptions (such as
agrarian base. Nasik caves).
3. Religion y Patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism; religious y Buddhist caves at Karle; Vedic sacrifices by
tolerance. Satakarni I.

6. Art (including Mural Paintings)

Feature Description Examples
1. Medium y Primarily frescoes on cave walls, using natural y Ajanta Caves (Caves 9 and 10)
pigments like lime, ochre, and vegetable dyes.
2. Themes y Depictions of Buddhist narratives (Jataka tales), daily y Jataka stories in Ajanta Cave 10
life, royal figures, and nature motifs.
3. Style y Simple yet expressive figures, with an emphasis on y Bodhisattva figures in Ajanta
narrative storytelling and fluid outlines.
4. Techniques y Wet plaster technique (fresco-secco), where pigments y Early frescoes in Ajanta
were applied to partially dry surfaces.
5. Purpose y Religious (Buddhist propagation) and decorative, often y Cave murals sponsored by Satavahanas
commissioned by royalty or merchants.

Note: While the peak of Ajanta’s paintings is dated to the Gupta period (5th-6th)

7. Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Artistic Style y The Satavahana period is known for its early y The Amaravati School of Art, known
sculptural traditions, characterized by narrative for its intricate limestone carvings.
reliefs, intricate carvings, and Buddhist themes.
2. Buddhist Influence y Patronized Buddhist art and architecture, y Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda
constructing stupas, chaityas, and viharas. stupas feature reliefs depicting
Buddhist motifs such as Jataka tales were Buddhist stories.
commonly depicted.
3. Stupa Architecture y Large stupas with elaborate toranas (gateways) y The Amaravati Stupa, one of the
and decorated railings. Often had a largest stupas, known for its intricate
circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha). carvings.
4. Rock-Cut y The Satavahanas developed chaityas (prayer halls) y The Karle and Bhaja caves in
Architecture and viharas (monastic dwellings) carved into Maharashtra, which feature grand
rocks. chaitya halls.
5. Torana and Railings y Elaborately decorated stone railings and gateways y The Sanchi Stupa toranas depict
with floral and narrative reliefs. Buddhist teachings through carvings.
6. Material Used y Primarily used limestone for sculptures and stone y Amaravati sculptures, made of white
for architecture. The carvings were detailed and limestone, depict the life of Buddha.
fine.
7. Influence on Later y The Satavahana art laid the foundation for later y The reliefs of Nagarjunakonda
Art sculptural traditions, influencing Gupta and influenced South Indian temple art.
Pallava art.

8. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Language y Prakrit (dominant administrative and literary y Nasik and Naneghat inscriptions in
language). Prakrit.
y Limited use of Sanskrit in royal inscriptions.

29
 2. Secular Literature y Love poetry and lyrical compositions. y Gatha Saptashati (700 verses) by King Hala
y Focus on everyday life and emotions. (1st CE), depicting love and rural life.
y Comparable to Tamil Sangam poetry.
3. Religious Texts y Patronage of Buddhist and Hindu literature. y Buddhist texts at Karle and Kanheri caves.
y Commentaries on Vedic texts. y References in Puranas (Matsya Purana).
4. Inscriptions y Brahmi script used for royal proclamations y Naneghat inscriptions
and donations. (Queen Nayanika’s donations).
y Record land grants and religious endowments. y Nasik inscriptions
(Gautamiputra Satakarni’s victories).
5. Historical Records y Foreign accounts (Greek/Roman) describe y Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Satavahana trade and society. (1st CE Greek text) mentions Deccan’s
ports and exports.
6. Themes y Courtly life, nature, and moral teachings. y Gatha Saptashati verses on monsoon,
y Blend of folk and elite traditions. pastoral life, and romance.

9. Edicts and Inscriptions

Aspect Details Examples
1. Edicts y Absence of royal edicts like Ashoka’s; y Nasik inscription by Gautami Balashri
inscriptions record grants and victories. praising Gautamiputra.
2. Inscriptions y In Prakrit, using Brahmi script; found on caves y Naneghat inscription by Naganika
and coins. (Satakarni I’s queen).

10. Coins
Aspect Details Examples
1. Material y Lead (most common), copper, silver; no gold. y Yajna Sri’s silver coins with ship and conch symbols.
2. Distribution y Widespread across Deccan and coastal y Coins found from Sopara to Andhra coast.
regions; trade facilitators.
3. Design y Bilingual (Prakrit-Sanskrit); symbols like y Gautamiputra’s coins with royal titles and dynastic
ships, elephants, and Ujjain mark. emblems.
y Coins of Vasisthiputra Pulumavi with "Rano Siri
Pulumavi" legend
4. Innovations y Unique square shape (unlike circular Roman/ y Square lead coins with elephant motif.
Indo-Greek coins)
y Die-struck technique

11. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Water y Construction of ring wells and underground drainage y Ring wells and drains in Satavahana
Management systems for water supply and waste disposal. settlements like Paithan.
2. Metallurgy y Advanced coin minting and metalworking for tools y Lead and silver coins; iron tools at Ter
and ornaments. excavations.
3. Engineering y Rock-cut caves and stupa construction; irrigation y Karle chaitya’s vaulted roof; canals
systems. inferred from agrarian prosperity.
4. Urban Planning y Planned towns with fortified walls, covered drains, y Walled towns like Pratishthana (Paithan),
and soakage pits for sanitation. Nasik, and some Andhra towns.
The Satavahanas pioneered decentralized governance (later adopted by Guptas), integrated Deccan with global trade, and developed
the Amravati school that influenced Southeast Asian art, leaving a lasting legacy.

30
 15 Indo-Greek, Sakas and Parthians
(~2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE) Scan to Read More

The Indo-Greeks (180 BCE–10 CE), also known as Yavanas, successors of Alexander's conquests, blended Hellenistic and Indian
traditions, excelling in coinage and urban culture. The Sakas (c. 1st century BCE – 4th century CE), Central Asian nomads turned
rulers, merged Scythian and Indian influences in western India. The Indo-Parthians briefly dominated northwest India, synthesizing
Persian, Greek, and Indian elements in Gandhara art before the Kushanas rose.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Indo-Greeks Sakas Parthians
1. Kingship y Hellenistic model; Kings as y Tribal chieftains turned y Dynastic rule (Arsacid
Nature military leaders with divine kings; less divine, more dynasty); king as "King of
status (such as, "Soter" - Savior). warrior-based legitimacy. Kings," semi-divine.
2. Timeline & y 180 BCE–10 CE; Menander I y 1st century BCE–4th y 1st century BCE–2nd century
Major Kings (155–130 BCE) - Milindapanha. century CE; Maues CE; Gondophares (20–46
(85–60 BCE), Azes I. CE) - Indo-Parthian king.
3. Major Events/ y Wars with Bactrians; y Conflict with Indo- y Battles with Kushans;
Wars Menander’s expansion into Greeks; Saka migration Gondophares’ rule overlapped
Gangetic plains. due to Yuezhi pressure. with St. Thomas legend.
4. Administration y Decentralized; Satraps y Satrapal system y Satraps under central king; a
(governors) managed regions; borrowed from Indo- blend of Persian and
Greek-style polis cities. Greeks; Kshatrapas Hellenistic systems.
(such as Nahapana).
5. Example y Menander’s coin with y Rudradaman’s y Gondophares’ Takht-i-Bahi
"Dharmikasa" shows a blend of Junagadh inscription inscriptions show Parthian
Greek-Indian governance. reflects Saka's control in NW India.
administrative prowess.

2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Indo-Greeks Sakas Parthians
1. Nature of Economy y Agrarian + Trade- y Pastoral origins, later y Trade-centric; linked India
based; Greek influence trade-focused under to Central Asia and Rome.
on urban markets. Kshatrapas.
2. Trade y Silk Road pioneers; y Controlled western ports y Middlemen in Silk Road;
traded with Rome (wine, (Barygaza-modern Bharuch); exported horses, imported
glass), India (spices). traded with Romans, Kushans. Roman goods.
3. Coins y Bilingual coins (Greek + y Imitated Indo-Greek coins; y Gondophares’ coins with
Prakrit); Menander’s Azes I’s coins with Indian Kharoshthi script,
silver drachmas. motifs. showing trade links.
4. Expansion of y Indo-Greek amphorae y Saka coins in Gujarat reflect y Parthian horse motifs on
Economic Activity found in Taxila show maritime trade dominance. coins highlight their
Mediterranean trade. nomadic trade roots.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Aspect Indo-Greeks Sakas Parthians
1. Social y Stratified: Greek elites, Indian y Tribal hierarchy; Kshatrapas y Persian nobility + local
Structure locals; intermarriages common. as new elites over the Indian elites; less rigid than
populace. Sakas.
2. Cultural y Greco-Buddhist synthesis; y Adopted Indian customs (such y Zoroastrianism +
Blend Menander’s conversion to as Rudradaman’s Sanskrit Buddhism; Gondophares
Buddhism. usage). linked to Christianity.
3. Example y Milindapanha: Menander’s y Rudradaman’s patronage of y St. Thomas’ visit to
dialogue with Nagasena shows Brahmins reflects Gondophares’ court hints
social fusion. assimilation. at religious diversity.

31
4. Art, Architecture and Literature
I. Indo-Greek
A. Art and Sculpture
Feature Details Examples
1. Hellenistic y Realistic human forms with detailed y Mathura Buddha Statues (UP): Early Buddha
Realism and musculature, proportionate bodies, and images with naturalistic proportions and serene
Anatomy individualized expressions. poses.
2. Drapery and y Flowing, intricately folded garments (such y Sanchi Stupa Reliefs (MP): Figures with draped
Clothing as chitons, himations) that cling to the clothing reflecting subtle Hellenistic influence.
body, showing depth and movement.
3. Syncretism of y Blend of Greek deities (such as, Athena) y Bharhut Stupa Reliefs (MP): Yakshas and yakshis
Greek and and Indian (Buddhist) figures; decorative with volume, hinting at Greek-Indian fusion.
Indian Motifs elements like acanthus leaves.
4. Use of Stone and y Carved from stone (schist, sandstone) in y Heliodorus Pillar Reliefs (Besnagar, MP): Floral
High Relief high relief for three-dimensional, detailed motifs and garlands with Hellenistic style.
effects.
5. Idealized yet y Greek ideals of beauty mixed with Indian y Mathura Buddha Statues (UP): Robes and
Localized features (such as almond eyes, and local features blend Greek realism with Indian traits.
Figures attire).
6. Narrative and y Narrative scenes (like, Jataka tales) with y Sanchi Stupa Reliefs (MP): Jataka tales with
Decorative Greek decorative motifs like vine scrolls figures showing Hellenistic modelling.
Elements and rosettes.

B. Literature
Category Details Examples
1. Bilingual and y Combined Greek and Indian languages y Milindapanha: Greek ideas in Pali;
Multicultural (such as Pali, and Prakrit) using scripts like Heliodorus Pillar Inscription: Prakrit in
Nature Greek and Kharoshthi. Brahmi script.
2. Philosophical and y Socratic-style dialogues blending Greek y Milindapanha: Dialogue between Menander
Dialogic Style rationalism with Indian (often Buddhist) themes. I and Nagasena on Buddhist philosophy.
3. Patronage of y Supported Buddhist literature, integrating y Milindapanha: Reflects Menander’s
Buddhist Themes Hellenistic frameworks with Indian spirituality. engagement with Buddhism.
4. Pragmatic and y Preserved in inscriptions (coins, pillars) for y Heliodorus Pillar Inscription: Devotional
Epigraphic Focus royal decrees or dedications, not manuscripts. text; Coin Inscriptions: Royal titles.
5. Limited Surviving y Sparse direct works; influence inferred from y All examples reflect this scarcity, with
Corpus secondary texts and epigraphy. reliance on later texts or brief inscriptions.

II. The Saka

A. Art and Architecture
Category Description Examples
1. Syncretic y Merged Iranian realism with y Mathura Yaksha statues showcasing robust, indigenous
Sculpture Indian artistic traditions, creating a features with foreign influences.
unique blend of Hellenistic and y Early Gandhara Buddha statues reflecting Greco-
indigenous styles. Buddhist artistic elements.
2. Coinage Art y Depicted royal figures alongside y Coins issued by King Azilises featuring a horse-riding
Buddhist and Greek symbols, king on one side and Buddhist symbols on the other.
serving both political and cultural y Bilingual coins with inscriptions in Kharosthi and Greek,
purposes. promoting cross-cultural communication.
3. Metalwork y Demonstrated advanced y The intricately designed silver vase from Taxila,
goldsmithing techniques that showcases fine craftsmanship.
influenced later Kushana jewellery y Exquisite gold ornaments from Sirkap, reflecting a fusion
styles. of Indian and Central Asian styles.

32
4. Rock-cut Caves y Retained early Buddhist y Nasik Caves, which house inscriptions of the Saka ruler
architectural elements while Nahapana, highlighting patronage of Buddhist monks.
simplifying Mauryan cave designs.
5. Stupa y Introduced Indo-Scythian y The sculpted reliefs of the early Amravati Stupa, blend
Enhancements decorative elements, bridging indigenous and foreign motifs.
early Buddhist stupas and later
Gupta-era embellishments.
6. Fortifications y Built stone-reinforced defensive y The fortified city walls of Sirkap in Taxila, showcase
walls, setting architectural advanced urban planning and defence strategies.
standards for medieval Indian
military structures.

B. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Inscriptions y Bilingual records provide key historical data about post- y Rudradaman's Junagadh
Mauryan governance. inscription(also known as Girnar
y A first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit Rock inscription)
2. Coin y Greek/Kharoshthi scripts reveal linguistic diversity under y Vonones' bilingual coins
Legends Saka rule
3. Textual y Foreign accounts document India's early international trade y Periplus of Erythraean Sea
References networks
4. Saka y Initiated in 78 CE to commemorate Saka rule, later adopted y Basis for India's national calendar
Samvat nationally (Shalivahana era)

III. The Parthians

A. Contribution to Gandhara Art
Aspect Contribution Examples
1. Hellenistic y Introduced Greek realism (anatomical accuracy, y Buddha statues with Greek-style robes
Influence drapery). (himation).
y Fusion of Greek deities with Buddhist icons. y Vajrapani as Hercules (club & lion skin).
2. Royal y Gondophares I promoted Buddhist art in y Silver coins with Greek legends & Buddhist
Patronage Taxila. symbols.
y Coins blended Greek & Indian motifs. y Dharmarajika Stupa (Parthian-era additions).
3. Architectural y Hellenistic urban layouts (such as Sirkap, y Jaulian Monastery (Parthian-style columns).
Impact Taxila). y Grid-based city planning in Taxila.
y Corinthian pillars in monasteries.
4. Sculptural y Narrative reliefs of Jataka tales. y "Great Departure" panels (Greek-style
Innovations y Aristocratic Bodhisattva imagery. realism).
y Maitreya Bodhisattva with Parthian attire.
5. Transition to y Paved the way for mature Gandhara school y Kanishka-era Buddha statues initially followed
Kushana Art under Kushanas. Parthian drapery.
y Early Kushana art retained Parthian styles.

5. Coinage
Feature Indo-Greeks Sakas Parthians
1. Bilingual y Greek (obverse) + Kharoshthi/Prakrit y Rare bilingual issues; y Greek (obverse) +
Inscriptions (reverse). primarily local scripts. Kharoshthi (reverse).
y Example: Menander I's coins with y Example: Rudrasimha y Example: Abdagases’
"BASILEŌS SŌTĒROS MENANDROU" I’s coins with Brahmi. coins with dual
(Greek) and "Maharajasa Menadrasa" (Prakrit). inscriptions.

33
 2. Metals & y High-purity silver (drachms/tetradrachms) y Silver (debased over y Silver (drachms) and
Quality and copper coins were common. The first time) and copper. copper.
gold coins were issued at a small scale by y Example: Nahapana’s y Example: Detailed
Indo-Greeks, later expanded significantly restruck silver coins. silver drachms of
by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises. Gondophares.
y Example: Apollodotus I’s 90% silver
drachms.
3. Portraiture y Realistic 3/4th profile busts, Hellenistic y Stylized king portraits y Hellenistic-inspired
style. with Indian symbols. busts with local
y Example: Demetrius I with elephant scalp y Example: Chaitya/ touches.
crown. stupa motifs on Saka y Example: Gondophares’
coins. armored bust.
4. Religious y Greek deities + Indian gods. y Buddhist/Hindu y Greek (Nike) + Hindu
Syncretism y Example: Agathocles’ coins of Balarama/ symbols (chaitya, (Shiva) motifs.
Krishna. triratna). y Example: Shiva with a
y Example: Rudrasimha trident on reverse.
I’s Buddhist coins.
5. Trade & y Widely circulated along Silk Road. y Dominated western y Used in Gandhara-
Circulation y Example: Straton I’s coins in Central Asia. India trade. Punjab trade networks.
y Example: Coins from y Example: Coins found
Gujarat to Deccan. in Taxila.

6. Science and Technology

Feature Indo-Greeks Sakas Parthians
1. Astronomy y Introduced Greek zodiac y Adopted Indian lunar y Advanced Babylonian
signs; and hybrid calendars. calendars. astronomical records.
y Example: Zodiac symbols on y Example: Dates in y Example: Star charts from
coins of Agathocles. Nahapana's inscriptions. Parthian Mesopotamia.
2. Metallurgy y High-purity silver coinage y Debased silver alloys; y Silver/copper coins with
(90% silver drachms). copper minting. intricate designs.
y Example: Apollodotus I's y Example: Rudradaman's y Example: Gondophares' silver
90% silver drachms. copper coins. drachms.
3. Architecture y Hellenistic-style cities (such y Rock-cut caves (Nasik) y Fortified cities
as Ai-Khanoum). and stupa enhancements. (such as Taxila's Sirkap).
y Example: Corinthian y Example: Vihara caves at y Example: Double-wall
fortifications at Sirkap and the
columns at Ai-Khanoum. Nasik.
Apsidal temple, the first
structural temple at the site.
4. Engineering y Advanced hydraulic systems y Stone-reinforced y Qanat water systems
for irrigation. fortifications. (underground canals).
y Example: Irrigation channels y Example: Defensive walls y Example: Qanats in Persia.
in Bactria. at Junagadh.
5. Mathematics y Greek geometry merged with y Used Indian numerals in y Adopted Greek and Indian
Indian arithmetic. inscriptions. mathematical concepts.
y Example: Decimal system in y Example: Numerals in y Example: Greek angles in
Menander's realm. Ujjain inscriptions. Parthian buildings.
The Indo-Greeks, Sakas, and Parthians profoundly shaped South Asia's cultural and political landscape. The Indo-Greeks pioneered
Hellenistic influences in art and coinage, while the Sakas blended Central Asian and Indian traditions through architecture and the
Saka Samvat calendar. The Parthians synthesized Persian, Greek, and Indian elements in Gandhara art before the Kushanas rose.
Together, they laid the foundations for later empires, leaving enduring legacies in art, governance, and cross-cultural exchange.

34
 16 The Kushanas
(1st–3rd century CE) Scan to Read More

The Kushanas descended from the Yeuchi clans of Central Asia, ruled a vast empire from Afghanistan to North India. They patronized
Buddhism (hosted the 4th Buddhist Council), controlled the Silk Route, and issued gold coins with Greco-Persian-Indian influences.

1. Political Structure & Administration

Feature Description Examples
1. Kingship y The Kushan rulers followed a hereditary y Kanishka I was titled Devaputra on
monarchy with a divine status. They called inscriptions and coins.
themselves "Devaputra" (Son of God).
2. Centralized y The empire was ruled from a central capital, with y Purushapura (Peshawar), Mathura, Kapisa
Rule provincial governors managing key regions. (Bagram/Twinlapilaal), and Pushkalavati
3. Administrative y The empire was divided into provinces, often y Mathura was governed by officials under
Divisions called Kshatrapies (controlled by governors or the central authority.
Kshatrapas), and further into districts for
effective governance.
4. Legal & Judicial y Legal pluralism—Indian laws (Dharmashastra) y Inscriptions in Mathura suggest local laws
System coexisted with Persian and Greek influences. and Buddhist influence on justice.

2. Economic Organisation
Feature Description Examples
1. Agrarian y Economy was based on agriculture, with taxes on y Mathura and Punjab were major
Economy land and crops. agricultural centres.
2. Silk Road y Kushans controlled major trade routes like y Mathura and Taxila were major trade hubs.
Trade Uttarapatha (Northwest trade route) and
Dakshinapatha (Southern trade route),
connecting India, Central Asia, and China.
3. Taxation y Tax revenue came from land, trade, and tolls on y Inscriptions suggest tax collection in the
System trade routes. Mathura region.
4. Indo-Roman y Exports: spices, silk, textiles, ivory; Imports: wine, y Indo-Roman trade flourished, with Roman
Trade glassware, metals. goods (such as wine, and glassware)
reaching Kushana territories

3. Social Organisation & Structure

Feature Description Examples
1. Caste y Society was multi-ethnic but followed a y Inscriptions from Mathura mention merchant
System loosely structured caste system. guilds and social hierarchy.
2. Religious y Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and y Kanishka’s patronage of Mahayana Buddhism
Diversity Zoroastrianism coexisted. in Kashmir.
3. Urbanisation y Major cities developed as cultural and y Cities like Mathura and Taxila flourished under
commercial centres. the Kushans.

35
4. Art & Architecture
A. Art
Feature Description Examples
1. Gandhara Art y A fusion of Greco-Roman and Indian artistic y Standing Buddha from Gandhara,
traditions, with realistic human figures, wavy hair, Bodhisattva sculptures from Mathura, and
and draped garments. the Maniyan Buddha from Mathura are
notable examples of Kushan-era art
blending Indian and Hellenistic styles.
2. Mathura y Indigenous art style with robust, heavily y Seated Buddha from Katra, Yaksha and
School of Art ornamented figures, more Indianized features, and Yakshini statues.
local red sandstone material.
3. Buddhist y The first explicit depictions of Buddha in human y Kushan-period Buddhas from Mathura and
Iconography form, replacing earlier symbols like footprints or Gandhara.
stupas.
4. Reliefs and y Carved narrative reliefs on Buddhist stupas y Kanishka Stupa (Peshawar) and the Takht-i-
Stupas depicting Jataka tales and life events of Buddha. Bahi monastery under Kushana patronage.
5. Royal y Depictions of Kushana rulers in statues, coins, y Kanishka’s headless, erect statue from
Portraiture and reliefs, showcasing their divine status and Mathura and Kushana coins with royal busts
Central Asian influence. reflect imperial power and Central Asian
influences.
6. Terracotta y Small votive figurines and plaques depicting y Terracotta plaques from Mathura.
Art deities and mythological figures.
7. Murals and y Limited surviving examples, but influence on later y Traces in Gandhara monasteries.
Paintings Ajanta murals is suggested.

B. Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Stupas y Large hemispherical Buddhist stupas serve as y Kanishka Stupa at Peshawar (originally in
reliquaries for sacred relics. India).
2. Monasteries y Buddhist monastic complexes with cells, y Takht-i-Bahi monastery (now in Pakistan),
(Viharas) courtyards, and meditation halls. ruins of viharas in Mathura.
3. Chaityas y Large rock-cut halls with vaulted roofs and y Bamiyan Cave Complexes (Afghanistan)
(Prayer Halls) circumambulatory paths.
4. Sculptural y Decorative sculpted panels on Buddhist and Jain y Nagarjunakonda stupa reliefs.
Facades structures with narrative and symbolic art.
5. Royal y Dedicated to deities like Shiva and local Buddhist y Shaiva and Buddhist temples in the
Temples forms, showing a syncretic blend of traditions. Mathura region.
6. City y Use of fortified cities with planned roads, public y Mathura was a major urban centre under
Planning structures, and granaries. the Kushanas.

5. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Religious y Kushanas patronized Buddhist and Hindu y Lalitavistara (Buddhist text on Buddha’s life).
Texts texts, fostering the spread of Mahayana y Mahavastu (Early Buddhist scripture).
Buddhism and Brahmanical traditions.
2. Sanskrit y Sanskrit emerged as a key language y Buddhacharita by Ashvaghosha, the court poet of
Literature under Kushan rule, used in Kanishka, is a Sanskrit biography of Buddha,
administration, poetry, and reflecting the Kushan patronage of Buddhism and
philosophical works. classical Sanskrit literature.
y Saundarananda by Ashvaghosha (Buddhist epic on
Nanda’s conversion).
3. Buddhist y Kushanas, especially Kanishka, y Mahayanashraddhotpada Shastra by Ashvaghosha
Texts supported Mahayana Buddhism’s (Mahayana treatise).
literary growth, aiding its doctrinal y Mahavibasha Shastra by Vasumitra (Sarvastivada
development. compilation).

36
4. Epigraphic y Inscriptions in Brahmi, Kharoshthi, y Rabatak Inscription (Kanishka’s patronage of
Records and Bactrian languages document Buddhism in Bactrian).
administration, religion, and royal y Mathura Inscriptions (Brahmi records of Kushan
patronage. rulers and donations).
5. Philosophical y Kushan patronage encouraged y Paramita Sutras by Nagarjuna (Perfection of
Works philosophical treatises, blending Wisdom texts).
Buddhist and secular thought.
6. Drama and y Literary forms like drama and poetry y Sariputra-Prakaran by Ashvaghosha (Buddhist play).
Poetry flourished, often with religious or moral
themes, under Kushan courts.
7. Scientific y Medical and scientific texts gained y Charakasamhita by Charak (Ayurvedic text, codified
Literature prominence, reflecting Kushan's interest during Kushan period).
in practical knowledge.

6. Coins
Feature Description Examples
1. Material y The first rulers in India to introduce gold coins. y Gold Coins of Vima Kadphises.
Coins were made of gold, silver, and copper,
indicating a strong economy and trade network.
2. Iconography y Coins depicted deities from multiple religions— y Kanishka’s coins show Buddha, Oesho
Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and (Shiva), Mithra (Sun god), and Greek gods
Greek gods. like Helios.
3. Bilingual y Coins had inscriptions in Greek, Bactrian, and y Kanishka’s coins feature Greek legends
Inscriptions Brahmi, reflecting cultural and linguistic initially but later shifted to Bactrian.
diversity.
4. Portrait Style y Kushana rulers depicted in Central Asian attire, y Kanishka and Huvishka are shown in profile
with long boots and conical headgear. with beards and elaborate headdresses.
5. Political y Coins emphasized royal authority, legitimacy, y Vasudeva’s coins depict himself alongside
Symbolism and divine sanction for rule. Hindu deities like Shiva
6. Economic y High gold content in Kushana coins suggests y Kushana gold coins were found in Roman
Significance strong trade with Rome, China, and Central and Chinese trade centres, confirming
Asia. extensive trade links
7. Regional y Coinage adapted to different regions under y Mathura coins had Brahmi inscriptions,
Variations Kushana control, with local influences in Gandhara coins showed Greco-Bactrian
design. influences

7. Science & Technology

Feature Description Examples
1. Metallurgy y Advances in gold coin minting. y Kushan gold coins were found in Mathura, Punjab.
2. Medicine y Development of Ayurvedic medical knowledge. y Linked to Buddhist monasteries in India.

Comparison Table: Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati Schools of Art

Aspect Gandhara School Mathura School Amaravati School
1. Time Period y 1st–5th century CE (peak y 2nd century BCE–3rd y 150 BCE–350 CE (peak
under Kushans. century CE (flourished under Satavahanas and
under Kushans). Ikshvakus).
2. Geographical y North-West India (Peshawar, y Central India (Mathura, y Eastern Deccan (Krishna-
Location Taxila, Gandhara region). Uttar Pradesh). Godavari valley, Andhra Pradesh).
3. Cultural y Greco-Roman (Hellenistic), y Indigenous Indian with some y Indigenous Indian, influenced
Influence Persian, Central Asian; Kushan and Central Asian by Buddhist narratives.
Kushan patronage. influence.
4. Material Used y Early: Blue-grey schist stone. y White-spotted red y Mostly White marble.
y Later: Mud, lime, plaster, sandstone (locally
stucco. sourced).

37
 5. Techniques y Realistic carving, y Robust, symbolic carving; y Narrative reliefs, slender
anatomical accuracy, sculptures in the round for figures, intricate detailing.
detailed drapery. all-side visibility.
6. Themes y Buddhist: Life of Buddha, y Multi-religious: Buddhist y Buddhist: Jataka stories,
Bodhisattvas. (Buddha, Bodhisattvas), Buddha’s life.
y Secular: Some royal motifs. Jaina (Tirthankaras), y Secular: Kings, princes,
Brahmanical (Siva, Vishnu). palaces.
y Secular: Kings, nature,
daily life.
7. Iconography y Buddha with curly hair, y Buddha in abhaya mudra, y Early: Symbolic (Bodhi tree,
draped in Greco-Roman shaven head, tight dress. stupa).
toga, sharp features. y Jaina Tirthankaras with y Later: Slender Buddha
y Halo, meditative poses. symbolic marks. figures, sensual expressions.
8. Style y Hellenistic realism: y Indigenous vigor: Bold, y Narrative elegance: Tall,
Transparent garments, wavy less drapery, symbolic slender figures, dynamic
hair, serene expressions. motifs. compositions.
9. Patronage y Sakas and Kushans (such y Kushans (such as Kanishka’s y Satavahanas, Ikshvakus,
as Kanishka). statue) and local devotees. merchants, and public.
10. Key Features y Greco-Buddhist fusion. y Syncretic: Buddhist, Jaina, y Narrative art: Continuous
y Anatomical precision. Brahmanical. storytelling.
y Focus on individual idols. y Robust and earthy. y Sensual beauty, nature-human
y Royal portraits. focus.
11. Examples y Buddha in Meditation (Taxila). y Katra Buddha (Mathura). y Taming of Elephant Relief
y Chira-Tope Stupa Drum y Kanishka Statue (Mat, (Amaravati).
(Taxila). Mathura). y King Udayana Story Relief
y Shah-ji-ki-dheri Reliquary y Chaturmukha Sivalinga (Amaravati).
(Peshawar). (Mathura). y Nagarjunakonda Panels.
12. Significance y First anthropomorphic y Multi-religious art hub. y Pinnacle of narrative reliefs.
Buddha images. y Influenced Gupta art. y Precursor to Pallava sculpture.
y Cultural bridge via Silk Road.
The Kushana period represented a zenith of cross-cultural exchange, with Kanishka's reign particularly fostering artistic
innovation and religious tolerance. Their legacy endured through distinctive Gandharan art and administrative systems
that influenced subsequent regional powers across Eurasia.

38
 17 Sangam Age
(300 BCE–300 CE) Scan to Read More

The Sangam Age (300 BCE–300 CE) marks Tamilakam's golden era, characterized by literary excellence in Tamil poetry,
flourishing trade with Rome, and three ruling dynasties - Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Feature Description Examples
1. Major y Three ruling dynasties—Chera, Chola, and y Chera (Western Tamil Nadu & Kerala), Chola
Dynasties Pandya—controlled Tamilakam. They had (Northern Tamil Nadu), Pandya (Southern
frequent conflicts and alliances. Tamil Nadu).
2. King’s Title y The king was called "Ko" or "Vendan", y Titles: "Vanavar" (Cheras), "Sembiyan"
considered divine. (Cholas), "Thennavar" (Pandyas).
3. Royal Court y The court was called "Avai", consisting of ministers, y Tamil poet Kaniyan Pungundranar wrote
poets, and warriors. Kings patronized poets. about political ethics.
4. Army y Composed of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and y Karikala Chola had a strong army, used
navy. elephants in the Battle of Venni.
5. Local y Chieftains (Velir) ruled smaller regions under y Muvendar (three great rulers) maintained order
Governance kings. Assemblies handled administration. through local chieftains.
6. Justice y Kings acted as chief justices. Punishments varied y Silappadikaram mentions Pandya King
System from exile to execution. Nedunjeliyan's wrong judgment, leading to
tragedy.

2. Economic Organisation
Feature Description Examples
1. Agriculture y Mainstay of the economy; Rice and y Kallanai Dam (built by Karikala Chola)
millets were staple crops. improved irrigation.
2. Pastoral Economy y Cattle rearing, goat herding, and poultry y Cow and bull symbols are found on Sangam-
were common. era coins.
3. Craft Production y Weaving, metalwork, pottery, and pearl y Madurai was a textile hub, and Arikamedu
fishing were key industries. was known for pottery.
4. Revenue System y Land tax was levied; tributes were y Traders and farmers paid taxes to the king.
collected from chieftains.
5. Ports and Maritime y Ships sailed to Southeast Asia; navigation y Muziris, Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu were
Trade and shipbuilding were advanced. key ports.
6. Internal Trade y Flourished in urban centers and weekly y Madurai, Uraiyur, Korkai were major market
markets (Angadi). hubs.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Feature Description Examples
1. Social y Society was divided into five Tinais (ecological y Kurinji (hills), Mullai (forests), Marudam
Classification zones). (plains), Neydal (coasts), Palai (deserts).
2. Women’s Status y Women had a respectable position; some were y Avvaiyar was a famous Tamil poetess.
poets and warriors.

39
3. Marriage and y Sangam society followed both monogamy and y Silappadikaram depicts Kannagi’s loyalty to
Family polygamy. her husband.
4. Slavery y Existed but was not rigid like later periods. y Tamil literature mentions bonded labor in
Captives from wars were sometimes enslaved. agrarian fields.

4. Literature

Feature Description Examples

1. Time Period y Sangam literature flourished between 300 BCE y Ancient Tamil texts compiled under Three
- 300 CE during the three Tamil Sangams. Sangams in Madurai.
2. Language y Tamil was the primary language, rich in poetic y Entire corpus of Sangam literature is in
expressions and metaphors. Tamil.
3. Classification y Divided into two major collections – Ettuthogai y Ettuthogai: Narrinai, Kuruntokai,
(Eight Anthologies) and Pattuppattu Purananuru, Pathitrupathu, etc.
(Ten Idylls). y Pattuppattu: Thirumurugarrupadai,
Nedunalvadai, Pattinappalai, etc.
4. Themes y Two broad themes – Aham (Love) and Puram y Aham: Kuruntokai, Ainkurunooru
(War, valor, social life). y Puram: Purananuru, Pathitrupathu
5. Contribution to y Provided the Oldest Tamil grammatical and y Tolkappiyam Written by Tolkappiyar, a
Tamil literary work, defining rules for Tamil disciple of Agastya.
Grammar phonetics, morphology, syntax, and poetics.
6. Poets y Composed by both male and female poets from y Kapilar (Ainkurunooru, Purananuru)
various backgrounds. y Avvaiyar (ethical poetry, wisdom verses)
7. Political and y Provides details about kings, chieftains, wars, y Purananuru praises Pandya, Chola, and
Social Insights administration, and society. Chera rulers.
y Pathitrupathu records Chera genealogy.
8. Religious y Early Sangam literature was secular but later y Paripadal contains hymns dedicated to Lord
Elements texts showed influences of Shaivism, Murugan.
Vaishnavism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
9. Women in y Women poets like Avvaiyar contributed, and y Avvaiyar’s poems highlight moral values
Literature texts discuss women's role in society. and wisdom.
10. Thirukkural y Thiruvalluvar's masterpiece discussing ethics, y Covers three aspects: Aram (virtue), Porul
governance, love and life in 1330 couplets. (wealth) and Inbam (love).
11. Post-Sangam y Two major Tamil epics were written in the y Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal
Epics Post-Sangam period. y Manimekalai by Sattanar
12. Influence on y Forms the basis for medieval Tamil bhakti y Influenced Thevaram, Nalayira Divya
Later Literature literature and Dravidian culture. Prabandham (Shaivite & Vaishnavite hymns).
13. Comparison to y More realistic and secular than Sanskrit literature, y Unlike Mahabharata & Ramayana, it does
Vedic Texts focusing on human emotions and daily life. not glorify divine intervention.

5. Edicts and Inscriptions

Feature Description Examples
1. Ashokan Edicts y Mentions southern kingdoms. y Rock Edict II & XIII refer to Cholas,
Pandyas, Satyaputras, and Keralaputras.
2. Sangam y Few inscriptions exist, mostly found in temple y Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Pugalur (Tamil
Inscriptions premises. Nadu).

40
 6. Coins
Feature Description Examples
1. Types y Coins were issued by local kings and Romans. y Chola – Tiger, Pandya – Fish, Chera – Bow
Sangam literature mentions coins like "kasu," & Arrow.
"pon," and "kanam"
2. Material y Made of gold, silver, and copper. y Roman Denarii coins found in Tamil Nadu.

7. Science and Technology

Feature Description Examples
1. Agriculture y Irrigation was developed with canals and y Kallanai Dam built by Karikala Chola.
embankments.
2. Maritime y Advanced shipbuilding facilitated trade. y Large ships were mentioned in Sangam
Technology literature.
3. Metallurgy y Expertise in iron and goldsmithing. y Gold ornaments were widely used.
4. Medicine y Herbal medicines were practiced. y Agattiyam mentions early medical practices.
The recent Keeladi excavations reveal an advanced urban civilization along the Vaigai River, dating 300 years earlier than thought,
with thriving pottery, weaving, dyeing, and glass bead industries, confirming the Sangam Age's sophisticated economy.
The Sangam Age emerges as a sophisticated urban civilization through Keeladi's findings, revealing advanced industries, trade
networks, and literacy, while pushing its origins to 600 BCE - a golden era of Tamil culture.

41
 18 Gupta Period
(c. 320 CE - 550 CE) Scan to Read More

The Gupta period (c. 320–550 CE) is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of India for its contribution to the art and architecture of India.

UPSC Previous Year Question

1. How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all
noticeable in later times? (2017)

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. King's y Central authority, divine status, policy- y Titles like "Paramabhattaraka" and "Paramesvara,"
Role making, justice, military leadership. duty to protect and support all classes.
2. Council of y Mahanandanayaka (Chief Justice), y Fa-Hien notes the absence of capital punishment.
Ministers and Uparikas (Provincial Governors),
Officials Vishayapatis (District), Mahapratihara
(Palace Guard), Dutakas (Land Grants).
3. Revenue y Land revenue, fines, taxes (Uparikara, y Akshapataladhikrita (accounts), Pustapala (records).
Administration Sulka), royal monopolies (minerals, salt),
forced labour (Vishti), and land tax (Bali).
4. Provinces, y Desas/Rashtras/Bhuktis (provinces), y Uparikas, Vistiyapati, Gramapati, Nagarasresthi,
Districts, Vishayas (districts), Gramas (villages), Sarthavaha, and Prathama-Kulika enabled decentralised
Villages Astakuladhikarana. governance with local autonomy at all levels.
5. Religious Policy y Hindu Dynasty, religious tolerance. y Nalanda University was established.

2. Economic Organisation
Category Details Examples
Nature of Economy
1. Agrarian y Agriculture remained the backbone of the y Land grants (agrahara) to Brahmins; increase in
Economy economy. self-sufficient village units.
2. Trade (Internal y Both internal and foreign trade flourished, y Trade with the Roman Empire declined; trade
and External) especially with Southeast Asia. with SE Asia (Suvarnabhumi) noted.
3. Emergence of y Land grants, Vishti, and new cultivation y Lower status for tribal peasants improved
Priestly Landlords reflected decentralised control, marking agricultural knowledge in tribal regions.
early emergence of agrarian federalism.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Category Details Examples
1. Brahmana y Increased dominance due to land grants, y Brahmanical dominance led to social rigidity;
Supremacy Gupta kings were recognized as Kshatriyas. the Guptas were portrayed as god-like,
reinforcing hierarchical order.
2. Proliferation of y Assimilation of foreigners and tribal groups, y Rise of caste divisions: Tribal chiefs
Castes Hunas integrated as Rajputs. converted into caste elites, leading to
increased social stratification.

42
3. Improved Status y Allowed to hear epics, worship Krishna, and y Despite economic upliftment, Shudras
of Shudras engage in agriculture. remained socially subordinate, reflecting
partial and unequal progress.
4. Increase in y Growth in numbers, especially Chandalas, y Chandalas faced severe exclusion, linked to
Untouchables living outside villages. impure occupations like the meat trade,
reflecting rising social stigma.
5. Status of Women y Varying status based on varna, higher varna y Chandalas faced severe exclusion, linked to
women dependent, lower varna women impure occupations like the meat trade,
engaged in agriculture and domestic services. reflecting rising social stigma.

4. Art, Architecture and Literature

A. Paintings
Feature Description Examples
1. Themes y Blend of religious and secular themes; primarily y Ajanta Caves: Buddhist Jataka tales
Buddhist stories (Jataka tales), epic narratives, y Bagh Caves: More secular themes
and courtly life.
2. Color y Use of vibrant, natural pigments; emphasis on y Ajanta paintings: Rich reds, yellows, and
soft, harmonious tones. greens
3. Naturalism y Figures depicted with graceful postures, y Ajanta Bodhisattva Padmapani
& expressive eyes, and soft body modelling, show y Avalokiteshvara fresco
Expression emotional and physical realism.
4. Technique y Use of fresco technique (painting on wet plaster) y Ajanta frescoes: Fresco-secco style and
and shading to create a 3D illusion of depth. chiaroscuro-like light/shadow effects

B. Edicts & Inscriptions

Features Description Examples
1. Used for Record y Sanskrit inscriptions like Allahabad Pillar y The Allahabad Pillar inscription by
Keeping Inscription, Udaigiri Inscription, Eran Inscription, Harisena remains one of the most
and Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription recorded Gupta detailed accounts of Samudragupta’s
conquests, policies, religion, and social structure. achievements.

C. Sculpture
Feature Description Example
1. Idealized Beauty y Figures are slender, and well-proportioned, y Buddha statue from Sarnath: Shows calm
& Grace with serene facial expressions. expression and spiritual bliss.
2. Mastery of y Gupta artists perfected the y Hari-Hara Statue (MP): Syncretic form of
Iconography representation of Hindu, Buddhist, Vishnu and Shiva, identified by distinct
and Jain deities. headdresses.
3. Intricate Carvings y Use of detailed relief work and decorative y Deogarh temple sculptures: Reliefs like Vishnu on
& Ornamentation elements, often seen in temple panels. Shesha, Nara-Narayana, and Gajendramoksha.
4. Naturalism & y Figures are depicted in realistic postures y Krishna lifting Govardhana (UP): Shows Krishna
Expressiveness with lifelike gestures and emotions. holding up the mountain effortlessly.
5. Spiritual Depth & y Images focus on inner divinity rather y Ekamukhi Shiva Linga (Udayagiri, MP): Symbolic
Symbolism than external grandeur, showing representation of Shiva.
calmness and meditative postures.
6. Metal and Stone y Use of stone, bronze, and even iron y Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Delhi): Advanced
Mastery for sculptures and structures. metallurgy, rust-free even after 1500 years.

D. Architecture
Feature Description Example
1. Emergence of y Unlike earlier rock-cut architecture, freestanding y Temple No. 17, Sanchi (MP): One of
Structural Temples temples with sanctuaries (Garbhagriha) were built. the earliest structural temples.
2. Use of Stone & y Temples were constructed using brick or stone, y Bhitargaon Temple (UP): Oldest
Brick with decorative carvings. surviving brick temple, known for
terracotta work.

43
3. Simple yet Elegant y Early temples had flat roofs and pillared porches, y Vishnu Temple, Tigawa (MP): Has a flat
Designs later evolving into shikhara-style towers. roof and pillared porch.
4. Panchayatana y Some temples followed the Panchayatana y Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh (UP):
Style (five-shrine) style, with a main shrine and four Features a central shrine + four corner
subsidiary shrines. shrines.
5. Relief Sculptures & y Temples had intricate carvings depicting Hindu y Deogarh Temple reliefs: Vishnu reclining
Decorative Panels mythology and Puranic tales. on Shesha, Gajendramoksha scene.
6. Early Shikhara y Initial tower (shikhara) elements began appearing, y Bhitargaon Temple: Earliest evidence
Development though full development occurred later. of a curvilinear shikhara.

E. Literature
Feature Description Example
1. Revival & Growth y Sanskrit became the court language, replacing y Prayaga-Prashasti (Harishena’s
of Sanskrit Prakrit and Pali. Even Buddhist and Jain texts eulogy of Samudragupta) is in
began to be written in Sanskrit. Sanskrit.
2. Flourishing of y Many renowned poets and playwrights wrote epics, y Kalidasa’s works: Abhijnana-Shakuntalam,
Poetry & Drama lyrical poetry, and dramas. Raghuvamsham, Meghadutam.
3. Development of y Texts on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and y Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiyam (Astronomy).
Scientific & philosophy were written. y Sushruta Samhita & Charaka Samhita
Technical Texts (Medicine).
4. Codification of y Puranas, Smritis, and Dharmashastras were y Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana,
Hindu Religious compiled and finalized. Matsya Purana.
Texts y Manusmriti, Narada Smriti (Law texts).
5. Historical & y Eulogies and inscriptions recorded the y Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription
Political Writing achievements of kings. (Chandragupta II).
6. Expansion of y Six major philosophical systems (Darshanas) were y Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga,
Philosophical refined. Mimamsa, Vedanta.
Thought

5. Coins (Numismatic Art)

Feature Description Example
1. Predominance of y Gold coins (Dinars) were extensively issued, y Samudragupta issued only gold coins
Gold Coins symbolizing the empire’s economic strength. Silver in seven types, like Archer-type,
and copper coins were fewer. Ashvamedha-type, etc.
2. Artistic y The coins feature intricate designs, realistic y Veena-playing Samudragupta coin,
Excellence human figures, and inscriptions, showcasing depicting him as a musician.
superior craftsmanship.
3. Religious & y The reverse of most coins depicted Hindu deities, y Lakshmi on Samudragupta’s Standard
Cultural transitioning from Kushana’s goddess Ardoksho to Type coins.
Symbolism Lakshmi.
4. Military and y Coins portrayed kings as warriors, hunters, and rulers, y Tiger Slayer & Lion Slayer coins of
Political Themes highlighting their military and administrative strength. Kumaragupta I.
5. Use of Brahmi y Coins carried legends in Brahmi script, with the y Chandragupta II’s Archer Type coin
Inscriptions king’s name and titles. inscription: "Deva Sri Maharajadhiraja
Sri Chandragupta".
6. Distinctive Royal y Gupta coins bore symbols like Garuda and y Garuda Dhwaja (Garuda Standard) on
Symbols weapons, but declining gold purity in later Guptas Samudragupta’s coins.
indicated economic decline.
7. High Monetary y Large coin hoards indicate high trade frequency, y Bayana Hoard (near Bharatpur,
Circulation monetisation, and commercial prosperity during Rajasthan) containing ~2000 Gupta gold
the Gupta era. coins; also Kota & Samasgarh hoards.

44
 6. Science and Technology
Field/Contribution Key Achievements Example
1. Mathematics & y Introduction of the concept of “zero” and y Aryabhata: Authored the Aryabhattiyam,
Astronomy development of the decimal place-value system. explained eclipses, and proposed that the
y Advances in astronomical calculations including Earth rotates on its axis.
accurate prediction of eclipses and planetary y Varahamihira: Wrote the Brihat
motions. Samhita and Panchasiddhantika.
2. Medicine & y Compilation of classical medical texts that y Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita:
Natural Sciences systematized Ayurvedic knowledge. Cornerstones of Ayurvedic medicine.
y Early treatises on veterinary science and natural y These texts influenced both medical
history laid the groundwork for later scientific practice and later systematic studies in
inquiry. the Indian subcontinent.
3. Philosophy & y The Gupta period fostered a synthesis of diverse y Intellectual patronage at the Gupta court
Intellectual philosophical traditions and the evolution of six facilitated advancements not only in
Developments major schools of Indian philosophy (Nyaya, science but also in literature and art,
Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, reinforcing the holistic nature of Gupta
Vedanta). intellectual life.
y Encouraged empirical inquiry and scholarly debate
across disciplines.
The Gupta Dynasty (320-550 CE) thrived as a golden era, with
rare coins revealing advancements in Hinduism, art, and
intellect, shaping India's cultural legacy.

45
 19 Pushyabhuti Dynasty
(c. 500 CE - 647 CE) Scan to Read More

The Pushyabhuti Dynasty (c. 500–647 CE), founded by Pushyabhuti, emerged after the Gupta decline, ruling from Thanesar
(modern Haryana). Under Harshavardhana (606–647 CE), it expanded into an empire with Kannauj as its capital, unifying northern
India and patronizing Buddhism, literature, and trade.

1. Political Structure & Administration

Aspect Key Details Example
1. Monarchical y Centralized kingship with absolute authority; y Harsha titled Uttarapathapati (Lord of the
System kings assumed imperial titles. North).
2. Feudal y Decentralized rule via Samantas (feudatory y Samantas in Kashmir/Valabhi paid tribute
Elements chiefs) managing provinces (Bhuktis). and supplied troops.
3. Local y Village councils (Ganas) handled grassroots y Ganas maintained law and order in rural
Governance administration. areas.
4. Revenue y Taxes collected in kind (grain/goods); decline in y Xuanzang notes taxes supported
System coinage usage. monasteries/charities.

2. Economic & Social Organisation of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

Aspect Key Details Example
1. Agrarian y Agriculture as backbone; land grants to y Madhuban inscription records land grants.
Economy Brahmins/temples replaced salaries.
2. Feudal Economy y Shift to self-sufficient villages under y Villages paid tribute in goods rather than
Samantas cash
3. Caste System y Four-fold division (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, y Land grants to Brahmins (such as
Vaishyas, Shudras) prevalent Madhuban).
4. Women’s Status y Declining; no remarriage for widows, sati y Princess Rajyashri, sister of King Harsha,
practised committed sati after her husband
Grahavarman's death
5. Religious Diversity y Coexistence of Shaivism, Buddhism, and y Harsha shifted from Shaivism to Mahayana
Hinduism Buddhism under Xuanzang’s influence

3. Art and Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Temple y Hindu and Buddhist temples flourished, y Remains of brick temples at Thanesar
Architecture influenced by the Gupta style but with more (Harsha's capital).
elaborate carvings.
2. Buddhist y Harsha patronized Buddhism, leading to large y Nalanda Mahavihara received significant
Monasteries & monasteries and stupas. support from Harsha.
Stupas y Kanauj Buddhist Monastery, mentioned by
Xuanzang.
3. Sculpture & y Depictions of Hindu and Buddhist deities in y Bronze sculptures from Nalanda, showing
Iconography refined artistic styles. Bodhisattvas and deities.
4. Jayaskandhavaras y Military-cum-administrative centres played a y Vardhamanakoti (a major Jayaskandhavara,
(Military Camps crucial role in governance and defense. or military camp, used by Harsha).
& Settlements)

46
 4. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Patronage of y The Pushyabhuti rulers, especially Harshavardhana, y Harshavardhana himself authored plays like
Sanskrit were great patrons of Sanskrit literature. Scholars and Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and Nagananda.
Literature poets flourished under their rule.
2. Banabhatta's y Banabhatta, the court poet of Harsha, wrote y Harshacharita (biography of Harsha) and
Writings historical and biographical works in Sanskrit. Kadambari (a famous prose romance).
3. Religious and y The period saw the composition of Buddhist and y Buddhist texts were written and supported,
Philosophical Hindu texts, reflecting the religious harmony and Harsha's patronage extended to Buddhist
Works promoted by the dynasty. scholars like Xuanzang.
4. Drama and y Sanskrit dramas and poetry thrived during this era, y Harsha’s Ratnavali is a romantic drama
Poetry with themes of romance, morality, and valor. showcasing courtly life.
5. Influence of y Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, y Si-Yu-Ki (Records of the Western World) by
Chinese documented the political, social, and religious Xuanzang contains detailed accounts of
Travelers aspects of the dynasty. Harsha's reign.
6. Other Scholars y Sanskrit was the dominant language of literary y Mayura – Surya Sataka (poem on Sun
works. God); Matanga – Bodhisattvavadana
Kalpalata.

5. Edicts and Inscriptions

Aspect Details Example
1. Purpose y Record land grants, taxes, and royal achievements y Banskhera copper plate (Harsha’s signature)
2. Language y Sanskrit; reflects administrative and cultural details y Madhuban inscription (land grant details)
3. Significance y Evidence of feudal system and Harsha’s personal y Sonpat seal (dynastic emblem)
involvement

6. Coinage
Feature Key Details Examples
1. Metal Used y Primarily gold (Dinars), silver, and copper. y Gold coins of Harsha found in Nalanda and Kannauj.
2. Inscriptions y King’s name/titles (like Sri Harsha) in y Banskhera inscription correlates with coin titles.
Sanskrit (Brahmi script).
3. Purpose y Gold: Royal/religious use (donations). y Nalanda excavations show coins in monastic
y Silver/Copper: Daily trade. donations.

7. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Example
1. Metallurgy y Metallurgical skills were advanced, with the y Production of coins, weapons and other
making of large statues and iron structures. metal artifacts.
2. Engineering and y Development of Jayaskandhavaras (military and y Vardhamanakoti was one such administrative
Architecture administrative settlements) as centres of power. centre, displaying advanced planning.
3. Medicine y Ayurvedic practices continued; supported by y Harsha’s charity hospitals (Xuanzang’s
monasteries account)
The Pushyabhuti Dynasty's collapse after Harsha's death (647 CE) triggered the Tripartite Struggle among Palas, Pratiharas, and
Rashtrakutas for control of Kannauj. Though short-lived, it established Kannauj as North India's premier power centre and set
feudal administrative patterns for medieval kingdoms.

47
 20 Chalukyas of Badami
(543–757 CE) Scan to Read More

The Chalukyas of Badami (543–757 CE) were a powerful dynasty that ruled over Deccan and South India. They are known for
their contributions to art, architecture, literature, and administration.

1. Political Structure & Administration

Feature Description Examples
1. Centralized y King held supreme authority in y Pulakesin II used titles like Parameshvara,
Monarchy governance, military, and justice. led campaigns, and appointed officials.
2. Council of Ministers y Assisted the king in decision-making; y Titles like Maha-Sandhivigrahika (war and
(Mantriparishad) including high-ranking ministers. peace minister) appear in inscriptions.
3. Provincial y Kingdom divided into Vishayas y Banavasi Vishaya was governed by royal
Administration (provinces) and Gramas (villages), officers; gram sabhas handled local
managed by governors. affairs.
4. Revenue y Land tax was the main source of income; y Aihole inscription records land grants by
Administration grants were recorded on copper plates. Pulakesin II.

2. Economic and Social Organization

Feature Description Examples
1. Land y Land tax was the main source of y Copper plate grants mention land units like
Revenue revenue; land classified and taxed nivartanas; taxes were often remitted for
System accordingly. religious endowments.
2. Trade and y Inland and maritime trade flourished; trade y Badami's strategic location aided Deccan trade;
Commerce guilds (shrenis) played key roles. gold and cloth trade mentioned in records.
3. Social Structure y Brahmins held high status; Kshatriyas were y Brahmins received land grants and led religious
ruling class; Vaishyas and Shudras formed ceremonies; inscriptions mention different varna
the economic base. roles.
4. Status of y Women held property rights in some cases; y Queen Lokamahadevi, wife of Vikramaditya II,
Women royal women participated in temple is noted for temple patronage, such as the
patronage. Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal.
y Poetess Vijjika authored “Kaumudi Mahotsav”
5. Religion and y Religious diversity (Shaivism, Vaishnavism, y Jain temples in Aihole, including the Meguti
Society Jainism) fostered social cohesion; Jain Temple, and Vaishnava temples in Badami
reflect patronage across religious sects.

3. Art and Literature

A. Paintings
Feature Description Examples
1. Extension of y The murals show a continuation of y Figures of King Kirtivarman and his queen in
Ajanta Ajanta’s style, with graceful figures, palace scenes resemble Ajanta paintings​.
Tradition expressive faces, and naturalistic depictions.
2. Use of Natural y earthy and mineral-based colors, applied y Mural fragments in Cave No. 4 of Badami still
Pigments on a plastered rock surface. retain their colors​.
3. Hindu y The murals mainly depict Hindu deities y Shiva as Nataraja with Parvati and a coiling
Religious and mythological scenes, particularly from snake (Cave 1 of Badami)​.
Themes Shaivism and Vaishnavism.

48
4. Royal y The murals also depict royal figures and y King Kirtivarman enjoying a dance performance
Patronage & courtly life, showing the grandeur of the in the palace (Cave 4 of Badami)​.
Court Scenes Chalukya rulers.
5. Emphasis on y Figures were painted with sinuous lines, y Half-closed eyes, large eye sockets, and
Volume & fluid forms, and subtle shading to create protruding lips in portraits of kings and
Contours depth and volume. queens​.
6. Depictions of y Some caves also feature Jain Tirthankaras y Fresco of Jain Tirthankara Adinatha in Cave No.
Jain & Buddhist and Buddhist iconography, showing 4​of Badami
Influences religious tolerance.

B. Temple Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Blend of Nagara y Chalukyan temples exhibit elements from both y Papanatha Temple (Pattadakal): Initially
& Dravida Styles North & South Indian temple architecture, built in Nagara style, later modified to
forming the Vesara style. Dravida style​.
2. Rock-Cut & y Early temples were rock-cut and later evolved y Badami Cave Temples: Four rock-cut
Structural into structural temples with intricate temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and
Temples carvings. Jain Tirthankaras​.
3. Ornate Pillars & y Temples featured intricately carved pillars, y Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal):
Sculptures doorways, and sculptures of deities and Decorated with carvings from Ramayana,
mythological stories. Mahabharata, and Bhagavata Purana​.
4. Apsidal & y Some temples, like Durga Temple, Aihole, had y Durga Temple (Aihole): Features a
Rectangular an apsidal (curved-back) structure resembling Buddhist-inspired chaitya hall design​.
Plans Buddhist chaityas.
5. Stepped y The temples developed tiered vimanas y Sangamesvara Temple (Pattadakal):
Shikhara (shikhara), which became more elaborate in Earliest Dravidian-style temple with a
(Vimana) Design later periods. two-tier vimana​.
6. Elaborate y Grand entrances and halls (mandapas) with y Mallikarjuna Temple (Pattadakal):
Doorways & rich carvings, often featuring Nandi Features large Nandi mandapa with carved
Mandapas mandapas. female figures​

C. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Bilingual y Promoted both Sanskrit and Kannada y Inscriptions at Aihole and Badami are in both
Literature literature. languages​.
2. Patronage to y Kings and nobles supported scholars and poets, y Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II,
Scholars leading to literary growth. composed the Aihole inscription​.
3. Development of y Kannada was encouraged, though mainly used y The Kappe Arabhatta inscription at Badami
Kannada in inscriptions. is in the Tripadi poetry style​.
4. Sanskrit Literary y Many Sanskrit texts were composed, especially y Kaumudi Mahotsav, written by Vijjika,
Works in poetry and drama. daughter-in-law of Pulakesin II​.
5. Epigraphic y Inscriptions were a major medium of y Aihole inscription glorifies Pulakesin II​.
Writings literature.
6. Religious and y Both Hindu and Jain themes were popular in y Hara Parvatiya, a Sanskrit drama, was
Secular Themes literature. composed during this period​

D. Sculptures, Performing Arts, Popular Art

Artistic Domain Details Examples
1. Sculptures y Sculptural art flourished with refined stone y Aihole inscriptions and temple reliefs, such as
carvings seen in temples and cave shrines. those on the Jain Narayana Temple, showcase
y Themes include Shaivism, Vaishnavism, detailed narrative panels and stylistic finesse that
and Jainism. set the stage for later Indian temple sculpture.
2. Performing & y Courtly music, dance, and dramatic y Literary references and inscriptions note the
Popular Arts performances were integral to royal patronage of performing arts during the reigns of
ceremonies. Pulakesin II and Vikramaditya I.

49
 4. Coins (Numismatic Art)
Coin Category Details Examples
1. Gold & Silver y Coins were used both as currency and as a y Coins of Pulakesin II and Vikramaditya I may
Coins medium of royal propaganda. display motifs such as divine emblems (such as
y Often bear the image of the king with Varaha) and inscriptions that celebrate military
symbols of conquest and divinity. victories and royal virtues.
2. Copper Coins y Issued for local and regional trade. y Copper coins complement the higher-value
y Generally simpler in design, reflecting the gold and silver coinage, reflecting the diversity
day-to-day economic transactions in the empire. of economic activities under the Chalukyas.

5. Science and Technology

Feature Description Examples
1. Water y Developed canals and channels to divert water y Kalyani (stepped tank) at Lakkundi
Management to agricultural fields. (later Chalukyan period)
2. Engineering for y Advanced techniques like load-bearing pillars y Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal.
Structural Stability for stability.
3. Metallurgy y Exquisite bronze idols of deities. y Bronze idols of Shiva and Vishnu.
4. Shipbuilding y Built ships for trade and naval warfare. y Fleet of 100 ships under Pulakesin II.
5. Ports y Developed ports for maritime trade. y Goa (Revatidvipa).
After the decline of the Chalukyas of Badami in the mid-8th century, their legacy was revived a few centuries later by the Western
Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas, who carried forward the political and cultural traditions of their predecessors.

Western Chalukyas (973 CE to 1189 CE)

The Western Chalukyas bridged early and medieval Deccan history, fostering a distinct architectural style, vibrant trade, temple-
centered economy, and religious pluralism across Karnataka. They revived the Badami legacy, leaving a lasting cultural and political
mark on the Deccan until their decline in the 12th century.

50
 21 Pallavas of Kanchi
(575 CE - 897 CE) Scan to Read More

The Pallavas of Kanchi, called Kaduvettis (forest slayers), rose from Tamil Nadu to dominate South India, blending Dravidian
architecture with Sanskrit culture under rulers like Mahendravarman I.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Hereditary monarchy with divine kingship; kings y Kings assumed titles like "Dharma-
Polity were supreme authority, aided by ministers. Maharaja" (such as Simhavishnu).
2. Administrative y Kingdom divided into Mandala (provinces), Kottams y Kanchi was the capital; Kottams
Units (districts), and villages as basic units. managed by royal officers.
3. Role of y Council of ministers assisted the king in governance; y Yuvaraja (crown prince) actively
Ministers some had semi-royal titles. participated (such as Nandivarman II).
4. Local y Villages had autonomous assemblies (Sabha, Urar) y Village self-sufficiency is seen in
Governance and courts (Dharmasasana). inscriptions like Uttaramerur.
5. Village y Villages are managed by local assemblies (Sabha, y Uttaramerur inscriptions detail village
Autonomy Urar) for justice and welfare. governance.

2. Economic & Social Organisation of the Pallava Dynasty

Aspect Details Example
1. Revenue y Land revenue primary; taxes on professions, y Hsuen Tsang noted fertile soil and
System marriages, and goods. hardworking farmers.
2. Land Grants y Brahmadeya (to Brahmins) and Devadhana (to y Velurpalaiyam copper plates record
temples) were tax-free. grants.
3. Agriculture y Fertile lands supported rice, lentils, and sugarcane y Paid laborers in kind, as per Hsuen
Base cultivation. Tsang’s accounts.
4. Religious y Shift from Buddhism/Jainism to Hinduism; Bhakti y Nayanars (Shaiva) and Alvars
Influence movement grew. (Vaishnava) flourished.
5. Education y Ghatikas attached to temples served as learning y Kanchi was a significant educational
centres. center, rivaling Nalanda.

3. Art (Paintings, Sculptures, Performing Art)

Category Features Examples
1. Sculptural y Highly refined and intricate carvings. y Mahishasuramardini Mandapa,
Art y Influence of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Mahabalipuram (Depiction of Durga slaying
Shaktism. Mahishasura).
y Use of narrative panels depicting mythological y Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram (Sculptures of
stories. Vishnu, Shiva, and Parvati).
y Lion and yali (mythical creature) motifs were y Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram (Elaborate
common. carvings of gods, goddesses, and kings).

51
 2. Rock-Cut y Large-scale rock-cut relief panels. y Descent of the Ganges/Arjuna’s Penance,
Reliefs y Naturalistic depiction of human and animal Mahabalipuram (One of the largest open-air
figures. rock reliefs in the world).
y Scenes inspired by Hindu epics.
3. Bronze y Use of lost-wax technique. y Bronze idol of Somaskanda (Depiction of
Sculptures y Predecessor to later Chola bronze iconography. Shiva, Parvati, and Skanda).
y Figures with expressive facial features and y Narasimha Bronze idols (Found in
dynamic postures. Kanchipuram).
4. Paintings y Fresco-style mural paintings on temple walls y Paintings in Kailasanatha Temple,
and ceilings. Kanchipuram (Faded remnants of murals
y Use of natural dyes and mineral-based colors. showcasing Pallava artistic styles).
y Figures depicted with elongated eyes and
graceful postures.
y Influences seen in later Chola murals.
5. Performing y Patronage of Bharatanatyam and other dance y Natyashala (dance halls) in temples like
Arts forms. Kailasanatha Temple.
y Temple inscriptions indicate the presence of y Depictions of dancers and musicians in
dance halls and musicians. Mahabalipuram cave temples.
y Influence on South Indian classical music.

4. Temple Architecture
Phases of Pallava Temple Architecture
Pallava temple architecture evolved through distinct phases, transitioning from rock-cut caves to monolithic and finally to fully
developed structural temples.

Feature Description Examples

1. Rock-cut Cave y Early Pallava temples were excavated into y Mandagapattu Cave Temple (Mahendravarman
Temples rock faces, often with pillared halls. I), Varaha Cave Temple (Mahabalipuram)
2. Monolithic Rathas y Free-standing temples carved out of single y Pancha Rathas (Dharmaraja, Arjuna, Bhima,
(Chariot Temples) rock, resembling processional chariots. Draupadi, Nakula-Sahadeva Rathas)
3. Structural Stone y Pallavas transitioned from rock-cut to y Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram),
Temples structural temples, built with stone blocks. Vaikunta Perumal Temple
4. Dravidian Style y Pallavas laid the foundation for Dravidian y Shore Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple
Development temple architecture with vimanas, gopurams,
and mandapas.

52
 5. Gopuram y Early form of gopuram developed, which y Kailasanatha Temple entrance tower
(Entrance Towers) was later expanded by Cholas.
6. Vimana (Tower y Pallavas introduced tiered vimanas with y Kailasanatha Temple, Vaikunta Perumal
Above Sanctum) intricate carvings. Temple
7. Mandapa (Pillared y Temples had pillared halls used for y Krishna Mandapa, Mahishasuramardini
Halls) gatherings, performances, and religious Mandapa
functions.
8. Sculptural y Pallava temples were richly adorned with y Gajalakshmi panel (Varaha Cave),
Ornamentation reliefs of deities, mythological themes, and Govardhan panel (Krishna Mandapa)
floral motifs.

5. Literature
Feature Details Examples
1. Languages Used y Sanskrit and Tamil Sanskrit was the court y Tamil inscriptions (using a script
language, while Tamil developed in local evolving from Brahmi) and Sanskrit
inscriptions and literature. inscriptions, Kanchipuram inscriptions.
2. Royal Patronage y Pallava kings patronized both Sanskrit and Tamil y Narasimhavarman II patronized
scholars. They encouraged literary works, Dandin, Mahendravarman I wrote
inscriptions, and religious texts. Mattavilasa Prahasana
3. Sanskrit Literature y Court scholars composed Sanskrit kavya y Dandin’s Dasakumaracharita,
(poetry), plays, and religious texts. Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya
4. Tamil Literature y The Bhakti movement flourished, leading to the y Thevaram (Shaivite hymns by Appar,
composition of devotional hymns by Alvars and Sambandar, Sundarar)
Nayanars.
5. Dramatic Works y Mahendravarman I, the Pallava king, was himself a y Mattavilasa Prahasana (A Sanskrit
playwright. His satire ridiculed rival religious sects. play mocking Kapalika sect)
6. Religious Texts y Pallavas supported the compilation of Hindu texts y Pallava-era intellectual environment
and philosophical works. influenced the later development of
Vedanta philosophy, including the
work of Adi Shankara.
7. Inscriptions as y Pallavas left behind numerous inscriptions in both y Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple
Literature Tamil and Sanskrit, often in poetic form, inscriptions, Mandagapattu inscription
documenting royal achievements and donations. by Mahendravarman I
8. Influence on Later y Pallava-era Sanskrit and Tamil works influenced y Bhakti poetry inspired later Tamil
Literature later Chola and Vijayanagara literature. devotional movements

6. Edicts, Inscriptions, and Coins

Aspect Details Examples
1. Edicts/Inscriptions y In Sanskrit, Tamil, and Prakrit. y Velurpalaiyam Plates, Uttaramerur
y Detailed administration and grants. inscriptions.
2. Coins y Gold and silver coins with lion emblem. y Coins found along Coromandel Coast.
y Boosted trade.

7. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Architecture y Advanced rock-cutting and structural engineering y Monolithic Rathas at Mahabalipuram.
techniques.
2. Irrigation y Eripatti (tank lands) were maintained primarily by y Inscriptions mention tank maintenance like
revenue generated from those designated lands. inscription from Pullur
3. Metallurgy y Early bronze sculptures and coin minting. y Bronze figures from Pallava period like
Shiva seated in Ardhaparyanka asana
The Pallava dynasty declined by the 9th century CE but left an enduring legacy through their Dravidian temple architecture
(Mahabalipuram, Kanchi), Sanskrit-Tamil synthesis, and maritime influence across Southeast Asia.

53
 22 Foreign Travellers
Scan to Read More

Foreign travellers visited India across centuries for reasons like trade, religion, diplomacy, and curiosity, leaving behind
accounts that illuminate India's history, culture, and society. Their visit spans from ancient times (circa 300 BCE) to the modern
period (up to the 17th century).
UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Persian literary sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment. (UPSC Mains 2020)
2. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of
the history of India. (UPSC Mains 2018)

1. Ancient India Travellers (300 BCE – 700 CE)

Travellers from Greece and China visited during the Mauryan, Gupta, and post-Gupta periods.
Significance of Their Accounts
Feature Description Examples
1. Historical y Provides timelines missing in Indian y Megasthenes’ Indika confirms Chandragupta
Documentation sources. Maurya’s reign (302-298 BCE).
2. Political y Details administrative systems. y Hsuan Tsang describes Harsha’s land-grant system
Insights (630-645 CE).
3. Socio-Cultural y Glimpses into caste and daily life. y Fa Hsien notes the plight of chandalas in Gupta
Insights society (405-411 CE).
4. Religious y Documents the spread of Buddhism. y Hsuan Tsang’s Si-Yu-Ki highlights Nalanda’s
Exchange prominence.
5. Trade and y Highlights trade routes and economic y Ptolemy’s Geography maps Indian ports (130 CE).
Economy activities.

Limitations of Their Accounts

Feature Description Examples
1. Historical y Relies on secondary sources, leading to y Megasthenes’ claim of "no slavery" contradicts
Documentation inaccuracies. Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
2. Political Insights y Focuses on elites, neglecting y Megasthenes ignores rural Mauryan
commoners. administration.
3. Socio-Cultural y Misinterpretations due to cultural bias. y Megasthenes lists seven castes, confusing them
Insights with occupations.
4. Religious y Exaggerations lack archaeological y Hsuan Tsang’s claim of 10,000 monks at Nalanda
Exchange corroboration. is unverified.
5. Trade and y Limited depth in economic analysis. y Fa Hsien mentions cowries but lacks context on
Economy trade decline.

2. Medieval India Travellers (700 CE – 1500 CE)

Travellers from Arab, Persian, and European regions visited during the Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagara periods.
Significance of Their Accounts
Feature Description Examples
1. Historical y Chronicles dynasties and political y Ibn Battuta’s Rihla details Muhammad bin
Documentation events. Tughluq’s reign (1333-1347 CE).
2. Political y Reveals governance structures. y Abdur Razzaq describes Vijayanagara’s
Insights fortifications (1442-1445 CE).
3. Socio-Cultural y Captures customs and traditions. y Marco Polo notes Southern India’s trade
Insights (1292-1294 CE).

54
 4. Religious y Highlights religious tolerance. y Al-Masudi’s Meadows of Gold praises Gujarat’s
Exchange rulers (957 CE).
5. Trade and y Documents commercial prosperity. y Abdur Razzaq praises Calicut’s spice trade
Economy (1442 CE).

Limitations of Their Accounts

Feature Description Example
1. Historical y Contains chronology errors. y Ibn Battuta’s vague "60 days in Multan"
Documentation lacks precision.
2. Political Insights y Elite-centric, ignoring common y Al-Biruni focuses on Mahmud of Ghazni’s
governance. court (1024-1030 CE).
3. Socio-Cultural Insights y Cultural prejudice affects objectivity. y Al-Biruni calls Indians "insular."
4. Trade and Economy y Language barriers lead to y Arab references to "Mount Juran" remain
inaccuracies. unidentified.

3. Modern India Travellers (1500 CE – 1700 CE)

European travellers visited during the Mughal and Vijayanagara periods.
Significance of Their Accounts
Feature Description Example
1. Historical y Records political shifts and y Bernier’s Travels covers Aurangzeb’s reign
Documentation transitions. (1658-1669 CE).
2. Political Insights y Details administrative structures. y Sir Thomas Roe describes Jahangir’s court (1615-1619 CE).
3. Socio-Cultural y Offers cross-cultural comparisons. y Nuniz notes Vijayanagara women’s freedom
Insights (1535-1537 CE).
4. Religious Exchange y Comments on religious practices. y Barbosa details Kerala’s caste system (1500 CE).
5. Trade and Economy y Highlights India’s economic wealth. y Tavernier discusses India’s diamond mines (1638-1668 CE).

Limitations of Their Accounts

Feature Description Example
1. Historical y Focuses on extraordinary events like wars and decline, y Bernier overemphasizes Mughal
Documentation often neglecting day-to-day governance and historical decline, ignoring administrative
continuity. stability.
2. Political y Shows a Eurocentric bias, misunderstanding Asian y Sir Thomas Roe neglects significant
Insights political systems, and overlooking regional powers and powers like Vijayanagara and
indigenous governance mechanisms. Marathas.
3. Socio-Cultural y Contains ethnocentric judgments and stereotypes, y Manucci describes Indian customs as
Insights reducing complex cultures to simplistic and negative "barbarous" (1653–1708 CE),
descriptions. showing cultural bias.
4. Religious y Oversimplifies India’s diverse religious practices, y Barbosa reduces complex caste
Exchange social norms, and caste structures due to limited hierarchies to just four, missing
understanding. regional and occupational diversity.
5. Trade and y Focused heavily on luxury goods, neglecting agrarian y Tavernier highlights diamond trade
Economy economies, rural markets, and internal trade but ignores agriculture, which was
mechanisms. the economic backbone of India.
Importance of Accounts for Reconstruction of Indian History
1. Chinese Travellers
Traveller Timeline Importance of Reconstruction in Indian History
1. Fa y 405-411 CE y Documents Gupta society, Buddhism’s state, and trade hubs like Tamralipti.
Hsien y Example: Notes ‘chandalas’ and cowries as currency.
2. Hsuan y 630-645 CE y Details Harsha’s reign, Nalanda’s prominence, and feudalism.
Tsang y Example: Describes Kannauj assembly and land grants.
3. I-Tsing y 671-695 CE y Offers insights into Buddhist monastic life in Chalukya-Pallava regions.
y Example: Records monks’ routines.

55
 4. Francois y 1656–1668 CE y Highlights the absence of a middle class in Mughal India, compares it with Europe’s
Bernier socio-economic structures.
y Example: Notes “no middle state in India ”, only nobles and peasants.
Significance: Chinese accounts fill gaps in Buddhist history and socio-political transitions, especially during the Gupta and Harsha periods.
2. Arab & Persian Travellers
Traveller Timeline Importance of Reconstruction in Indian History
1. Al-Masudi y 957 CE y Highlights Gujarat’s religious tolerance and maritime trade.
y Example: Meadows of Gold praises Bilahara Rajas.
2. Al-Biruni y 1024-1030 CE y Provides scientific and cultural insights during Ghaznavid invasions.
y Example: Tahqiq-i-Hind covers astronomy and castes.
3. Ibn Battuta y 1333-1347 CE y Chronicles Delhi Sultanate’s administration and society.
y Example: Rihla details Tughluq’s court and postal system.
4. Abdur Razzaq y 1442-1445 CE y Describes Vijayanagara’s grandeur and Calicut’s trade.
y Example: Notes 300 harbours and Mahanavmi festival.
5. Awfi y 1220s CE y Records early Sultanate politics and trade.
y Example: Details Iltutmish’s relations with Khokhars and Caliph.
Significance: Arab & Persian accounts offer a blend of political, cultural, and economic history, bridging Islamic and Indian traditions.
3. Greek Travellers
Traveller Timeline Importance of Reconstruction in Indian History
1. Megasthenes y 302-298 BCE y Establishes Mauryan chronology and administration.
y Example: Indika describes Pataliputra’s layout and army of 400,000.
2. Ptolemy y 130 CE y Maps ancient India’s geography and trade.
y Example: Geography lists ports and commodities.
3. Deimachus y 3rd Century BCE y Supplements Mauryan history under Bindusara.
y Example: Corroborates Megasthenes’ accounts.
Significance: Greek accounts provide the earliest external perspective, crucial for Mauryan history and trade networks.
4. European & Russian Travellers
Traveller Timeline Importance of Reconstruction in Indian History
1. Marco Polo y 1292-1294 CE y Documents Southern India’s trade and rulers.
y Example: Notes Kakatiya and Pandyan prosperity.
2. Niccolò de’ y 1420-1421 CE y Details Vijayanagara’s social customs.
Conti y Example: Describes caste system and Sati practice.
3. Duarte Barbosa y 1500 CE y Chronicles Kerala and Vijayanagara’s society.
y Example: Details caste hierarchies.
4. Domingo Paes y 1520-1522 CE y Describes Vijayanagara’s peak under Krishnadeva Raya.
y Example: Notes city’s wealth and military.
5. Fernão Nuniz y 1535-1537 CE y Highlights Vijayanagara’s culture.
y Example: Records women’s role in astrology and wrestling.
6. Tavernier y 1638-1668 CE y Documents Mughal economy.
y Example: Details diamond mines and trade.
7. Bernier y 1658-1669 CE y Analyzes Mughal decline.
y Example: Travels critiques Aurangzeb’s policies.
8. Sir Thomas Roe y 1615-1619 CE y Offers Mughal court insights.
y Example: Describes Jahangir’s diplomacy.
9. Athanasius y 1470-1474 CE y Records Bahmani Kingdom’s trade and customs.
Nikitin y Example: Travels notes political conditions.
Significance: European & Russian accounts enrich early modern history, detailing Mughal and regional powers with a focus on trade
and governance.
Foreign travellers’ accounts provide invaluable insights into India’s history, culture, and economy, but their biases, inaccuracies,
and selective focus limit their reliability as sole historical sources.

56
 23 Pala Dynasty
(8th to the 12th century) Scan to Read More

The Pala Dynasty emerged in 750 CE under Gopala I, filling the power vacuum left after Harsha's death. Ruling Bengal-Bihar for
over 400 years, they transformed the region into a thriving centre of Buddhist learning, establishing world-renowned institutions like
Nalanda and Vikramashila universities while developing a distinctive artistic style that defined eastern Indian culture.
UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate.(2020)

1. Political Structure & Administration

Feature Key Details Examples
1. Nature of Rule y Strong central authority but decentralized y Vassals (Samantas) held semi-
administration autonomous power.
2. Bureaucracy y Well-defined hierarchy with provincial and local y Uparika (provincial governor),
officials Visayapati (district head)
3. Revenue y Land tax primary source, trade taxes supplemented y Land grants (agraharas) given to
Administration income Brahmins and monasteries
4. Feudal System y Vassal chiefs (Samantas) ruled semi-autonomously but y Many feudal lords declared
paid tribute independence in later periods

2. Economic & Social Organisation

Feature Key Details Examples
1. Agrarian y Rice and cash crops dominated. y Pala inscriptions mention rice fields in
Economy y Land grants boosted agriculture. Varendra.
2. Feudal y Samantas controlled land; y Bhumichandranyaya system (land tenure)
Economy y Peasants paid rent and taxes. noted in inscriptions.
3. Craft y Textiles, metalwork, and pottery flourished in y Arab traveller Sulaiman (851 CE) praises
Specialization urban centres. Bengal’s cotton fabrics.
4. Caste System y Present but not rigid. y Pala grants to Brahmins (such as
y Social mobility existed. Ramapala’s copper plates) show their
y Brahmins and Kshatriyas dominated, Vaishyas in trade. prominence.
5. Urban-Rural y Urban centres (such as Vikramashila) contrasted y Arab accounts describe bustling Tamralipti
Divide with rural feudal villages. vs. rural Varendra.

3. Art and Literature

A. Pala Paintings
Aspect Details Examples
1. Medium y Primarily painted on palm leaves using tempera y Pancharaksha Tara (1080 CE),
(water-based pigments mixed with binding agents). Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita (10th
Later, paper was also used. century).
2. Style y Characterized by delicate outlines, graceful figures, y Pancharaksha Tara depicts a serene
and expressive faces. Colors were vibrant yet Buddhist deity with a yellow body against a
harmonious. striking red background.

57
3. Color Palette y Included bright hues like yellow, indigo, red, and y Pancharaksha Tara (1080 CE) uses bold
green, often derived from natural sources like red backgrounds to highlight angular
minerals and plants. figures
4. Technique y Artists first laid a colored background, then y Manuscripts like Astasahasrika-
sketched figures with black or red outlines before prajnaparamita show meticulous layering
filling in colors. Shading added depth. of colors.
5. Themes y Focused on Buddhist and Jain religious texts, y Kalpasutra illustrates the birth of a
featuring deities, spiritual scenes, and stories of Tirthankara, blending narrative and art.
Tirthankaras (Jain saviors).
6. Patronage y Sponsored by monks, wealthy laypeople, and rulers y Mahipala I funded manuscripts and
like Dharmapala and Devapala as acts of devotion. monasteries, linking art to spiritual merit.
7. Notable y The father-son duo Dhiman and Vitapala were y Tibetan historian Taranatha praised their
Artists celebrated for their skill in painting and sculpture. works under Pala kings.

B. Pala Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Monastic y Large brick complexes with central y Somapura Mahavihara (Paharpur, Bangladesh): Built by
Universities temples, designed for Buddhist Dharmapala (8th–9th century)
education. y Largest Buddhist vihara in India, UNESCO-listed
y 177 monastic cells around a central shrine
2. Cruciform y Four-winged design inspired Southeast y Vikramashila Monastery (Bhagalpur, Bihar): Founded
Layout Asian monasteries. by Dharmapala
y 108 small shrines surrounding main stupa
3. Brick y Used baked bricks with terracotta y Jagaddala Vihara (Bengal): Late Pala-period monastery
Construction ornamentation; limited stone. with elaborate brickwork
4. Temple y Few surviving temples; evidenced from y Nalanda Additions: Pala-era temples built atop Gupta
Architecture doorframes and pillars. foundations

C. Pala Sculpture
Feature Description Examples
1. Black Basalt y Fine-grained stone carvings with y Vishnu with Lakshmi & Sarasvati (11th–12th century):
Stone intricate details. Slim figures, ornate jewelry
2. Bronze y Lost-wax technique; alloy of eight y Crowned Buddha (10th–11th century): Found in Bihar;
Statues metals; small, devotional icons. exemplifies Pala metalwork
3. Pedestal y Lotus bases with Pancharatna (five- y Pala-period Buddha statues: Often seated on lotus
Designs projection) or Triratna (three- pedestals
projection) motifs.
4. Terracotta y Decorative plaques on monastery y Paharpur Plaques: Depicted Shiva, Buddha, and
Art walls. scenes from Ramayana/Mahabharata.
y Themes: Hindu-Buddhist deities, daily y Used to adorn walls of Somapura Mahavihara.
life, epics.
y Partially molded, partly hand-sculpted.

D. Pala Literature
Aspect Key Details Notable Works
1. Buddhist y The Palas actively supported y Astasahasrika-Prajnaparamita (10th century): A
Writings Buddhist scholars, producing sacred beautifully illustrated Buddhist scripture explaining
texts and philosophical wisdom teachings
commentaries. Many works were y Tantric Buddhist Texts: Composed at Vikramashila
translated from Sanskrit to Tibetan. University by scholars like Atisha Dipankara
2. Sanskrit y Kings sponsored brilliant Sanskrit y Ramacharitam by Sandhyakar Nandi: A poetic biography
Masterpieces works covering history, law, and of King Ramapala blending history with epic style
poetry, creating a golden age of y Dayabhaga by Jimutavahana: A groundbreaking Hindu
scholarship. law book that shaped Bengal's inheritance system

58
 3. Medical y Pala-era doctors wrote detailed y Chikitsa Samgraha: A complete medical encyclopedia
Knowledge medical guides, preserving and covering diseases and cures
advancing Ayurvedic knowledge. y Updated versions of Sushruta Samhita, the ancient surgical text
4. Philosophical y Scholars produced important texts on y Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta: Explored advanced
Works logic, metaphysics, and Buddhist logical reasoning techniques
thought.
5. Historical y Official inscriptions on copper plates y Nalanda Copperplate: Records King Devapala's donation
Records and stone provide valuable details to a Javanese king for monastery upkeep
about Pala rule. y Bhagalpur Inscription: Describes construction of Shiva
temples under royal orders

4. Edicts and Inscriptions

Feature Description Example
1. Copper y Recorded land grants and royal y Devapala’s Monghyr copper plate details conquests and
Plates titles. donations.
2. Stone y Proclaimed victories and religious y Nalanda inscription of Vipulashrimitra under
Inscriptions endowments. Dharmapala.
3. Language y Sanskrit with regional influences y Ramapala’s inscriptions show early Bengali script
(proto-Bengali). evolution.

5. Coins
Feature Description Example
1. Material y Silver and copper; debased over time. y Dharmapala’s silver coins are found in Bengal hoards.
2. Symbols y Buddhist motifs (such as lotus, wheel) y Devapala’s coins bear “Sri Devapala Deva”
and royal titles. inscription.
3. Economic y Facilitated trade and taxation; limited y Arab traveller Sulaiman (851 CE) mentions Pala coin
Role circulation. use in markets.

6. Science and Technology

Field Contributions Examples
1. Medicine y Advanced Ayurvedic y Chikitsa Samgraha by Chakrapani Datta (comprehensive medical
knowledge with detailed encyclopedia)
pharmacological and surgical y Sushruta adaptations by Gadadhara Vaidya (updated surgical
texts. techniques)
y Vangasena's Chikitsa Sara Samgraha (compilation of treatments)
2. Metallurgy y Mastered bronze casting using y Crowned Buddha statues
the lost-wax technique; alloy y Bronze icons of Tara and Avalokiteshvara (found in Nepal/
of eight metals. Tibet)
3. Agriculture y Developed irrigation systems y Copperplate grants (such as Devapala’s Nalanda inscription
linked to monastic land grants. mentions village donations for upkeep)
y Terracotta plaques depicting farming tools
The Pala Dynasty established Bengal-Bihar as a centre of Buddhist learning and art, building monumental universities like
Vikramashila and patronizing revolutionary sculpture styles. Their 400-year rule ended when Vijayasena of the Sena Dynasty seized
power, marking a Hindu revival in eastern India.

59
 24 Rashtrakuta Dynasty
(c. 753 CE – 982 CE) Scan to Read More

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty (8th–10th century CE), founded by Dantidurga, ruled Deccan and beyond from Manyakheta. Known
for the Kailasa Temple at Ellora, they excelled in art, architecture, and warfare, rivalling the Palas and Pratiharas.

1. Political & Administrative Structure

Feature Key Details Examples
1. Kingship y Hereditary monarchy legitimized by y Govinda III's succession after power struggle
military power
2. Nature of Rule y Centralized with strong military control, y Expansions under Dhruva, Govinda III, Indra III
reflected in the tripartite struggle against
the Palas and Pratiharas.
3. Provincial y Empire was divided into provinces (Rashtras), y Mahamandaleshvara (governor) administered
Governance districts (Vishayas), and villages provinces
4. Military Power y Formidable cavalry, elephant corps, and y Krishna III's Tamil campaign used navy;
naval strength victories over Pratiharas/Palas

2. Economic & Social Organisation

Feature Key Details Examples
1. Agriculture y Land revenue main source of income y Rice, wheat, and cotton cultivated
2. Land Grants y Tax-free lands for Brahmin/Jain institutions y Copper plate inscription recording grants
3. International Trade y Maritime trade with Persia, Arabia, and China y Exports: Cotton, textiles, pearls
4. Religion y Hindu-Jain-Buddhist coexistence y Patronage to Jain monks, temples for
Shiva and Vishnu
5. Caste System y Varna-based hierarchy, but social mobility y Some Rashtrakuta rulers of the Jain
existed lineage
6. Women's Role y Women had roles in administration, religious y Inscriptions record queens & noblewomen
activities funding temples

3. Art and Literature

A. Art
Feature Description Examples
1. Painting y Murals and frescoes in temples y Jain caves at Ellora have paintings
2. Sculpture y Bronze and stone sculptures, depicting Hindu y Nataraja sculptures, Ellora carvings
and Jain themes
3. Performing Arts y Music and dance patronized y References in Kavirajamarga

60
 B. Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Monolithic y The Rashtrakutas excelled in carving y Kailasanath Temple, Ellora – carved out of a single
Rock-Cut entire temples out of single rock rock and is considered a masterpiece of Indian
Temples formations, a unique architectural feat. rock-cut architecture. It replicates the Mount Kailasa
abode of Shiva.
2. Dravidian y Their architecture followed the y Kailasanath Temple at Ellora reflects grand
Influence Dravidian style, characterized by Dravidian rock-cut architecture, while Pattadakal, a
pyramid-shaped towers (Vimana), UNESCO site, was primarily a Chalukya centre
pillared halls, and elaborate sculptures. blending Dravidian and Nagara styles.
3. Cave Temples y The dynasty is known for magnificent y Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra) – These rock-cut
rock-cut cave temples dedicated to caves contain the famous Maheshmurti (Trimurti
Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Shiva) sculpture, depicting Shiva in its three aspects:
Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer.
4. Sculptural y Their temples and caves feature y Ravana shaking Kailasa (Ellora Caves) – A famous
Excellence intricate sculptures of Hindu gods, sculpture in Ellora Caves depicts Ravana trying to
Jain Tirthankaras, and mythological shake Mount Kailasa to prove his strength,
themes. showcasing the depth of Rashtrakuta artistry.
5. Religious y Rashtrakutas patronized multiple y Jain Narayana Temple at Pattadakal – A temple
Tolerance religions, supporting temple-building dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras, showing Jain
for Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. architectural influence. Jain Caves at Ellora also
exhibit stunning sculptures of Jain deities.
6. Massive Pillared y Many Rashtrakuta temples had y Kailasanath Temple (Ellora) – The temple
Halls spacious, intricately designed complex includes a massive pillared mandapa
pillared halls, allowing for religious (hall) with sculptures of elephants, lions, and
gatherings and rituals. deities.
7. Mythological y Rashtrakuta architecture frequently y Maheshmurti in Elephanta Caves – A stunning
Themes depicted Hindu mythological themes 20-foot-high relief sculpture of Lord Shiva as
in sculptures and carvings. Maheshmurti (three-headed form).

8. Jain y The rulers, especially Amoghavarsha y Jain Caves at Ellora – These caves contain detailed
Architectural I, promoted Jain architecture, carvings of the 24 Jain Tirthankaras, demonstrating
Contributions commissioning temples dedicated to Rashtrakuta's support for Jainism.
Tirthankaras. y Navalinga Temples at Kuknur also reflect Jain's
architectural patronage.
9. Use of Local y The Rashtrakutas utilized locally y Ellora and Elephanta Caves – These sites, made from
Stone available basalt rock for carving volcanic basalt rock, show the dynasty's expertise in
temples and sculptures. hard rock excavation and intricate detailing.
10. Grand y Their temples, particularly Kailasanath y Kailasanath Temple (Ellora) – It is one of the largest
Structural Scale Temple, were monumental in scale, rock-cut temples in the world, excavated from top to
requiring extensive manpower, bottom, an engineering marvel of the Rashtrakuta
planning, and architectural skill. period.

C. Literature
Feature Description Examples & Explanation
1. Patronage to y Rashtrakuta rulers encouraged literature y Amoghavarsha I wrote in Kannada and Sanskrit,
Multiple in Sanskrit, Kannada, and Prakrit. supporting both linguistic traditions.
Languages
2. Major Sanskrit y Sanskrit literature was highly y Trivikrama’s “Nalachampu” – The first champu
Works encouraged, with works on poetry, (mixed prose and poetry) work in Sanskrit.
drama, and philosophy.
3. Growth of y Kannada became an important literary y Kavirajamarga (by Amoghavarsha I) – The earliest
Kannada language under the Rashtrakutas. known Kannada literary work, a guide on poetics
Literature and grammar.

61
 4. Jain Influence on y Many Rashtrakuta rulers were patrons y Jinasena’s “Adipurana” – Biography of the first Jain
Literature of Jain scholars, leading to extensive Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha. Gunabhadra’s
Jain literature. “Mahapurana” – A significant Jain text.
5. Historical and y Some literary works focused on y Amoghavarsha I’s “Prashnottara Ratnamalika” – A
Political political ethics and governance. Sanskrit treatise on political wisdom and ethics.
Writings
6. Religious and y Hinduism and Jainism greatly y Vidyachakravarti’s works on Advaita Vedanta,
Philosophical influenced the literary works of the promote Hindu philosophical thought.
Texts Rashtrakutas.
7. Poetry and y Poetic and dramatic works were y Trivikrama’s Nalachampu, Padmagupta’s “Nava
Drama composed, often influenced by Sahasanka Charita” – A historical poem.
Flourished mythology and history.
8. Inscriptional y Many inscriptions, written in Sanskrit, y Samangad inscription, dated to 754 CE, records the
Literature Kannada, and Prakrit, serve as victory of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga over the
historical records. Chalukya

4. Edicts and Inscriptions

Feature Description Examples
1. Copper Plate Grants y Land grants to Brahmins and religious institutions y Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsha
2. Temple Inscriptions y Donations and construction records y Ellora's inscriptions mention Krishna I
3. Political Inscriptions y Conquests, victories, and administration details y Gadag inscription of Krishna III

5. Coins
Feature Description Examples
1. Material y Gold, silver, and copper coins y Suvarna, Gadyana, Dinar
2. Designs y Hindu and Jain symbols, inscriptions in Kannada and y Coins with Garuda, Shiva-linga,
Sanskrit Nandi
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty declined in the 10th century due to the resurgence of the Western Chalukyas, led by Tailapa II. Despite
their fall, they left a lasting legacy in art, architecture, and Indian history.

62
 25 Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty
(730 CE to 1036 CE) Scan to Read More

The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (8th-11th c. CE), founded by Nagabhata I, dominated North India from Kannauj, engaging in the
epic Tripartite Struggle against Palas and Rashtrakutas.

1. Political & Administrative Structure

Feature Key Details Examples
1. Nature of Rule y Feudal monarchy with decentralized y Empire divided into bhuktis (provinces),
administration; vassal kings controlled regions. vishayas (districts), and gramas (villages).
2. Dynastic Origin y They were rival powers competing for y Nagabhata I (8th century CE) was the first
control over North India, particularly the significant ruler.
Kannauj Triangle.
3. Tripartite y Fought Rashtrakutas and Palas for control of y Nagabhata II and Mihira Bhoja clashed with
Struggle Kannauj. rival dynasties.
4. Feudal System y Samantas (feudal lords) governed lands and y Local chiefs in Rajasthan/Madhya Pradesh paid
military troops. tribute.
5. Local y Villages were governed by gramika (village y Autonomous village councils in Gwalior/
Governance heads), with autonomous decision-making by Kannauj.
village assemblies.
6. Revenue y Taxes: bhaga (crop share), bali (tribute), y Land tax records in Bateshwar inscriptions.
System hiranya (cash tax).

2. Economic & Social Organisation of the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty

Aspect Key Details Examples
1. Economic Base y Agrarian economy with trade in urban centres y Land grants (Brahmadeya) to
(Kannauj). Brahmins.
2. Trade & y Controlled Gangetic plains trade routes; links with y Arab traveller Al-Masudi notes
Commerce Central Asia, Arabs. Kannauj’s prosperity.
3. Social y Varna system reinforced; Brahmins empowered via y Rajput identity solidified under
Structure land grants; Rajput clans emerged. Pratihara's patronage.
4. Religious y Hindu revival (Vishnu/Shiva focus), with Jainism y Jain temples at Osian (Rajasthan);
Trends and Buddhism also patronized. Hindu temples like Bateshwar complex.

3. Art and Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Nagara Style of y Followed the Nagara style, characterized by y Teli Ka Mandir (Gwalior), Bateshwar
Architecture curvilinear shikharas (towers), garbhagriha Temple Complex (Madhya Pradesh).
(sanctum), and mandapas (halls).

63
 2. Ornate y Walls, ceilings, and pillars were intricately carved y Osian Temples (Rajasthan) have
Carvings with floral motifs, deities, and mythological elaborate sculptures of Hindu gods and
scenes. celestial beings.
3. Multi-Tiered y The temple towers (shikhara) were multi-tiered and y Teli Ka Mandir at Gwalior Fort (9th
Shikharas had rekha prasada (curvilinear) designs, resembling century)
a mountain.
4. Panchayatana y Used the Panchayatana style, where the main shrine y Jagat Temple (Rajasthan), is dedicated
Style Layout is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines. to Goddess Durga.
5. Use of y Temples were constructed using red and yellow y Bateshwar Temple Complex (M.P.),
Sandstone sandstone, common in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. made of locally available sandstone.
6. Vaishnavism y Majority of temples were dedicated to Vishnu, with y Mihira Bhoja built several Vishnu
Influence some dedicated to Shiva and Shakti. temples, including the one at Kannauj.
7. Pillared y Supported by massive stone pillars, often carved with y Telika Mandir (Gwalior) has a grand
Mandapas yoginis, apsaras, and dancers. mandapa with sculpted figures.
8. Fort y Built massive fortresses with thick defensive walls y Gwalior Fort (expanded by Pratiharas),
Architecture and strategic gateways for military defense. Mandore Fort (Rajasthan).
9. Jain Influence y Apart from Hindu temples, Jain temples were also y Osian Jain Temple (Rajasthan), built
built, reflecting Pratihara's patronage of Jainism. under Pratihara rulers.

4. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Patronage of y The Pratihara rulers were great supporters of Sanskrit y Rajashekhara, a court poet of
Sanskrit scholars and poets. Their courts became centres of Mahendrapala I, wrote Kavya-Mimamsa,
Literature learning. Bala Ramayana, Bala Bharata.
2. Court Poetry y Sanskrit poetry and plays flourished during this y Bala Ramayana (a simplified version of
and Dramas period, often dealing with heroic, historical, and the Ramayana for young learners).
religious themes.
3. Lexicography y Development of linguistic studies in Sanskrit, y Kavya-Mimamsa (a treatise on poetics
and Grammar including grammar, poetic meters, and rhetoric. and literary criticism by Rajashekhara).
4. Historiography y Chroniclers documented royal lineages, conquests, y Bhuvana Kosha (descriptive geography
and and cultural achievements. and historical record).
Genealogies
5. Religious and y Hindu Shaivite, Vaishnavite, and Jain texts were y Commentaries on Pancharatra Agamas
Philosophical composed and preserved. (Vaishnavite texts).
Texts
6. Jain y Jain scholars flourished under Pratihara's rule, writing y Jain texts in Osian (Rajasthan) temple
Literature texts in Sanskrit and Prakrit. libraries, including Jain Sutras.

5. Edicts and Inscriptions

Inscription Details
1. Adivaraha Inscription y Mentions Mihira Bhoja as a great ruler and devotee of Vishnu.
2. Gwalior Inscription y Provides historical details about the dynasty’s military campaigns.
3. Bateshwar Inscription y Records temple construction and donations.

6. Science and technology

Field Features Examples
1. Metallurgy y High-quality iron and bronze production for y Bronze Jain idols, iron weaponry (swords,
weapons and art. armour).
2. Hydraulic Tech y Water conservation systems and irrigation y Early stepwells, canal networks for
innovations. agriculture.
3. Military Tech y Advanced siege weapons, cavalry, and y Use of fortified walls against Arab
defensive fortifications. invasions.
The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (8th-11th century CE), renowned for defending India against Arab invasions and promoting art/
architecture, declined due to Mahmud of Ghazni’s raids (1018–1036 CE) and Chandela rebellions, leaving a lasting cultural legacy.

64
 26 Chola Dynasty
(9th–13th century CE) Scan to Read More

The Chola Dynasty (9th–13th century CE), founded by Vijayalaya Chola, was a Tamil-speaking empire renowned for naval
power, grand temples (such as Brihadeeswarar), and rulers like Rajaraja I & Rajendra I.

UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian Heritage and Culture. (2022)
2. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (2013)

1. Political Structure and Administration

Feature Description Examples
1. Centralized y The Cholas followed a hereditary monarchy, with the y Rajaraja I, Rajendra I.
Monarchy king as the supreme authority.
2. Division of Empire y Empire was divided into Mandalam (provinces), which y Chola Mandalam (core province)
was divided into Valanadu (regional divisions), Nadu and Tanjore Nadu(a district within
(districts) and Kurram(group of villages). the Thanjavur region).
3. Village Autonomy y Local self-government was strong, especially in y Uttiramerur inscription shows
(Ur, Sabha, Nagaram) Brahmadeya (Brahmin villages). village assembly elections.
4. Royal Officials y Key officials included Perundaram (higher officials) y Revenue officers, military
and Sirudaram (lower officials). chiefs.

2. Economic & Social Organisation

Feature Description Examples
1. Agricultural y Irrigation-based economy; extensive canal y Kaveri Delta became the rice bowl of
Economy system. South India.
2. Land Revenue y Land classified as wet, dry, forest, and taxable y Uttiramerur inscriptions detail revenue
System accordingly. administration.
3. Overseas Trade y Maritime trade with China, Sri Lanka, and y Chola navy controlled the Indian Ocean
Southeast Asia. trade.
4. Caste System y Brahmins and Kshatriyas held power, but y Brahmadeya villages (Brahmin
social mobility existed. settlements).
5. Women’s Status y Women participated in temple donations and y Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi made
administration. significant temple donations.
6. Religion y Hinduism (Shaivism and Vaishnavism) y Rajaraja I patronized Shaivism.
dominated; Jainism and Buddhism also
present.

3. Art and Literature

A. Art
Feature Description Examples
1. Bronze Sculptures y Cholas perfected the lost-wax (cire-perdue) y Nataraja bronze idol from Chidambaram,
(Chola Bronzes) technique, creating elegant bronze idols of deities. Ardhanarishvara, Vishnu with consorts.
2. Shaivite y Chola rulers were ardent Shaivites, and temple y Brihadeshwara Temple sculptures
Influence sculptures and paintings often depicted Shiva. prominently feature Shiva in various forms.

65
3. Dynamic and y Sculptures captured graceful, life-like postures, y Nataraja's sculpture in Ananda Tandava's
Realistic Postures especially in dancing figures. pose symbolizes cosmic dance.
4. Wall Paintings y Chola-era murals were vibrant, depicting y Brihadeshwara Temple murals depict Raja
and Murals religious and courtly themes. Raja Chola I and his royal entourage.
5. Performing Arts y Cholas promoted classical dance forms like y Chidambaram Temple was a centre for
Patronage Bharatanatyam, closely linked with temple rituals. Bharatanatyam development.

B. Temple Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Dravida Style y Stepped pyramidal vimana (tower) rising y Brihadishvara Temple (Thanjavur) - 66m
linearly, distinct from the curved Nagara shikhara; vimana, completed 1010 CE by Raja Raja I,
octagonal shikhara crowning element. exemplifies Dravida grandeur.
2. High Boundary y Temples enclosed by tall walls, often y Brihadishvara Temple (Thanjavur) - Fortified walls
Walls fortified later, unlike open Nagara temples. were added in the 16th century.
3. Gopurams y Monumental entrance gateways, often y Rajarajeswara Temple (Thanjavur)
(Gateway Towers) taller than the vimana in later phases, were - Two large gopurams conceived with
richly sculpted. the temple.
4. Garbhagriha and y Sanctum (garbhagriha) housing the deity, y Nageswaraswamy Temple (Kumbakonam)
Antarala connected by a vestibular tunnel (antarala) - Sanctum designed to allow sunlight in
to the mandapa. Chithirai month.
5. Mandapa y Elaborately carved pillared hall with a flat y Airavatesvara Temple (Darasuram) - Mandapa
(Pillared Hall) roof for devotees’ assembly. with miniature Periyapuranam depictions.
6. Material: Granite y Exclusive use of durable granite blocks, y Brihadishvara Temple (Thanjavur) - First fully
replacing earlier brick or timber, a shift from granite temple, 1,30,000 tons used.
Pallava style.
7. Water Tank y Unique features within the temple complex y Gangaikondacholapuram Temple - Temple
for rituals and aesthetics. tank enhances the layout.
8. Sculptures and y Dynamic deity sculptures (such as Nataraja) y Gangaikondacholapuram Temple - Nataraja,
Niches and mythological scenes in niches; Dakshinamurthy carvings in niches.
Dvarapalas at entrances.
9. Vimana y Single, towering vimana over the y Brihadishvara Temple (Thanjavur) - 14-storey
Dominance garbhagriha, unlike multiple Nagara srivimana, 66m high.
shikharas; stepped pyramid form.
10. Nandi Pavilion y Massive Nandi (Shiva’s bull) statue facing y The Nandi at Brihadishvara Temple is among
the sanctum, often monolithic. the largest monolithic Nandi, second only to
the one at Lepakshi (Vijayanagara period).
11. Fresco Paintings y Murals on walls depicting Puranic scenes y Rajarajeswara Temple (Thanjavur) - Frescoes
and royal narratives, showcasing Chola of Puranas and Raja Raja I with Karuvur
artistry. Devar.
12. Kudu Decoration y Horseshoe-shaped ornamental motifs on y Vijayalaya Temple (Nartmalai) - Kudu
cornices evolved from the Pallava style but decoration
distinct.

C. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Tamil Literary y Tamil literature flourished, reaching its zenith y Kamban’s Ramavataram - Tamil version of
Peak with epic poetry, devotional hymns, and Ramayana, a masterpiece of Chola-era Tamil
grammatical works. poetry.
2. Religious and y Emphasis on Shaivism (Saiva Siddhanta) and y Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam - Lives of 63
Devotional Vaishnavism; hymns by Nayanmars and Nayanmars, a canonical Tamil Shaivite text.
Themes Alvars enriched literature.
3. Philosophical y Emergence of Saiva Siddhanta, a sophisticated y Meikandar’s Sivagnana Bodham - Foundational
Development Shaivite philosophical system. text of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy.

66
 4. Educational y Temples and mathas as centres of learning, teaching y Inscriptions at Ennayiram and Thirumukkudal
Support Vedas, epics, mathematics, and medicine. detail colleges and educational activities.
5. Historical y Works celebrating Chola military victories and y Jayakondar’s Kalingattupparani - Describes
Narratives royal lives, blending history with literature. Kulothunga I’s Kalinga war.
6. Grammar and y Significant contributions to Tamil grammar, y Pavanandhi’s Nannul - A key Tamil
Linguistics codifying rules and enhancing linguistic tradition. grammar text from the Chola period.
7. Multilingual y Literary culture is reflected in inscriptions in y Brihadishvara Temple inscription - Raja
Inscriptions Tamil, Sanskrit, and Grantha scripts. Raja I records building the temple with
stone, in Tamil.
8. Narrative y Long narrative poems with rich storytelling, y Pugalendi’s Nalavenba - Story of King Nala
Poetry often based on mythology or royal exploits. and Damayanti, a poetic narrative.

4. Edicts and Inscriptions

Feature Description Examples
1. Copper Plate y Recorded land donations(like Anbil plates y Uttiramerur Inscription (detailing village
Grants by Sundara Chola) and royal orders. administration, particularly the election process).
2. Stone y Found in temples, providing historical y Brihadeeswarar Temple inscriptions.
Inscriptions details.

5. Coins
Feature Details Examples
1. Metal Used y Primarily gold, silver, and copper. Gold coins y Gold "Kalanju" coins, copper "Kasu" for
were high-value. daily trade.
2. Common y Bull (Nandi), Tiger, Lion, Temple, Fish & y Raja Raja I’s "Bull & Tiger" coins;
Symbols Bow. Kulottunga I’s "Lion" coins.
3. Trade y Found in Sri Lanka, Srivijaya, and South India y Chola coins were excavated in Malaysia
Influence due to maritime trade. (Kedah) and Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura).

6. Science and Technology

Feature Details Examples
1. Architecture & y Advanced stone temple construction, y Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur) – World’s first
Engineering hydraulic systems, and city planning. granite temple (1010 CE), Gangaikonda Cholapuram
(Rajendra I’s capital).
2. Irrigation y Built canals, tanks (eri), and dams for y Uyyakondan Canal in Trichy, an irrigation canal, was
Systems agriculture. built by Rajaraja Chola
3. Shipbuilding & y Advanced seafaring vessels for trade y Chola Navy’s campaigns (such as conquest of
Navigation and naval expeditions. Srivijaya, 1025 CE).
4. Medicine y Siddha medicine and hospital systems y Ayurvedic dispensary (Atular Salai) in Thanjavur,
are attached to temples. medicinal inscriptions.
The Chola Empire declined by the 13th century, but its legacy lives on through art, temples, and maritime prowess. The Sengol,
a Chola-era symbol of justice, now stands in India’s New Parliament, honoring its heritage.

67
 27 Kakatiya Dynasty
(c. 12th to the 14th century) Scan to Read More

The Kakatiya Dynasty, a Telugu dynasty, ruled much of the eastern Deccan region (present-day Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh) between the 12th and 14th centuries, with Warangal as their capital. The recent discovery of a 13th-century inscription
underscores the enduring historical significance of the Kakatiya Dynasty and offers further insights into their reign, particularly
that of Rudrama Devi.

1. Political Structure & Administration

Administrative Aspect Key Features Examples
1. Form of Government y Monarchy with centralized power, but y King was the ultimate authority; Ganapati
supported by a structured feudal Deva and Rudrama Devi were prominent
system. rulers.
2. Feudal Structure y Feudatories known as Nayakas y Nayakas were often military chiefs who
administered provinces under the king’s collected land revenue and maintained
authority. order.
3. Provincial y Provinces were governed by Nayakas y Nayakas like Kayastha Ambadeva became
Administration who had both administrative and powerful enough to challenge central
military duties. authority.
4. Revenue Administration y Land revenue was a major source of y Taxes on agricultural produce, trade goods,
income; Nayakas handled assessment and cattle were common.
and collection.

2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples
1. Agriculture y Tank irrigation (like Pakala Lake, Ramappa Lake). y Rudrama Devi promoted tank construction.
2. Trade y Exports: Diamonds (Kollur mines), textiles. y Marco Polo mentioned Kakatiya trade.
y Imports: Horses (Arab traders).
3. Guilds y Vira Banajigas (warrior-merchant guilds) ensured y Inscriptions at Motupalli.
safe trade.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Aspect Description Examples
1. Social y Flexible caste system; Shudra origins of Kakatiyas; y Bothpur inscription identifies Kakatiyas as Shudras,
Hierarchy warriors and merchants held high status. yet they married into Kshatriya families.
2. Role of y Progressive: women in power and educated; less y Rudrama Devi’s rule and Marco Polo’s praise
Women rigid gender norms. of her administration.
3. Religious y Predominantly Hindu; tolerance for Jainism in y Early Kakatiya temples like Padmakshi show
Fabric the early phase, but later Shaiva Patrons. Jain influence before Hindu dominance.

4. Art
Category Details Examples
1. Art y Intricate stone carvings on temples; focus y Ramappa Temple’s dancing figurines (Madanikas)
(Sculptures) on deities, dancers, and warriors. showcase Kakatiya's sculptural finesse.
2. Performing y Perini Shivatandavam (warrior dance) y Sculptures in Ramappa Temple depict this dance
Arts flourished under patronage. form.
3. Palaces/ y Massive fortifications with artistic gateways y Warangal Fort’s Kakatiya Thoranam, now
Forts (Thoranams). Telangana’s emblem.

68
 5. Temple Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Trikuta Style y Many Kakatiya temples followed the Trikutalaya y Thousand Pillar Temple,
(Triple Shrine) (three-shrine) plan, with three sanctums dedicated Hanamkonda has three shrines.
to Shiva, Vishnu, and Surya.
2. Keerthi Toranas y Monumental arched gateways (unique to Kakatiya y Warangal Fort Keerthi Toranas remains
(Gateway Arches) style). an iconic symbol of Telangana.
3. Sandbox y Used a unique sand-filled foundation to absorb y Ramappa Temple, Palampet, has a
Technology seismic shocks, making temples earthquake-resistant. floating brick vimana.
4. Intricate Sculptural y Temples feature exquisite carvings of gods, y Ramappa Temple has bracket figures
Art celestial dancers (Madanikas), animals, and of dancers.
mythological stories.
5. Star-shaped y Temples were built on raised, star-shaped platforms y Ramappa Temple and Ghanpur Group of
Platforms (Jagati) for stability and aesthetics. Temples have star-shaped bases.
6. Lathe-Turned y Highly polished black granite pillars, with y Thousand Pillar Temple pillars are
Pillars intricate carvings, often featuring floral and lathe-turned and finely carved.
geometric patterns.
7. Pyramidal Vimana y Simple stepped pyramidal towers over sanctums, y Ramappa Temple’s vimana is made of
(Shikhara) often built with lightweight bricks. floating bricks.
6. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Development of y Telugu emerged as a literary language, moving y Tikkana’s Mahabharata, a Telugu version
Telugu Literature away from the dominance of Sanskrit. of the epic.
2. Bhakti and Saiva y Bhakti movement flourished with devotional y Basava Puranam by Palkuriki Somanatha,
Literature poetry dedicated to Shiva. narrates Virashaiva's philosophy.
3. Jain and Shaiva y Many Jain and Saiva texts were written to y Panditaradhya Charitra, about the life of
Religious Texts promote their beliefs. a Saiva saint.
4. Historical and Epic y Historical narratives glorified Kakatiya rulers y Prataparudriyam by Vidyanatha,
Poetry and warriors. describing Prataparudra II’s rule.
5. Philosophical and y Texts on dharma, politics, and administration y Sumati Satakam by Baddena, is a
Ethical Works were written. collection of moral verses.
7. Edicts and Inscriptions
Aspect Details Examples
1. Inscriptions y Over 1,000 stone and copper-plate inscriptions in y Anumakonda Inscription (1163 CE) by
Telugu; record grants and victories. Rudradeva marks sovereignty.
2. Purpose y Documented administration, land grants, and military y Draksharamam Inscription (1278 CE) under
achievements. Rudrama Devi records temple donations.
8. Coins
Aspect Details Examples
1. Coinage y Gold coins (Gadyanams) and copper coins; Varaha y Koh-i-Noor diamond, originally owned by
emblem symbolized prosperity. Kakatiyas, reflects their wealth.
2. Economic y Facilitated trade and showcased royal authority. y Coins with “Kakatiya-Prataparudra”
Insight inscriptions found in Warangal region.
9. Science and Technology
Aspect Details Examples
1. Architectural y Sandbox foundations and floating bricks in y Ramappa Temple’s lightweight bricks reduced
Innovation temple construction. structural stress.
2. Metallurgy y Skilled use of granite and sandstone in y Warangal Fort’s polished pillars exemplify
architecture; black granite polishing. metallurgical expertise.
3. Irrigation Tech y Advanced tank-building with sluices and y Ramappa Lake’s engineering still supports
levees for water conservation. agriculture today.
The Kakatiya Dynasty's legacy endures through architectural marvels like the Ramappa Temple, a UNESCO site reflecting their
advanced artistry, religious significance, and lasting cultural impact on the region.

69
 28 Yadavas
(1187–1317 CE) Scan to Read More

The Yadava Dynasty, also known as Sevuna, ruled parts of present-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh from the 9th
to 14th centuries, with Devagiri as their capital. D

1. Political Structure and Administration

Feature Description Examples
1. Centralized y King held ultimate power, supported by a y Ramachandra’s inscriptions detail his direct
Authority bureaucratic system and military. control over Devagiri’s treasury and army.
2. Local y Village councils and Deshmukhs managed y Grants to Brahmins in the Nashik region show
Governance local affairs under royal oversight. village-level autonomy in revenue collection.
3. Taxation y Land tax (Kharaj) and trade duties; taxes y Hemadri’s records mention taxes funding
System increased under Sultanate pressure. temple construction and military campaigns.

2. Economic and Social Organisation

Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Agrarian base with growing trade; fertile Deccan y Crops: millets, cotton; irrigation tanks near
Economy lands supported agriculture. Devagiri boosted farming.
2. Trade y Thriving trade with Arabs and Persians via Konkan y Exports: cotton, spices;
ports; Devagiri was a commercial hub. y Imports: horses, pearls (evidenced by Arab
merchant accounts).
3. Revenue y Land revenue primary; supplemented by trade taxes y Singhana II’s campaigns against Hoysalas
Sources and tributes from feudatories. brought wealth to fund infrastructure.
4. Caste y Brahmins dominated education and administration; y Hemadri, a Brahmin minister, shaped social
System traders and artisans gained prominence. policies; merchant guilds funded temples.

3. Art
Category Details Examples
1. Sculptures y Detailed carvings on temples; deities, mythical y Gondeshwar Temple (Nashik) has intricate
figures, and floral motifs. Shiva carvings.
2. Performing y Dance and music were patronized; temple festivals y Inscriptions mention Natya's performances
Arts featured performances. during Singhana II’s reign.
3. Popular y Folk tales and Marathi songs emerged as cultural y Early Marathi Vachana poetry linked to
Art expressions. Yadava period folk traditions.

4. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Development of y The Yadavas were the first major dynasty to establish y Dnyaneshwari by Dnyaneshwar, a
Marathi Marathi as the official language, replacing Kannada Marathi commentary on the
Literature and Sanskrit in inscriptions and literature. Bhagavad Gita​.
2. Bhakti Movement y The Bhakti movement flourished, leading to y Abhangas by Dnyaneshwar​.
and Abhanga devotional compositions (abhangas) that enriched y Namdev, Warkari sect
Tradition Marathi literature and culture.
3. Influence on y Important Sanskrit treatises on music were written, y Sangita Ratnakara by Sharngadeva, a
Sanskrit contributing to the theoretical foundations of Indian seminal text on Hindustani and
Musicology classical music. Carnatic music​.
4. Sanskrit y Scholarly works in Sanskrit covered a broad y Chaturvarga Chintamani by Hemadri,
Encyclopedic spectrum of knowledge, including medicine, law, an encyclopedic text​.
Works and governance.

70
 5. Early Marathi y Marathi philosophical and religious treatises y Paramamrita and Vivekasindhu by
Philosophical strengthened the language’s literary status and Mukundaraja​.
Texts cultural importance.
6. Edicts and y Record victories, land grants, and temple y Nashik inscription details Singhana
Inscriptions donations; often poetic in style. II’s defeat of Hoysalas; poetic
prashasti included.

5. Architecture
Category Details Examples
4. Temples y Vesara style with ornate pillars and shikharas; y Gondeshwar Temple (Nashik) with multi-tiered
focus on Shaivism. shikhara; Trimbakeshwar Temple foundations.
5. Religious y Fortified monasteries and smaller shrines for y Devagiri’s Buddhist caves were repurposed for
Places local worship. Hindu use during the Yadava rule.
6. Palaces/Forts y Devagiri Fort is a masterpiece; rock-cut with y Devagiri Fort’s impregnable design delayed
defensive layers and water systems. Alauddin Khilji’s conquest.

6. Coins
Aspect Details Examples
1. Design y Gold Gadyanas and silver coins with Devanagari y Singhana II’s coins bear his name and a lion
script; symbols like lions and temples. motif, symbolizing power.
2. Purpose y Facilitated trade and royal propaganda; circulated y Coins found in Konkan ports indicate trade
widely in Deccan. with Arab merchants.
3. Standard y Followed Chalukya traditions; Honnu and Gadyana y Gadyana coins (approx. 4 grams), also called
as denominations. Padma Tanka, were used in local markets for
regional trade and transactions.

7. Science and Technology

Aspect Details Examples
1. Engineering y Rock-cut forts and temples; advanced water y Devagiri Fort’s cisterns and channels ensured
management systems. water supply during sieges.
2. Metallurgy y Coin minting and bronze idol crafting showed y Bronze Shiva idols from Nashik temples; alloy
metallurgical expertise. techniques in coinage.

The Yadava Dynasty, despite its eventual decline, significantly shaped the Deccan region through its patronage of art, literature,
and the development of a distinct architectural style, leaving a lasting cultural imprint.

71
 29 Hoysala Dynasty
(c. 10th-14th century) Scan to Read More

Hoysala Dynasty ruled over parts of modern-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu from c. 10th-14th century. Initially,
feudatories of the Western Chalukyas rose to prominence and left an indelible mark on South Indian history through their
contributions to art, architecture, literature, and governance. Their capitals, Halebidu and Belur, became centres of cultural and
political activity during their golden age.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Nature of y Hereditary Monarchy with feudal elements y King considered divine; styled as
Government Maharajadhiraja, Tribhuvanamalla
2. Feudatory y Local rulers (Samantas) ruled under Hoysala y Nadaprabhu Kempegowda (was inspired by
System kings; and granted land in return for military this model later in Vijayanagara)
service
3. Revenue y Land revenue primary; taxes on trade, markets, y Kararike: Land tax
System professionals y Balikadeya: Temple tax

2. Economic Organisation and Social Structure

Aspect Details Examples
1. Agriculture y Mainstay of economy; irrigation through tanks y Numerous tanks were built near temples (such as
& canals Halebidu)
2. Artisanal y Guilds (Shrenis) for weavers, blacksmiths, y Belur-Halebidu sculptural workshops; weaving
Production sculptors, goldsmiths centres in Karnataka
3. Caste y Varna-based but flexible in practice; Shudras y Kayasthas in administration; guilds open to
System & women engaged in economic activity multiple communities
4. Religion and y Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Jainism y Vishnuvardhana (Vaishnavite); Ballala II (Shaiva);
Society flourished under royal patronage Jain temples at Shravanabelagola
3. Art of the Hoysala Dynasty (c. 1000–1343 CE)
Art Form Features Examples
1. Sculpture y Intricate, miniature-like detailing y Madanikas (celestial damsels) at Chennakeshava
y Soapstone (Chloritic Schist) allowed Temple, Belur
precision y Friezes of Mahabharata and Ramayana at
y Panels depict mythological, social, musical, Halebidu
erotic, and martial scenes y Sala slaying the tiger motif
2. Performing y Dance and music central to temple rituals y Queen Shantala Devi: skilled dancer and patron
Arts y Patronage to classical and folk forms y Nritya Ganika figures on pillars
3. Iconography y Emphasis on deities with multi-limbed y Vishnu as Chennakeshava (handsome Vishnu) at
dynamism Belur
y Themes from Bhagavata, Shaiva, Jain, and y Shiva as Ardhanarishvara, Gajasurasamhara in
local myths Halebidu

72
 A. Temple Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Stellate (Star- y Most Hoysala temples have a star-shaped base y Chennakesava Temple, Belur follows this
shaped) Layout (stellate plan) with multiple projections. plan.
2. Use of Soapstone y Soapstone was used for intricate carvings and y Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu, has
(Chloritic Schist) detailed sculptures. fine soapstone carvings.
3. Multi-tiered y Horizontal friezes depicting animals, y Keshava Temple, Somanathapura
Friezes mythological scenes, and floral designs. features multi-layered carvings.
4. Circumambulatory y Raised platforms allowed devotees to walk y Seen in Belur and Halebidu temples.
Platform (Jagati) around the temple.
5. Lathe-turned y Polished, lathe-turned cylindrical pillars with y The Parsvanatha Basadi, Halebidu,
Pillars intricate carvings. showcases these pillars.
6. Ornate Sculptures y Highly detailed sculptures of deities, dancers y Madanikas (bracket figures) at Belur.
& Iconography (madanikas), animals, and celestial beings.
7. Multiple Shrines y Temples often had multiple sanctums y Trikuta plan at Keshava Temple,
(Trikuta/Vikuta) (garbhagrihas) dedicated to different deities. Somanathapura.
8. Sala Legend y Carvings showing the Hoysala founder, Sala, y Found at Chennakesava Temple, Belur.
Depictions killing a tiger, symbolizing their dynasty.

4. Hoysala Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Kannada and y The Hoysalas encouraged both Kannada and Sanskrit y Sanskrit scholars: Vidya
Sanskrit Patronage literature, with a shift towards more Kannada works. Chakravarti, Trivikramapandita.
2. Development of y The Shatpadi (six-line), Tripadi (three-line), and y Raghavanka’s Harishchandra
Kannada Metres Ragale (lyrical blank verse) became popular. Kavya introduced Shatpadi metre.
3. Religious and y Jain, Shaiva, and Vaishnava texts were written. The y Madhvacharya’s Rigbhashya on
Philosophical Texts Dvaita philosophy was also developed. Brahma Sutras.
4. Jain and Shaiva y Jain and Shaiva authors wrote Kannada versions of y Nagachandra’s Ramachandra
Epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Charitapurana (Jain Ramayana).
5. Vachana and y Virashaiva saints wrote Vachanas (prose poems) in y Harihara’s Girijakalyana on the
Bhakti Literature simple Kannada. marriage of Shiva and Parvati.
6. Historical and y Many works glorified kings and saints. y Rudrabhatta’s Jagannatha Vijaya
Biographical Works (about Krishna).
7. Scientific and y Literature included grammar, medicine, y Kesiraja’s Shabdamanidarpana
Secular Texts mathematics, and rhetoric. (Grammar).

5. Edicts and Inscriptions

Type Description Examples
1. Stone y Mostly engraved in Kannada and Sanskrit; found on y Found at Belur, Halebidu, and
Inscriptions temple walls, pillars, and platforms. These record royal Somanathapura temples.
decrees, donations, and historical events.
2. Copper Plate y Issued for official purposes like land grants, y Balligavi copper plates—record grants
Inscriptions genealogies, and administrative orders; used in temple to Brahmins and religious institutions
and monastery endowments. (mathas).
3. Common y Highlighted royal victories, religious endowments, y Inscriptions celebrating
Themes temple construction, and social grants. Served as Vishnuvardhana’s victory over the
historical records and instruments of royal legitimacy. Cholas and temple patronage.
The Hoysala dynasty's legacy endures through its magnificent temples at Belur, Halebid, and Somanathapur, now UNESCO World
Heritage Sites. Renowned for intricate architecture, these "Sacred Ensembles" mark India's 42nd UNESCO listing, celebrating
the dynasty's artistic and cultural brilliance. The Hoysala legacy contributed to the later Vijayanagara temple design philosophy,
continuing their stylistic features.

73
 30 Vijayanagara Empire
(1336–1646 CE) Scan to Read More

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE) was founded by Harihara I and Bukka I of the Sangama Dynasty to resist Delhi
Sultanate invasions. Reaching its zenith under Krishnadevaraya, it flourished as a centre of art, architecture (like Hampi's Virupaksha
Temple), and Hindu cultural revival.

UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Krishnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but
was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2016)

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Centralized y King as supreme authority; hereditary y Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE) titled
Monarchy succession; symbol of divine rule (such as "Hindu-rāya-suratrāṇa" (Sultan among
Virupaksha). Hindu kings).
2. Administrative y Empire was divided into Rajyas (provinces), y Hoysala Rajya, Muluvay under provincial
Units Nadus (districts), Sthalas (sub-districts), governors (Pradhanis).
Gramas (villages).
3. Amara-Nayaka y Military commanders (Nayakas) governed y Nayakas of Madurai and Tanjavur became
System territories, collected taxes and maintained semi-independent post-Talikota (1565
armies. CE).
4. Council of y Assisted king in governance; included y Krishnadevaraya’s council managed daily
Ministers Mahapradhani (chief minister), Dalavay administration, as noted in Amuktamalyada.
(commander).
5. Local y Village assemblies managed local affairs; y Hampi inscriptions show village-level tax
Governance temples as administrative hubs. collection.

2. Economic Organisation
Aspect Details Examples
1. Agriculture y Rice, pulses, spices (pepper); irrigation via y Tungabhadra river canals boosted rice in
tanks and canals. Raichur Doab.
2. Land Revenue y Tax based on land quality; major state y Krishnadevaraya fixed rates, as per Domingo
income source. Paes’ account.
3. Craftsmanship y Textiles (cotton, silk), metallurgy flourished. y Silk exports to Persia noted by Abdul Razzaq.
4. Urbanisation y Growth of trade towns around temples and y Hampi’s bazaars described as bustling by
markets. Paes.

74
5. Overseas Trade y Ports like Cannanore; exports: cotton, y Trade with Portugal (Goa, 1510 CE) under
spices; imports: horses, pearls. Krishnadevaraya.

3. Social Organisation and Structure

Aspect Description Examples
1. Caste System y Four varnas; Brahmins and Kshatriyas y Brahmin scholars like Sayana served in
dominant; artisans valued. royal courts; Brahmins were also appointed
as fort in-charges (Durgadanayaks).
2. Women’s Role y Active in arts, administration; some scholars; y Gangadevi wrote Madhuravijayam; Nuniz
Devadasi system prevalent. notes wrestlers.
y Sati practised in certain areas.
3. Religious y Shaivism and Vaishnavism are dominant; y Mosques built in Hampi, per Barbosa’s
Diversity with tolerance for Muslims, and Jains. account.
4. Slavery and y Slaves existed; labor tied to agriculture and y Foreign travellers note disparity between elites
Labor temples. and the poor; Nikitin observed extreme poverty
among the masses despite elite wealth.

4. Art, Architecture and Literature

(A) Art
Art Form Description Examples
1. Sculpture y Characterized by intricate carvings on y Ugra Narasimha Statue (Hampi) – A 6.7m high
temple pillars and monolithic statues, monolithic statue of Narasimha (Vishnu’s
often depicting gods, warriors, and incarnation), displaying fierce expressions and
animals. intricate details.
2. Reliefs & y Bas-reliefs depicting religious and royal y Virupaksha Temple Frescoes – Ceiling paintings
Frescoes themes adorned temple walls. Murals and depicting scenes from Ramayana and
frescoes, though fewer in number, were Mahabharata, showcasing vibrant colors and
found in temple ceilings. natural dyes.
3. Metalwork & y Skilled bronze casting was prominent, y Vijayanagara Bronze Idols – bronze life-size
Bronze Art influenced by Chola traditions, and used standing portrait statue of Krishnadevaraya and
for religious and royal idols. his two queens, Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi.
4. Performing Arts y Encouraged by royal patronage, temples y Purandara Dasa (father of Carnatic music)
– Dance & served as cultural centres for received patronage from Krishnadeva Raya and
Music Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music. made contributions to Carnatic music.
5. Yakshagana & y A form of traditional storytelling involving y Yakshagana Performances – Based on Puranic tales,
Theater music, dance, and dialogues, popular in these were performed in open-air theatres, with
Karnataka during Vijayanagara rule. elaborate costumes and dramatic expressions.

(B) Temple Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Dravidian Style y Vijayanagara temple architecture y Virupaksha Temple (Hampi): One of the oldest
Influence followed the traditional Dravidian style functioning temples, dedicated to Lord Shiva,
but added unique elements like elaborate showcasing classical Dravidian architecture with later
gopurams and intricate sculptures. Vijayanagara additions.
2. Massive y Grand entrance towers with stucco y Raja Gopuram of Virupaksha Temple: This towering
Gopurams figures of deities, mythological gateway, adorned with intricate carvings, dominates
(Entrance scenes, and royal symbols, serve as Hampi’s skyline.
Towers) imposing gateways to temple y Gopuram of Hazara Rama Temple: Features fine relief
complexes. sculptures depicting stories from Ramayana.
3. Mandapas y Large, open pillared halls within y Kalyana Mandapa in Vittala Temple: Used for
(Pillared Halls) temple complexes used for religious temple weddings, adorned with richly carved pillars
gatherings, dance, and musical featuring dancers, musicians, and deities.
performances.
4. Monolithic y Massive single-stone carvings of gods, y Ugra Narasimha Statue (Hampi): A 6.7-meter-tall
Sculptures animals, and mythological beings were monolithic statue of Narasimha, built in 1528 AD,
prominent in temple complexes. showing the fierce aspect of Lord Vishnu.
y Sasivekalu Ganesha: A 2.4-meter-high monolithic
Ganesha idol resembling a mustard seed (hence the
name ‘Sasivekalu’).

75
5. Composite Pillars y Pillars decorated with yali (mythical y Vittala Temple’s Ranga Mandapa: Known for its
with Yali Motifs lion-like creature) along with depictions of intricately carved stone pillars featuring yali,
warriors, horses, and celestial beings. musicians, and royal processions.
6. Chariot Temples y Temples featuring stone-carved y Stone Chariot at Vittala Temple: One of Hampi’s
chariots symbolised the mobile most iconic structures, this monolithic chariot
temples used during religious dedicated to Garuda is inspired by the processional
processions. temple chariots of South India.
7. Temple Tanks y Large reservoirs built adjacent to y Pushkarani (Hampi): A stepwell-style water tank
temples for ritual bathing, water used for temple ceremonies.
conservation, and temple rituals. y Kamalapura Tank: A large water reservoir
showcasing Vijayanagara’s advanced water
management system.
8. Carvings of Epics y Temples were adorned with relief y Hazara Rama Temple (Hampi): The temple walls
(Ramayana & panels narrating Hindu epics, have continuous friezes depicting scenes from the
Mahabharata) showcasing both religious devotion Ramayana, showing battle sequences, royal
and artistic excellence. processions, and divine interventions.
9. Music Pillars y Special stone pillars in temple halls y Ranga Mandapa in Vittala Temple: These intricately
produce musical notes when tapped, carved stone pillars produce different musical tones
demonstrating architectural acoustics when struck, surprising visitors with their acoustic
expertise. properties.

(C) Secular & Civil Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Royal Palaces y Built using a mix of stone and mortar, y Lotus Mahal (Hampi) – A two-storied palace with
often with multiple tiers, ornate Indo-Islamic architecture, designed for royal
balconies, and open courtyards. women. Named due to its lotus-like arches.
2. Audience Halls y Used for administrative and y Mahanavami Dibba (Hampi) – A massive platform
ceremonial purposes, featuring raised where kings performed rituals and viewed military
platforms and open verandahs. parades. Intricate carvings of elephants, dancers,
and horses adorn the structure.
3. Fortifications y The city was heavily fortified with y Hampi Fortifications – Built with massive granite
concentric walls, moats, and bastions, boulders, the walls extended for miles, making
ensuring security against invasions. Vijayanagara one of the most well-defended cities.
4. Water y Extensive water supply systems, y Tungabhadra Canal – An advanced irrigation
Management including large tanks and aqueducts, to system that supported agriculture.
(Tanks, Stepwells, sustain the city’s population and
Canals) agriculture.
5. Public y Roads, bridges, and granaries y Talarigatta Gate – An entrance point to the city,
Infrastructure constructed to facilitate urban living showcasing Vijayanagara’s control over trade
and governance. routes.
6. Islamic Influences y Some structures blended Indo-Islamic y Queen’s Bath – A domed bathing complex with
in Secular styles due to Deccan Sultanate arched balconies and water channels, showcasing
Architecture influences. Indo-Islamic elements.

(D) Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Multilingual y The Vijayanagara rulers encouraged y Krishnadevaraya was a great patron of literature and
Literary literature in Sanskrit, Kannada, composed Amuktamalyada in Telugu.
Patronage Telugu, and Tamil. Court poets were y Ashtadiggajas
highly respected and supported.
2. Sanskrit y Flourished under royal patronage; y Madhava Vidyaranya wrote Sarvadarshana Samgraha,
Literature many works focused on religion, compiling Indian philosophies. The Vijayanagara era
dharma, and poetry. also saw the Haridasa movement in Karnataka and
contributions from Tamil scholars enriching devotional
and literary traditions.
3. Kannada y Witnessed significant growth; poets y Chamarasa wrote Prabhulinga Leele, a biographical
Literature wrote on history, devotion, and work on Basava, the founder of the Lingayat sect.
philosophy.

76
 4. Telugu y Reached new heights during the y Allasani Peddana was the Andhra Kavita Pitamaha (Father
Literature reign of Krishnadevaraya; many of Telugu Poetry) and wrote Manucharitram.
poets flourished.
5. Religious and y Many works were inspired by y Kanakadasa and Purandaradasa composed devotional
Bhakti Hinduism and the Bhakti movement, songs in Kannada that influenced Carnatic music.
Literature emphasizing devotion to deities.
6. Historical and y Writings focused on the greatness of y Raya Vachakam, a Telugu work, describes
Political the Vijayanagara Empire, its kings, Krishnadevaraya’s military achievements.
Writings and its military exploits.
7. Foreign y Foreign travellers documented the y Duarte Barbosa and Abdur Razzaq noted the extensive
Accounts literary and cultural richness of use of Sanskrit and regional languages in Vijayanagara.
the empire.
5. Edicts and Inscriptions
Feature Description Examples
1. Stone y Recorded grants, victories, administration; y Hampi inscriptions detail Nayaka's duties,
Inscriptions multilingual (Tamil, Kannada). Vijayanagara’s political, economic, and religious life.
2. Copper y Royal orders, land donations; legal and y Srirangam plates of Devaraya II list
Plates historical records. genealogy.
6. Coins
Feature Details Examples
1. Metal Used y Primarily gold, followed by copper and y Gold: Varaha (also called Pagoda).
silver. Gold coins were the most y One tenth of Varaha was Fanam.
prestigious. y Copper: Dammam or Kasu.
2. Iconography y Coins featured Hindu deities (such as y Varaha: Depicted Lord Vishnu’s Varaha (boar)
Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi), royal avatar. Lakshmi coins: Goddess Lakshmi seated on
emblems, and inscriptions in Kannada, a lotus.
Telugu, or Sanskrit.
3. Trade Influence y Reflects cosmopolitan trade links; some y Copper coins with Arabic script for trade with
coins show Islamic-inspired Bahmani Sultanate.
calligraphy or motifs.
4. Foreign Accounts y Portuguese travellers noted y Domingo Paes described gold coins as “the most
Vijayanagara’s wealth; coins were beautiful in the world.”
traded globally.
7. Science and Technology
Category Features Examples
1. Hydraulic y Advanced irrigation systems: y Daroji Tank: A large reservoir with interlinked
Engineering reservoirs, canals, and aqueducts to channels;
harness Tungabhadra River. y Raya of Tustha Canal also reflects Vijayanagara’s
advanced water management system.
2. Military y Fortifications with granite walls, moats, y Hampi’s fortified walls
Technology and "horse stones" to deter cavalry.
Gunpowder use in cannons by the 15th
century.
3. Urban y Radial road networks, segregated y Grid-based markets (Foreigners accounts).
Planning zones (Royal/Sacred/Urban), and
bazaars.
4. Medicine y Ayurvedic centres linked to temples; y Virupaksha Temple inscriptions mention hospital
use of herbs and minerals. donations
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE) thrived as South India's last great Hindu kingdom until its decline after the Battle of Talikota
(1565). Today, its magnificent ruins at Hampi, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, stand testament to its glorious architectural
and cultural legacy.

77
 31 Bahmani Kingdom
(1347–1527 CE) Scan to Read More

The Bahmani Kingdom (1347–1527 CE) was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah after revolting against the Delhi Sultanate.
It became a powerful Deccan sultanate known for Persian-influenced administration, factional conflicts, and architectural achievements
like Bahmani tombs in Ashtur.

1. Political Structure and Administration

Aspect Details Examples
1. Sultanate y Sultan as absolute ruler; hereditary succession; y Alauddin Hasan titled "Bahman Shah" after
Monarchy Persianate titles (such as Shah). Persian king Bahman.
2. Administrative y Divided into Tarafs (provinces), each under a y Tarafs like Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) and
Units Tarafdar (governor). Muhammadabad (Bidar).
3. Central y Wazir (prime minister), Amir-ul-Umara y Mahmud Gawan as Wazir reformed
Council (military head), and Vakil (chief advisor) advised administration under Muhammad Shah III.
the Sultan.

2. Art and Architecture

A. Architecture
Feature Description Examples
1. Persian and Indo- y Bahmani architecture reflects a synthesis of y Jama Masjid, Gulbarga – Early mosque
Islamic Influence Persian-Islamic and native Deccan styles. with Persian-inspired dome and arches.
2. Use of Grand y Emphasized domes, pointed arches, and y Bahmani tombs in Ashtur – Featuring
Domes & Arches symmetrical designs, often seen in tombs prominent domes and arches.
and mosques.
3. Fortifications & y Built strong forts and citadels with high y Gulbarga Fort – A strategic fort with
Military Architecture walls and bastions to defend against massive bastions and cannon
invasions. emplacements.
4. Elaborate y Monumental tombs with intricate y Tombs of the Bahmani Sultans in Ashtur
Tomb Structures ornamentation, reflecting Indo-Islamic and – Featuring stucco work, inscriptions, and
Persian aesthetics. calligraphy.
5. Ornamental y Decorative elements included floral motifs, y Bahmani tombs in Ashtur – Stucco work
Stucco & Tile Work geometric patterns, and inscriptions in with calligraphy and floral designs.
Persian and Arabic.
6. Water Supply y Advanced water management structures y Hauz Katora (Bidar) – A large water
Systems (Stepwells & such as stepwells, tanks, and aqueducts reservoir built for royal use and public
Tanks) were constructed. supply.
7. Royal Palaces & y Included grand durbar halls with arched y Fathabad Palace (Bidar) – A Persian-style
Audience Halls entrances and expansive courtyards. palace known for its large halls and arches.

78
 B. Art
Feature Description Examples
1. Calligraphy & y Mosques, tombs, and walls were decorated y Tombs of Ashtur (Bidar) – Inscriptions in
Islamic Inscriptions with Quranic verses in fine calligraphy. Persian and Arabic with floral embellishments.
2. Use of Stucco for y Detailed stucco work with floral, y Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (Bidar) – Stucco
Wall Art geometric, and arabesque patterns was decorations on walls, blending Persian and
widely used. Deccani influences.
3. Tile Work & y Walls of mosques and palaces were y Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (Bidar) –
Colored Glazed decorated with Persian-style colored Façade decorated with Persian blue-
Designs tilework. glazed tiles.
4. Metalwork & y Bahmani artisans worked on metal utensils, y Copper bells and utensils found in the
Decorative Arts weaponry, and ceremonial objects. Bahmani-era sites.

C. Literature

Feature Description Examples

1. Persian y Flourished under court patronage; historical and y Ferishta’s Tarikh-i-Ferishta chronicles
Literature poetic works. Bahmani history.
2. Local y Dakhni (proto-Urdu) emerged under court influence; y Nizamuddin’s Dakhni poetry in Bidar.
Languages Kannada and Telugu used in regional literature. Telugu inscriptions in Warangal.
3. Educational y Madrasas taught theology, astronomy, and law. y Mahmud Gawan’s madrasa in Bidar trained
Texts scholars in Persian sciences.

3. Science and Technology

Feature Details Examples

1. Architecture y Advanced fortification. y Bidar Fort’s triple moat system.
y use of lime mortar, domes.
2. Military y Early use of gunpowder and cannons in y Muhammad Shah I’s artillery in 1366 CE war.
Technology Deccan warfare.
3. Astronomy y Madrasas taught Persian astronomical y Gawan’s madrasa in Bidar included astronomy in
texts. its curriculum.
4. Water y Step wells (baolis) and tanks for urban y Hauz Katora in Bidar – A large water reservoir for
Management water supply. royal and public use.

The Bahmani Kingdom fragmented in 1527 CE into five Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar), ending
its 180-year rule while leaving a legacy of Indo-Islamic architecture and administrative systems.

79
 32 Deccan Sultanate
(1490–1687 CE) Scan to Read More

The Deccan Sultanates (1490–1687 CE) arose when the Bahmani Kingdom splintered into five rival states: Ahmadnagar, Bijapur,
Golconda, Bidar, and Berar. These Persian influenced kingdoms flourished as centres of art and architecture while resisting both
Vijayanagara and Mughal expansion.

Comparative Table of Deccan Sultanates

Sultanate Political Structure and Economic Social
Administration Organisation Organisation
1. Ahmadnagar y Sultan as ruler y Agriculture (cotton, rice) y Muslim nobles (Deccanis,
(1490–1636 CE) y Malik Ambar’s reforms y trade in textiles. Afaqis) dominant.
strengthened administration y Revenue from fertile lands. y Hindu peasants
y resisted Mughals under Chand y Chand Bibi’s leadership
Bibi. notable.
2. Bijapur y Adil Shahi dynasty; centralized y Cotton, spice, and horse y Sunni rulers
(1490–1686 CE) with noble factions. trade flourished; urban y Hindu tolerance (such as
y Ibrahim Adil Shah II’s cultural crafts like metalwork, Ibrahim II’s patronage)
focus. textiles, and jewellery y Persian-Indian blend.
thrived.
3. Berar y Weakest sultanate y Agriculture-based; limited y Small Muslim elite;
(1490–1574 CE) y short-lived; annexed by trade due to early decline. mostly Hindu agrarian
Ahmadnagar; limited noble society
autonomy. y little cultural impact.
4. Bidar y Barid Shahi rule; weak y Minor trade y Muslim ruling class
(1492–1619 CE) politically; annexed Bijapur; a (Bidriware) y Sufi influence (Banda
cultural hub under Amir Barid. y agrarian economy Nawaz)
y less prosperous. y local Hindu majority.
5. Golconda y Qutb Shahi dynasty; strong y Diamond trade y Shia rulers
(1518–1687 CE) central rule; resisted Mughals (Koh-i-Noor) y diverse society.
till 1687 CE. y textiles y Dakhni Urdu flourished
y wealthy from eastern ports. y Hindu traders active.

1. Art and Architecture

A. Ahmednagar Sultanate (Nizam Shahi Dynasty)
Feature Description Examples
1. Persian y Architecture inspired by styles from y Ahmednagar Fort – One of the strongest forts in the
Influence Cairo and Baghdad. Deccan, built by Malik Ahmed Nizam Shah.
2. Hasht-Bihisht y Use of the eight-paradise garden y Farah Bakhsh Bagh – A pleasure garden complex built
Style layout in palaces. in 1583.
3. Fortifications y Defensive structures with well- y Janjira Fort – Built by Malik Ambar in 1567 to resist
planned layouts. invasions.
4. Indo-Islamic y Blend of Indian and Persian y Damdi Masjid – Small mosque with Indo-Islamic
Elements architectural styles. features.
5. Black Basalt y Extensive use of black basalt stone y Manjarsumbah Fort – A hilltop fort used for defence.
Construction for durability.

80
 B. Bijapur Sultanate (Adil Shahi Dynasty)

Feature Description Examples

1. Architectural y A mix of Persian, Indian, and Ottoman y Gol Gumbaz – The second-largest dome in the
Fusion styles. world, built by Mohammed Adil Shah.
2. Monumental y Use of large domes, arches, and y Ibrahim Rauza – A mausoleum known for its
Domes and Arches expansive prayer halls. symmetry, inspired the Taj Mahal.
3. Massive y Walled forts and grand mosques with y Jama Masjid of Bijapur – One of the largest
Fortifications defensive designs. mosques in South India, built by Ali Adil Shah I.
4. Stucco and y Intricate plaster designs on walls and y Asar Mahal – Ornate stucco and frescoes.
Decorative Work ceilings.
5. Indo-Saracenic y Elements of Indian and Persian y Mehtar Mahal – A beautifully carved gateway
Influence architecture combined. with intricate floral motifs.

C. Berar Sultanate (Imad Shahi Dynasty)

Feature Description Examples
1. Minimal Architectural y Less construction due to the short-lived y Gavilgad Fort – A defensive structure in
Development nature of the dynasty. Berar.
2. Fortifications y Built primarily for defence rather than y Fortifications of Achalpur – Used to
aesthetic appeal. protect the capital city.
3. Simple Functional y Limited ornamentation and decoration. y No major monuments apart from Hauz
Structures Katora.

D. Golconda Sultanate (Qutb Shahi Dynasty)

Feature Description Examples

1. Granite y Extensive use of granite for strength and y Golconda Fort – A massive fortification
Construction durability. with acoustical architecture.
2. Persian and Deccan y Architectural elements are influenced by y Charminar – Built in 1591, an iconic
Fusion Persian and local styles. Indo-Islamic structure.
3. Domes, Arches, and y Large open spaces integrated into y Qutb Shahi Tombs – A series of grand
Courtyards structures. tombs of the Qutb Shahi rulers.
4. Ornamental y Decorative plastering and intricate tile y Mecca Masjid – A grand mosque in
Stucco Work patterns. Hyderabad, commissioned by Muhammad
Quli Qutb Shah.

E. Bidar Sultanate (Barid Shahi Dynasty)

Feature Description Examples

1. Bidriware and y Unique metal-inlay decorative art in y Rangin Mahal – Known for its colourful
Metalwork architecture. stucco work and Persian-style engravings.
2. Persian Garden y Tombs and palaces are set within Persian- y Ali Barid Shah’s Tomb – Built-in 1577,
Layout style gardens. featuring Persian-style gardens.
3. Stucco and Tile y Use of ornamental plastering and tile y Tomb of Qasim II – An example of Deccan
Decoration work. funerary architecture.
4. Fortifications and y Large walled structures for protection. y Bidar Fort – Enhanced by Barid Shahis
Defensive Walls with defensive features.

81
 2. Literature

Feature Description Examples

1. Dakhani Urdu y Developed as an independent literary tradition, y Kitab-i-Nauras by Ibrahim Adil Shah
Literature blending Persian, Marathi, and Kannada II (Bijapur)
influences. y Kulliyat by Muhammad Quli Qutb
Shah (Golconda).
2. Persian y Persian was the official language of administration, y Tarikh-e-Qutb Shahi (Golconda).
Influence history writing, and court literature.
3. Sufi & Religious y Sufi saints influenced poetry and literary y Sufi writings in Dakhani & Persian
Literature traditions. across all sultanates.
4. Telugu Literary y Unique to Golconda, where Telugu poets were y Kshetrayya’s Padams (Telugu
Patronage supported alongside Persian and Dakhani writers. devotional poetry).
5. Music & Poetry y Some rulers combined music and poetry, y Ibrahim Adil Shah II's works blend
Fusion promoting artistic expression. poetry with music culture (Nauras).

3. Science and Technology

Feature Details Examples

1. Military y Built cannons using bell metal for y Malik-e-Maidan cannon cast by the Persian
technology warfare. engineer Rumi while serving Ahmednagar.
2. Mining y Diamond extraction techniques; y Koh-i-Noor and Hope Diamond from Golconda
Golconda as a global hub. Mines.
3. Water y Tanks, wells, and aqueducts for urban y Bijapur’s Kumatgi waterworks system.
Management and agricultural use.

The Deccan Sultanate's era ended in 1687 CE when Aurangzeb conquered Golconda, the last surviving sultanate, completing
Mughal domination over the Deccan after nearly 200 years of cultural and political influence.

82
 33 Foreign Invasions in India
Scan to Read More

India witnessed numerous foreign invasions—from Achaemenids to Mughals—which profoundly shaped its polity, economy, religion,
and culture, fostering cross-cultural exchanges and resistance.
Invasion Details Effect on Indian Society and Culture
Ancient India
1. Achaemenid y Conquered NW India (Gandhara, Punjab) y Introduced Iranian influence in art and governance
Persians y India became part of Achaemenid satrapy y Stimulated Indo-Persian cultural contacts
(Darius I, 6th y Introduced coinage, Aramaic script, and y Later influenced Mauryan administration (such
century BCE) administrative practices as Kautilya’s Arthashastra)
2. Alexander y Invaded via Khyber Pass, defeated Porus y Opened Indo-Greek cultural exchange
the Great y Reached Beas River but turned back y Facilitated rise of Indo-Greek kingdoms
(326 BCE) y Left behind Greek garrisons and officers y Influenced Indian art (Gandhara) and coinage
techniques
y Stimulated long-term trade and diplomacy with the West
3. Indo-Scythians y Nomadic invaders from Central Asia y Introduced Central Asian military traditions
(Sakas, 2nd y Controlled NW India including Mathura, y Patronised art and religious syncretism
century BCE) Saurashtra, and Punjab y Supported Buddhism and local deities
4. Kushans y Originated from Yuezhi tribes y Boosted Gandhara and Mathura art
(1st century y The Empire under Kanishka spanned NW y Promoted Mahayana Buddhism
CE) India and Central Asia y Enhanced trade via Silk Road
y Introduced gold coinage system
Early Medieval India
1. Arabs y Defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh in the Battle of y Limited cultural integration but introduced
(Muhammad Aror. Arabic language and Islamic law
bin Qasim) y Conquered Sindh under Umayyad Caliphate y Sindh became a contact zone for Indo-Arab trade
(712 CE) y Administered with local officials (Brahmins) and cultural exchange
y Introduced Islamic governance in a Hindu- y Laid foundation for future Islamic incursions
Buddhist society
2. Turkic y Conducted 17 raids into India y Economic drain and temple destruction
Invasions y Targeted temples (such as Somnath) for loot y Shock to Indian rulers and religious institutions
(Mahmud of y Did not establish rule in India y Exposed military vulnerabilities of Indian
Ghazni) y Battle of Waihind (1001 CE) against kingdoms
(1000–1027 Jayapala. y Limited cultural impact due to lack of long-term
CE) presence
3. Muhammad y Defeated Prithviraj Chauhan (2nd Battle of y Beginning of Indo-Islamic synthesis
Ghori Tarain, (1192) but First Battle (1191) – y Cultural fusion in architecture, language, and
(1175–1206 Prithviraj won literature
CE) y Laid foundation of Muslim rule in North y Persian replaced Sanskrit as administrative
India language
y Left rule to his slave Qutb-ud-din Aibak y Religious and social stratification deepened
Medieval India – Delhi Sultanate & Later
1. Mongols y Raids under Chengez Khan’s successors y Pressured Delhi Sultans to strengthen military
(Repeated y Mongol raids by Chagatai dynasty under and fortifications(such as Siri Fort)
Raids) Duwa and Qutlugh Khwaja were defeated y Led to reforms like standing army, market
(13th–14th by Alauddin Khilji at Amroha and Ravi. regulations
century CE) y Never fully invaded or ruled India y Cultural exchanges via refugee influx (such as
Persian scholars, and artisans)
2. Timur y Invaded Delhi during rule of Nasir-ud-din y Massive destruction of Delhi and northern towns
(Tamerlane) Tughlaq y Weakening of Delhi Sultanate; rise of regional
(1398 CE) y Destruction of Delhi's population (massacre kingdoms
of ~100,000). y His invasion paved way for future Central Asian
y Returned to Central Asia without conquest (Babur)
annexation y Influx of Timurid art and architecture styles later via
Mughals
While invasions caused disruption and destruction, they also enriched India’s cultural mosaic through Indo-Persian art, architecture,
and ideas, laying the foundations for medieval syncretism.

83
 34 Delhi Sultanate
(1206–1526 CE) Scan to Read More

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) was established by rulers of Turkish and Afghan origin. It introduced Persian culture,
administrative reforms, and significant advancements in architecture, literature, and technology.

UPSC Previous Year Question

1. What were the major technological changes introduced during the Sultanate period? How did those technological
changes influence the Indian society? (2023)

1.Delhi Sultanate: Key Aspects

Dynasty Political Structure and Economic Social
Administration Organisation Organisation
1. Mamluk y Founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206); y Agrarian economy with y Turkish elites
(Slave) centralized rule via Turkish slaves. Iqta land grants. dominated; Hindu
Dynasty y Iltutmish (1211–1236): Introduced Iqta y Silver tanka and copper subjects taxed (jizya).
(1206–1290) system, established the "Forty" nobles jital coins introduced. y Early Sufi influence
(Turkan-i-Chahalgani). y Trade limited but (such as Chishti
y Balban (1266–1287): Strong military, growing. order).
crushed rebellions. y Example: Iltutmish’s y Example: Balban’s
y Example: Raziya Sultana (1236– coinage stabilized court enforced strict
1240), the only female ruler, faced economy. hierarchy.
noble opposition.
2. Khalji y Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290) began; y Revenue from conquests y Turkish-Persian elite;
Dynasty Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) (such as Deccan raids). harsh on Rajputs.
(1290–1320) expanded empire. y Market reforms: Fixed y Sufism grew (such as
y Centralized power with spies, market prices for grains, cloth. Nizamuddin Auliya).
controls (Diwan-i-Riyasat). y Trade boosted via Gujarat y Example: Amir
y Wars: Gujarat (1299), Chittor (1303). ports. Khusrau bridged
y Example: Mongol invasions repelled y Example: Hauz-i-Alai cultures with music,
by Alauddin. supported agriculture. poetry.
3. Tughlaq y Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320) y Agrarian focus; heavy y Mixed society:
Dynasty restored order; built Tughlaqabad. taxes under Muhammad Muslim elites, Hindu
(1320–1414) y Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325– caused revolts. masses.
1351): Ambitious but failed y Token currency y Firuz enforced
(Daulatabad shift, token currency). Experiment failed. orthodox Islam (jizya
y Firuz Shah (1351–1388): Restored y Firuz’s canals boosted strictly collected).
stability, constructed irrigation canals farming. y Example: Sufi shrines
y Example: Timur’s invasion (1398) y Example: Yamuna canal (such as Hauz Khas)
weakened dynasty. by Firuz Shah. fostered unity.
4. Sayyid y Khizr Khan (1414) founded; ruled as a y Declining economy; focus y Weak social control;
Dynasty Timurid vassal. on tax collection. regional identities grew.
(1414–1451) y Weak central authority; regional y Trade reduced due to y Limited cultural
governors gained power. instability. patronage.
y Example: Mubarak Shah (1421–1434) y Example: Jaunpur y Example: Sufi
faced rebellions in Punjab. emerged as a rival influence persisted
economic centre. amid chaos.

84
5. Lodi Dynasty y Bahlul Lodi (1451) founded; Afghan y Agriculture promoted; y Afghan nobles
(1451–1526) rule began. Agra as a trade hub. dominant; tensions
y Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Shifted y Revenue from Gwalior, with Hindu subjects.
capital to Agra, strengthened Jaunpur conquests. y Persian culture
administration. y Afghan tribal primacy flourished.
y Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost to prevailed; king as y Example: Sikandar’s
Babur at Panipat (1526). ‘primus inter pares’ court patronized
y Example: First Battle of Panipat limited central authority poets, and scholars.
ended Sultanate. and led to factionalism.
y Example: Sikandar’s
policies boosted grain
trade.

2. Art
Feature Description Examples
1. Persian and y The art of the Delhi Sultanate was deeply y Persian miniature painting style influenced later
Central Asian influenced by Persian, Turkish, and Central Mughal paintings; Sultanate rulers invited
Influence Asian styles, brought by rulers and artisans. Persian artists.
2. Islamic y Arabic and Persian calligraphy (Kufic, Naskh) y Quranic verses in Kufic script inscribed on the
Calligraphy were used for decoration. Qutub Minar and Alai Darwaza;
3. Geometric and y Art emphasized intricate geometric patterns y The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq features
Floral Designs and floral motifs instead of human elaborate geometric patterns; and floral
representations, in line with Islamic traditions. arabesque designs in the Alai Darwaza.
4. Illuminated y The tradition of manuscript illustration grew y The illustrated Persian manuscript Tarikh-i-
Manuscripts under the Delhi Sultanate, often depicting Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani; calligraphic
religious and literary themes. works commissioned by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
5. Metalwork y The period saw advancements in metal y Coins of Alauddin Khilji bore stylized
and Coin Art craftsmanship, with finely inscribed coins inscriptions; Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued
and artefacts. token currency with artistic calligraphy.
6. Textile and y Delhi Sultanate promoted fine Textile, y Sultanate-era silk brocades from Gujarat; Firoz
Carpet introducing new weaving techniques and Shah Tughlaq’s court encouraged carpet
Weaving Persian-style carpets. weaving inspired by Persian styles.
7. Glazed y Glazed pottery flourished with colorful y Blue-glazed pottery from Hauz Khas
Pottery designs used in decoration. excavations.
8. Court y Sultanate rulers encouraged local and foreign y Firoz Shah Tughlaq patronized calligrapher
Patronage of artisans to create artistic works in various Abdul Haq and Persian artist Mir Ali
Artisans mediums. Tabrizi.

3. Architecture
Feature Description Example
1. Use of Arch and y Introduction of true arches y Alai Darwaza (Alauddin Khalji) – First true dome structure in
Dome and domes replaced the India, featuring intricate geometric carvings.
traditional post-lintel system, y Tomb of Balban – First true arch in India, marking the
using the true voussoir transition from corbelled to true arch architecture.
technique instead of corbelling.
2. Blend of y Hindu temple elements like y Qutb Minar (Delhi, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish) – Uses
Indigenous and lotus motifs, brackets, and Indo-Islamic carvings, such as lotus and bells from temple art,
Islamic Styles decorative pillars were alongside Quranic inscriptions.
integrated with Islamic styles y Adhai Din Ka Jhopra (Ajmer, Qutb-ud-din Aibak) – A former
such as arabesque patterns, Sanskrit college converted into a mosque, retaining many
calligraphy, and symmetrical Hindu-style pillars and arches.
planning.

85
3. Use of Spolia y Delhi Sultans frequently used y Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Delhi) – Built
(Reused materials from demolished using pillars and materials from 27 Hindu and Jain temples,
Materials) Hindu and Jain temples for with visible carvings of deities (later defaced).
constructing mosques and
other buildings.
4. Monumental y Large congregational mosques y Begumpur Mosque (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) – One of the
Mosques and with Expansive courtyards, largest mosques of the Sultanate era, known for its massive
Madrasas domed prayer halls, and domed prayer hall.
elaborately decorated mihrabs y Jami Masjid (Firoz Shah Kotla, Delhi) – A grand mosque built
(prayer niches) were built. by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, featuring calligraphic decoration on
y Madrasas (Islamic schools) the walls and a vast prayer area.
were attached to mosques for
education.
5. Development of y Simple graves evolved into y Sultan Ghari Tomb (Delhi, Iltutmish, 1231 CE) – India's first
Tomb grand mausoleums, often Islamic tomb, designed as a subterranean crypt.
Architecture featuring large domes, y Tughlaqabad Tomb (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) – Built within a
intricate lattice work, and fortress, featuring a sloping batter wall for stability.
octagonal layouts.
6. Use of Red y Early Sultanate buildings y Alai Darwaza (Alauddin Khalji) – A stunning gateway built
Sandstone and primarily used red sandstone. with red sandstone inlaid with white marble, displaying
Marble Later, white marble was intricate carvings.
introduced for decorative y Tomb of Sikandar Lodi (Delhi, Lodi Dynasty) uses primary red
elements. sandstone with white marble and grey sandstone, creating a
refined and elegant aesthetic.
7. Calligraphic y Buildings featured Quranic y Qutb Minar (Delhi, started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, completed
and Geometric verses in Kufic and Naskh by Iltutmish) – Adorned with beautiful Kufic inscriptions of
Ornamentation scripts, along with geometric Quranic verses and floral designs.
and floral designs, replacing y Alai Darwaza (Delhi) – Features elaborate geometric patterns
figurative carvings. and arabesque motifs on its walls.
8. Sloping (Batter) y Tughlaq architecture introduced y Tughlaqabad Fort (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) – Built with sloping
Walls sloping walls to make forts and batter walls to withstand enemy attacks.
tombs more resistant to attacks y Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi) – Another Example of Tughlaq
and natural wear. defensive architecture, featuring massive walls and bastions.
9. Octagonal y Later tombs featured an y Tomb of Muhammad Shah (Lodi Gardens, Delhi, Lodi
Tombs octagonal plan instead of a Dynasty) – One of the earliest octagonal tombs, with beautiful
square or rectangular one, domes and arched verandahs.
symbolizing a shift in aesthetic y Tomb of Sikandar Lodi – Another Example of an octagonal
preferences. tomb set in a landscaped garden, influencing later Mughal
garden tombs.
10. Fortified Cities y Delhi Sultans built fortified y Siri Fort (Alauddin Khalji) – A major fortified city built to
and Palaces urban centres with palaces, protect against Mongol invasions.
audience halls, and military y Tughlaqabad Fort (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) – A massive
structures. defensive complex with high walls, bastions, and an artificial
water reservoir.

4. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Persian as the y Persian became the dominant language y Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-i-Siraj (history of early
Court Language of administration, literature, and Delhi Sultans)
poetry under the Delhi Sultans. Many y Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani (history of
historical examples and literary works Delhi Sultanate)
were composed in Persian.
2. Royal Patronage y Sultans encouraged poets, historians, y Alauddin Khalji patronized Amir Khusrau, a famous
to Scholars and and scholars to write on administration, Persian and Hindavi poet.
Poets history, and religion. y Firoz Shah Tughlaq supported historian Ziauddin Barani.

86
3. Amir Khusrau’s y Amir Khusrau, known as the "Parrot of y Works include Qiran-us-Saadain (chronicle of
Contributions India," wrote in Persian and Hindavi, meeting between Bughra Khan and his son),
developing early Hindustani literature. y Khazain-ul-Futuh (military history), and Nuh Sipihr
y He introduced new Persian poetic styles (praises Delhi’s prosperity).
and contributed to the development of
qawwali and ghazals.
4. Historical y Many historians documented the y Tarikh-i-Feroz Shahi by Barani (detailed history of
Writing political and social history of the the Tughlaq dynasty), Futuh-us-Salatin by Isami
Flourished Delhi Sultanate in Persian chronicles. (early Islamic conquests in India).
These works provide valuable insights
into governance, wars, and
administration.
5. Development of y Along with Persian, regional languages y Bhakti poets like Baba Farid and Chand Bardai
Vernacular like Hindi, Punjabi, and Bengali incorporated Persian and Arabic influences in their
Literature started gaining literary importance, poetry.
influenced by Persian and Arabic
vocabulary.
6. Religious and y Sufi saints wrote extensively on y Fawaid-ul-Fuad by Amir Hasan Sijzi (teachings of
Sufi Literature mysticism, spirituality, and devotion, Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya), Miftah-ul-Fuqarah
often blending Persian, Arabic, and by Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagauri.
local languages.
7. Translations and y Islamic text, including the Quran and y Ziauddin Barani wrote commentaries on Islamic law.
Commentaries Hadiths, were translated into Persian Firuz Shah Tughlaq patronized translations of
and commentaries were written for Sanskrit astronomical texts.
better understanding. Hindu texts were
also translated into Persian.

5. Numismatics
Feature Description Examples
1. Standard Coinage y A uniform monetary system with fixed weight and y Iltutmish introduced the Tanka (silver) and
System metal composition for trade and administration. Jital (copper), which became standard.
2. Persian and Arabic y Coins featured Islamic calligraphy, rulers' y Coins of Balban and Alauddin Khalji
Inscriptions names, and religious phrases. had the Kalima and royal titles.
3. Gold, Silver, and y Different metals were used based on economic y Gold Dinar by Muhammad bin
Copper Coins needs. Tughlaq, Silver Tanka by Iltutmish,
Copper Jital by Alauddin Khalji.
4. Token Currency y Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced brass and y Copper and brass coins flooded the
Experiment copper coins as token currency, but it failed due to market with fakes, leading to
counterfeiting. failure.
5. Royal Titles and y Coins projected power by inscribing grandiose y Alauddin Khalji’s coins bore
Symbolism titles. "Sikandar-i-Sani" (Second Alexander).
6. Devaluation and y Some rulers debased coins, causing inflation, y Firoz Shah Tughlaq restored high-
Economic Impact while others stabilized the currency. quality silver Tankas.

6. Science and Technology

Aspect Key Features Examples Influence on Indian Society
1. Irrigation and y Construction of canals, y Firuz Shah Tughlaq: Built canals y Boosted agricultural
Water reservoirs, and wells to from Yamuna and Sutlej rivers. productivity, supporting larger
Management support agriculture. y Introduction of the Persian populations.
y Emphasis on water wheel (Rahat) for efficient y Improved rural life and urban
storage for urban and irrigation water supply (such as Delhi’s
rural use. growth).

87
 2. Architecture y Advanced fortification y Tughlaqabad Fort: Massive y Introduced Indo-Islamic
and techniques with thick stone structure by Ghiyas-ud-din architectural styles,
Engineering walls and strategic Tughlaq. influencing later Mughal
designs. y Qutub Minar: Engineering designs.
y Use of arches, domes, marvel with precise stonework y Forts enhanced security, shaping
and lime mortar in (started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak). urban centres.
construction.
3. Military y Adoption of cavalry y - Khalji Sieges: Catapults used in y Strengthened military control
Technology tactics, siege weapons Chittor (1303). over India.
(catapults), and later y Gunpowder’s late introduction
gunpowder. influenced the transition to
y Horse breeding and Mughal dominance.
armour improved
warfare.
4. Astronomy y Persian astronomical y Firuz Shah Tughlaq: Patronized y Enhanced time keeping for
and knowledge integrated; translation of Sanskrit text on prayers and administration.
Mathematics limited original astronomy. y Laid groundwork for Mughal
contributions. y Sikandar Lodi: Scholars at the astronomical advancements
y Use of astrolabes for court studied Persian zij (such as observatories).
timekeeping and (astronomical tables).
navigation.
5. Medicine and y Unani (Greco-Arabic) y Firuz Shah Tughlaq: Built y Improved healthcare access for
Public Health medicine was introduced Dar-ul-Shifa (hospitals) in elites and some urban poor.
via Persian texts. Delhi. y Blended Indian Ayurveda with
y Hospitals (bimaristans) y Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Unani, influencing later medical
and public welfare Employed physicians during traditions.
projects established. campaigns.
6. Metallurgy y Refinement of copper, y Iltutmish: Introduced silver y Facilitated trade and taxation,
and Coinage silver, and gold for tanka and copper jital coins. integrating rural economies.
coins and tools.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) collapsed after Babur's victory at Panipat, but its legacy endured through Indo-
Islamic architecture, Persian administrative systems, and the transformative Sufi-Bhakti movements that reshaped
India's religious landscape.

88
 35 Mughal Empire
(1526–1857 CE) Scan to Read More

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE), founded by Babur after the First Battle of Panipat, became India's most powerful
dynasty, renowned for its cultural fusion, monumental architecture (Taj Mahal), and administrative innovations like the
mansabdari system.

1. Mughal Empire: Key Aspects

Features Description Examples
Political Structure and Administration
1. Centralized y The empire had a well-structured administration y Akbar’s mansabdari system assigned
Bureaucracy with power concentrated in the emperor. The officials ranks (mansabs) based on merit
central government was divided into departments. and service.
2. Provincial y The empire was divided into subahs (provinces), y Jahangir and Shah Jahan further refined
Administration sarkars (districts), parganas (blocks), and villages, the provincial system for better
each with specific administrative officials. governance.
3. Judicial System y The emperor was the supreme judge, with local y Qazis enforced Islamic law, but Akbar
courts handling civil and criminal cases under curtailed their authority, promoting
Islamic and customary laws. Sulh-i-Kul and secular elements in justice.
Economic Organisation
1. Agrarian y Agriculture was the backbone, with land revenue as y Todar Mal’s Dahsala system under
Economy the primary source of income. Revenue was Akbar fixed revenue based on land
collected under the Zabt, Ghalla Bakshi, and productivity.
Kankut systems.
2. Trade and y The empire had thriving inland and maritime trade, y Surat, Masulipatnam, and Bengal were
Commerce linking India with Persia, Central Asia, and major ports.
Europe. y European traders (Portuguese, Dutch,
British) established trade relations.
3. Coinage and y The Mughals introduced a standardized currency y Akbar issued the Rupee (silver), Mohur
Currency system to facilitate trade and taxation. (gold), and Dam (copper), ensuring
economic stability.
Social Organisation
1. Hierarchical y Society was stratified, with nobles, merchants, y The Persianized Mughal nobility
Society artisans, and peasants. Religious and caste dominated administration, while local
identities played a crucial role. zamindars maintained rural control.
2. Religious y The policy varied under different rulers—Akbar y Akbar’s Ibadat Khana (House of
Policy promoted Sulh-i-Kul (universal tolerance), while Worship) encouraged interfaith
Aurangzeb reintroduced jizya (tax on non-Muslims). discussions.
3. Status of y Royal women held influence, but purdah and y Nur Jahan played a significant political
Women social restrictions limited their freedom. role; Jahanara Begum engaged in trade.

89
2. Art and Architecture
(A) Art
Aspect Features Examples
1. Music y Flourished under Akbar and later rulers; y Tansen’s ragas – Miyan Ki Malhar, Miyan Ki Todi.
fusion of Persian and Indian traditions; y Dhrupad became prominent under Mughal
evolved into Hindustani music. patronage.
2. Dance y Kathak gained prominence due to y Patronage to Kathak under Mughals; later refined
Persian influence; court performances by Wajid Ali Shah, Nawab of Awadh, into a
focused on storytelling and grace. courtly performance.

(B) Architecture
Aspect Features Examples
1. Fusion of Styles y Mughal architecture blended y Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi, 1572) – First grand Mughal
Persian, Indian (Hindu & tomb, inspired by Persian architecture.
Buddhist), Timurid, and Central y Akbar’s Fatehpur Sikri – Combined Rajput, Indo-
Asian influences. Islamic, and Persian elements.
2. Use of Red y Early Mughal structures used red y Agra Fort (1565) – Built in red sandstone by Akbar.
Sandstone & sandstone, while later monuments y Taj Mahal (1632–1653) – Built with white marble,
Marble (Shah Jahan’s period) were built showcasing refined elegance.
with white marble.
3. Charbagh Garden y Persian-style quadrilateral y Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir, 1619) – A terraced garden
Layout gardens with water channels, with Mughal waterworks.
symbolizing paradise. y Taj Mahal Gardens – Symmetrically divided with a
central water axis.
4. Large Domes & y Mughal structures had bulbous y Taj Mahal Dome – A massive, double-layered dome
Minarets domes, often topped with gilded with lotus motifs.
finials and slender minarets for y Jama Masjid (Delhi, 1656) – Features three large
grandeur. domes with two towering minarets.
5. Iwan & Archways y Iwans (large vaulted halls) and y Badshahi Mosque (Lahore, 1673) – Grand iwan
pointed arches were key entrance with Persian influences.
elements, giving depth and y Buland Darwaza (Fatehpur Sikri, 1575) – Tallest gateway
elegance. in India, commemorating Akbar’s victory in Gujarat.
6. Pietra Dura y A decorative technique using y Taj Mahal Inlay Work – Features lapis lazuli, jade, and
(Stone Inlay Work) semi-precious stone inlays to turquoise in floral patterns.
form floral and geometric y Diwan-i-Khas (Red Fort, Delhi, 1639) – Intricate inlay
patterns. work in white marble.
7. Calligraphy & y Mughal buildings featured y Taj Mahal Calligraphy – Quranic verses adorn the
Quranic intricate calligraphy, mainly main entrance and cenotaphs.
Inscriptions Quranic verses on entrance gates y Jama Masjid (Delhi) – Arabic inscriptions on the
and walls. façade.
8. Polychrome y Walls and interiors are decorated y Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah (1628) – Known as the
Tilework & Jali with colored tiles, geometric ‘Baby Taj,’ featuring delicate jali work and colorful
Screens designs, and jali (latticed) screens mosaics.
for ventilation. y Moti Masjid (Red Fort, 1659) – Marble screenwork for
privacy and light diffusion.
9. Fort Architecture y Built massive, well-defended forts y Red Fort (Delhi, 1639) – Shah Jahan’s grand fort, seat
with high walls, bastions, and of Mughal power.
moats for military purposes.
10. Tomb Architecture y Developed elaborate mausoleums y Humayun’s Tomb (1572) – The first grand Mughal
with central domes, gardens, and tomb, a precursor to the Taj Mahal.
intricate decorations. y Safdarjung’s Tomb (1754) – One of the last Mughal
tombs with Persian influences.

90
3. Painting
Aspect Features Examples
1. Mughal y Fusion of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian y Akbarnama illustrations – Battles, court scenes,
Miniature influences; rich colors, fine detailing, and daily life.
Painting delicate brushwork. y Padshahnama – Portraits and royal events.
2. Themes y Depicted court scenes, battles, hunting, nature, y Jahangir’s court scenes – Justice, intellect,
portraits, mythology, and love stories. diplomacy.Hamzanama – Adventures of Amir
Hamza.
3. Patronage y Flourished under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah y Daswant, Basawan, Abul Hasan – Masters of
Jahan; Akbar established an imperial atelier portraiture and narrative painting.
(Tasvir Khana).
4. European y Introduced by Jesuit missionaries during Akbar’s y Jahangir’s portraits – Use of European
Influence reign, use of perspective, shading, and realism. shading, depth, and symbols like the globe.
5. Portrait y Highly refined under Jahangir; realistic, detailed, y Jahangir’s darbar scenes – Jahangir on throne
Painting symbolic; used for imperial propaganda. with nobles and ambassadors.
6. Naturalistic y Detailed depiction of flora and fauna, influenced y Paintings by Mansur – Rare birds and animals
Studies by scientific curiosity and documentation. illustrated with high accuracy.
7. Calligraphy y Calligraphy as an artistic form; albums compiled y Muraqqa (Artistic Albums) – Albums with a
& Album Art with paintings, poetry, and Persian texts. mix of paintings and Persian poetry, gifted to
nobles.

4. Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Persian as an y Persian was the official language of the y Ain-i-Akbari (Abul Fazl) – A detailed account of
Administrative Mughal administration, court, and Akbar’s administration, economy, and culture.
Language historical records. Many works were y Akbar Nama (Abul Fazl) – A three-volume history
written in Persian prose and poetry, of Akbar’s reign, including his military conquests
influencing Indian literature. and governance.
2. Historical y Mughals encouraged official histories y Babur Nama (Babur) – The autobiography of
Writing written by court chroniclers, providing Babur, written in Chagatai Turkic, later translated
insights into their reign and governance. into Persian. It gives a personal account of his
conquests, battles, and experiences.
3. Translation of y Mughal rulers, especially Akbar and y Razm Nama (Persian Mahabharata, translated
Hindu Texts Dara Shukoh, promoted the translation under Akbar) – A Persian adaptation of the
of Hindu religious and philosophical texts Mahabharata, making Hindu epics accessible to
into Persian to foster cultural and religious Persian-speaking audiences.
understanding.
4. Persian Poetry y Persian poetry flourished in the Mughal y Masnawis of Abul Faizi – Poetic works that
and Masnawis courts, often used for the glorification of included romantic and mystical themes, blending
rulers, Sufi mysticism, and romantic Persian and Indian influences.
themes.
5. Sanskrit y Sanskrit literature was patronized in y Rajavalipataka (Prajna Bhatta) – A Sanskrit
Literature Mughal courts, with contributions to history of Kashmir, written during Mughal rule,
philosophy, poetry, and history. documenting dynastic changes and cultural
developments.
y Rasagangadhara (Jaganatha Panditha) – A work
on Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics, showcasing
literary advancements under Mughal patronage.
6. Development of y The Mughal period saw the emergence of y Abdur Rahim Khan-e-Khanan – A Mughal noble
Urdu Urdu, a blend of Persian, Arabic, and and poet who composed dohe (couplets) in Hindi
local Indian languages, which later and Urdu, making literature more accessible to the
became a major literary language. common people.

91
 5. Coins
Feature Details Examples
1. Bimetallic y The Mughals issued coins in gold y Gold Mohur of Akbar – Featured the Kalima (Islamic
System (Mohur), silver (Rupee), and copper creed) in some rare issues.
(Dam), ensuring a standardized y Silver Rupee of Shah Jahan – Standardized weight of
currency across the empire. 11.53 grams, continued by later Mughals.
2. Islamic y Most Mughal coins bore Arabic or y Jahangir's Coins – Some bore Persian couplets praising
Inscriptions Persian inscriptions, often including the ruler. Aurangzeb’s Rupees – Featured the title
the name of the emperor and religious “Alamgir” and Islamic declarations.
phrases.
3. Zodiac Coins y Unique experimental coinage under y Jahangir’s Leo Gold Mohur – Depicted a lion,
Jahangir, where each coin had zodiac symbolizing the Leo zodiac sign, along with the ruler’s
signs instead of traditional Islamic name.
inscriptions.
4. Mint Names y Coins often included the name of the y Akbar’s Ilahi Coins – Minted at places like Agra,
& Dates mint and the regnal year, helping in Lahore, and Ahmedabad, showing the Ilahi calendar
historical dating. year.

6. Science and Technology

Feature Description Examples
1. Medical y Persian and Unani medicine flourished under y Akbar’s court had prominent Hakims
Knowledge Mughal patronage, blending Indian and Islamic (physicians) like Hakim Ali Gilani, who
medical traditions. worked on Unani medicine and
compiled medical texts.
2. Military y The Mughals extensively used gunpowder weapons, y Babur introduced Ottoman-style artillery,
Technology cannons, matchlock rifles, and composite bows, and Akbar developed the Zamburak
revolutionizing warfare in India. (camel-mounted swivel gun).
3. Engineering y The Mughals excelled in water management, using y Shah Jahan’s canals in Punjab,
and Hydraulics Persian-style qanats and large reservoirs. Fatehpur Sikri waterworks, and the
Baolis (stepwells) of Delhi and Agra.
4. Metallurgy y The Mughals improved the production of high- y Mughal Firangi swords were known for
quality swords and armour, refining Damascus and their strength and flexibility.
Wootz's steel production.
5. Textile y The empire saw the rise of advanced weaving y Jamdani (Dhaka muslin) and Kashmiri
Technology techniques, dyeing processes, and the export of fine Pashmina wool became famous
cotton and silk fabrics. globally.
The Mughal Empire declined after Aurangzeb's death (1707), fragmenting under British pressure until its formal end in 1857. Its
legacy endures through Indo-Persian art, Urdu literature, and architectural wonders like the Red Fort.

92
 36 Sher Shah Suri
(1540–1545 CE) Scan to Read More

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545 CE), founder of the Sur Empire, introduced administrative reforms like the Rupiya coinage and
Grand Trunk Road, revolutionizing Mughal-era governance after defeating Humayun.
1. Sher Shah Suri: Key Aspects
Aspect Features Examples
1. Polity and y Centralized monarchy; empire in 47 Sarkars and y Sher Shah’s title "Farid al-Din" post-
Administration Parganas. Chausa (1539 CE).
y Council of ministers: Wazir, Ariz, Rasalat, Insha. y Bengal Sarkar managed by Shiqdar.
y Patta-Kabuliyat system; justice-focused. y Diwan-i-Wizarat oversaw revenue in Bihar.
2. Economy y Agrarian base; 1/3rd produced as tax; tri-metal y Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon (near
currency. Dhaka) to Kabul.
y Infrastructure boost via roads, sarais.
3. Society y Afghan nobility dominant; Hindu inclusion in roles. y Rajput Shiqdars in Rajasthan; equal
y Tolerant yet Jizya continued. treatment in Malwa.
y peasant welfare priority.

2. Sher Shah Suri's Art and Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Tomb y Inspired by Lodi-style tombs, but larger and y Tomb of Sher Shah Suri (Sasaram, Bihar) – A
Architecture more elaborate, often built on raised platforms massive, red sandstone structure built on an artificial
with octagonal plans and grand domes. lake, showcasing Indo-Afghan style​.
2. Material y Use of Chunar sandstone, intricate carvings, y Sher Shah's Tomb at Sasaram – Made of fine Chunar
Usage and geometric patterns, making buildings sandstone, decorated with floral and geometric
durable and aesthetically appealing. motifs.
3. Mosque y Elegant, balanced designs with four-centred y Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque, Delhi (1542) – Located inside
Architecture arches, decorative spearhead fringes, and Purana Qila, this mosque features five arched
geometric carvings. The use of domes and entrances with intricate calligraphy, reflecting
minarets became more refined. Persian and Afghan styles​.
4. Urban y Systematic city layouts with wide roads, y Grand Trunk Road – One of Sher Shah’s greatest
Planning well-placed rest houses (sarais), and water achievements, this road connected Bengal to Kabul,
wells to facilitate trade and travel. improving communication and trade across India.
5. Decorative y Early use of chhatris (domed pavilions), y Elements seen in Sher Shah’s Tomb and Purana
Elements brackets, friezes, and Persian-style Qila, blend Islamic and Indian motifs.
calligraphy, which later influenced
Mughal architecture.
6. Numismatic y Standardized coinage, introducing a y Silver Rupiya – Standardized at 178 grains (11.53g),
Reforms trimetallic system (gold, silver, copper) for becoming the basis for the Mughal and British
trade and revenue collection. Indian rupee.

3. Sher Shah Suri's Literary Contributions

Feature Description Examples
1. Sher Shah Suri y Persian was promoted as the official court y Official records and decrees were issued in
(1540–1545 CE) language, ensuring uniform administration Persian, a practice later continued by the
and cultural development. Mughals.
2. Historical y His rule became a subject of study for later y Tārīkh-i-Sher Shāhī (by Abbas Sarwani)
Writings historians, documenting his governance and – Written during Akbar’s reign, this book details
military strategies. Sher Shah’s policies, military conquests, and
governance system.
3. Religious y Inscriptions on buildings carried religious y Inscriptions in Purana Qila and Rohtas Fort
Literature messages and Islamic teachings, reflecting the – Contain verses from the Quran along with
ruler’s emphasis on justice and governance. proclamations about law, justice, and
administration.
Sher Shah's 5-year rule laid foundations for Akbar's administration. His innovations in revenue, roads, and currency
endured beyond his death in 1545 during the Kalinjar siege.

93
 37 Bhakti and Sufi
Movements in Medieval India Scan to Read More

The Bhakti and Sufi movements (8th-17th century) emerged as reformist spiritual traditions emphasizing devotion (bhakti) and
mysticism (tasawwuf). They promoted social harmony and vernacular literature and challenged religious orthodoxy, deeply
influencing Indian culture.
UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Evaluate the nature of Bhakti Literature and its contribution to Indian culture. (UPSC Mains 2021)
2. The Bhakti movement received a remarkable re-orientation with the advent of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Discuss.
(UPSC Mains 2018)
3. Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas and practices or the outward structure of
Hindu / Muslim societies to any appreciable extent. Comment. (UPSC Mains 2014)

Bhakti and Sufi Movements in Medieval India

Dimension Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
1. Origins and y Originated in South India (8th century, y Arrived in India in the 12th century with Khwaja
Development Tamil Nadu & Kerala). Moinuddin Chishti.
y Spread to North India by the 15th y Developed through various Sufi orders (Silsilas)
century. like Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and
y Reached its peak in the 17th century. Naqshbandi.
y Inspired by the Alvars (Vaishnavites) and y Flourished during the Delhi Sultanate and
Nayanars (Shaivites). Mughal rule.
2. Key Philosophies y Bhakti (Devotion): Intense love for a y Tasawwuf (Mysticism): Emphasis on divine love
personal god. & unity with God.
y Monotheistic tendencies (such as Kabir, y Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being): Similar to
Nanak) & polytheistic devotion (such as Advaita Vedanta.
Meera, Tulsidas). y Fana (Self-annihilation in God): Liberation
y Social reform: Rejected caste barriers through spiritual enlightenment.
and rituals. y Universal brotherhood & Sulh-e-Kul (Peace for
y Salvation through devotion all).
(Bhakti marg).
3. Major Saints & y South India: Alvars (Andal, Nammalvar), y Chishti Order: Moinuddin Chishti,
Philosophers Nayanars (Appar, Sambandar). Nizamuddin Auliya, Amir Khusro.
y North India: Kabir, Meera Bai, Surdas, y Qadiri Order: Abdul Qadir Jilani, Shah
Tulsidas, Ravidas, Guru Nanak. Badakhshi.
y Maharashtra: Namdev, Tukaram, Eknath. y Naqshbandi Order: Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi.
y Bengal & Odisha: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, y Suhrawardi Order: Bahauddin Zakariya.
Jayadeva.

1. Causes of Emergence of Bhakti & Sufi Movements

Causes Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
1. Religious y Rigidity of Brahmanical orthodoxy and y Orthodox Islam’s rigidity and excessive
Factors dominance of rituals. emphasis on Sharia (Islamic law)
y Growing discontent with idol worship and alienated common people.
temple-based worship. y Demand for an experiential, personal
y The exclusivity of Sanskrit texts led to demand for connection with God, rather than
vernacular spiritual teachings. legalistic worship.
2. Social Factors y Caste rigidities & untouchability created a need y Social inequalities within Muslim society,
for an inclusive, egalitarian religious movement. such as distinctions between Arabs, Persians,
y Women’s oppression in Brahmanical traditions and Indian converts, created the need for
led to alternative spiritual expressions. unity and Sulh-e-Kul (peace for all).
3. Political y Turkish and Mughal rule challenged y Delhi Sultanate & Mughal rule
Factors Brahmanical supremacy, leading to new spiritual introduced Persian and Central Asian
explorations. mysticism to India.
y Local rulers like the Vijayanagara Kings
supported Bhakti saints.

94
4. Economic y - Growth of urban centres and a rising merchant y Flourishing trade routes brought Sufi
Factors class led to the questioning of rigid caste-based influences from Persia, Central Asia, and
traditions. Arabia.
5. Cultural & y Influence of Tamil Alvars & Nayanars who y Persian mysticism, Turkish traditions, and
Philosophical emphasized personal devotion. local Indic elements influenced Sufi
Influences y Impact of Advaita Vedanta (Shankaracharya) beliefs.
and Saguna Bhakti (Ramanuja,
Madhvacharya).

2. Features of Bhakti Movement

Feature Explanation Example
1. Personal y Emphasized a direct, emotional connection with y Kabir’s Nirguna Bhakti (Formless God),
Devotion God, rejecting priests as intermediaries. Mirabai’s devotion to Krishna.
2. Use of Vernacular y Saints wrote in regional languages instead of y Tulsidas (Awadhi), Surdas (Braj),
Languages Sanskrit, making spirituality accessible to all. Namdev (Marathi).
3. Monotheism & y Some saints (Kabir, Nanak) promoted y Guru Nanak (Ik Onkar – One God),
Polytheism monotheism, while others (Chaitanya, Tulsidas) Surdas (Krishna Bhakti).
worshipped personal deities.
4. Rejection of y Opposed Brahmanical dominance, promoting y Ravidas, a leather worker, became a
Caste System social equality. revered saint.
5. Equality of y Women could directly engage in Bhakti without y Andal, Mirabai, Akka Mahadevi led
Women social restrictions. religious discourses.

3. Features of Sufi Movement

Feature Explanation Example
1. Inner y Emphasized spiritual awakening (Ihsan) over y Fana (self-annihilation in divine love) in
Mysticism external religious formalities. Chishti and Naqshbandi orders.
2. Concept of Pir y A spiritual master (Pir) guides disciples toward y Nizamuddin Auliya, Moinuddin Chishti.
(Guru) divine realization.
3. Brotherhood & y Promoted universal brotherhood (Sulh-e-Kul), y Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusro.
Egalitarianism disregarding caste and religious distinctions.
4. Sama (Music & y Used music, poetry, and Qawwali as forms of y Amir Khusro pioneered Qawwali and
Dance) divine connection. Sitar.
5. Dargah y Reverence for saints' tombs as sites of blessings y Ajmer Sharif (Moinuddin Chishti),
Worship and miracles. Nizamuddin Dargah.

4. Major Bhakti and Sufi Saints and Their Teachings

Saint Major Teachings
1. Kabir y Criticized both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy; emphasized devotion to Nirguna
(formless) God; rejected rituals.
2. Guru Nanak y Founded Sikhism; emphasized unity of God, rejection of caste, and importance of
truthful living.
3. Mirabai y Devotee of Krishna; rejected social norms for divine love; composed bhajans.
4. Chaitanya y Popularized Krishna Bhakti through sankirtan (group singing); started Gaudiya
Mahaprabhu Vaishnavism.
5. Dnyaneshwar (Jnanadeva) y Promoted Bhagavad Gita in Marathi (Dnyaneshwari); emphasized devotion over rituals.
6. Namdev y Preached unity of all religions; devotional songs in Marathi and Hindi.
7. Eknath y Promoted bhakti in Marathi; opposed caste discrimination.
8. Tukaram y Varkari sect; composed Abhangas (devotional poems) in praise of Vithoba.
9. Basavanna y Founded the Lingayat movement; rejected caste and idol worship; promoted equality.
10. Andal y Only female Alvar poet; composed Tiruppavai, dedicated to Vishnu.
11. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti y Founder of Chishti order in India; preached love, charity, and helping the poor.
12. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya y Spread Chishti ideals; emphasized renunciation, music (sama), and helping the poor.

95
5. Role of Women in Bhakti & Sufi Movements
Aspect Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
1. Women Saints y Actively participated in Bhakti, y Rare but respected as spiritual figures.
rejecting patriarchal restrictions.
2. Famous Women y Mirabai, Andal, Akka Mahadevi y Bibi Jamal Khatun is revered as a Sufi mystic in
(devotion through poetry & singing). India.
3. Women’s y Gave women a voice against rigid y While fewer in number, Sufi women (like Rabia Basri
Empowerment norms; many became spiritual earlier and Bibi Fatima later) were highly respected in
leaders. mystical traditions
4. Social Reforms y Opposed Sati, purdah, and gender y Encouraged spiritual equality but didn't directly
discrimination. reform gender norms.

6. Bhakti and Sufi Literature: Features and Examples

Aspect Bhakti Literature Sufi Literature
1. Nature y Devotional poetry focuses on personal devotion y Mystical poetry emphasizing union with the
to a deity. divine (God/Allah).
y Example: Kabir's dohas emphasize pure devotion y Example: Bulleh Shah’s Kafis – Punjabi poetry
without rituals, such as “Dukh Mein Sumiran Sab reflecting mystical love and unity.
Kare, Sukh Mein Kare Na Koye.”
2. Language y Written in vernacular languages (Tamil, y Predominantly in Persian, Arabic, and later in
Kannada, Hindi, Marathi, etc.). regional languages like Punjabi and Urdu.
y Example: Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas in y Example: Amir Khusrau’s Persian and Hindavi
Awadhi, making the Ramayana accessible to poetry reflected a blend of cultures, as seen in his
common people. famous couplets.
3. Forms y Hymns, kirtans, abhangas, vachanas, and dohas. y Ghazals, qawwalis, malfuzat (conversations), and
y Example: Tukaram’s Abhangas in Marathi maktubat (letters).
conveyed deep devotion to Vithoba. y Example: Amir Khusrau is credited with
pioneering Qawwalis, blending Persian and Indian
musical styles.
4. Themes y Love for God, surrender, rejection of caste y Divine love, self-purification, surrender to a Sufi
hierarchy, social equality. master, and unity of existence.
y Example: Mirabai’s bhajans expressed y Example: Bulleh Shah’s poetry critiqued
unconditional love for Krishna, defying societal orthodoxy and emphasized inner spiritual
norms. realization.
5. Influence y Inspired Bhakti movements in different y Influenced Sufi practices in India, contributed to
on Society regions, led to vernacular literature growth, and Persian and Urdu poetry, and promoted syncretic
social reform. culture.
y Example: The growth of Marathi literature due y Example: Amir Khusrau’s Persian and Hindavi
to the Varkari Bhakti movement led by saints poetry enriched Indian linguistic traditions,
like Tukaram and Namdev. influencing Urdu development.

7. Comparison Between Bhakti & Sufi Movements

Aspect Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
1. Belief System y Both Saguna (with form) and y Strong belief in Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of
Nirguna (formless) devotion. Being).
2. Path to Salvation y Bhakti (love & devotion) over y Fana (self-annihilation in divine love) through
rituals. meditation.
3. Language of y Regional languages (Tamil, Hindi, y Persian, Urdu, Punjabi, Hindavi.
Expression Marathi, Kannada).
4. Music & Poetry y Bhajans, Kirtans, Abhangas. y Qawwali, Ghazals, Kafis.
5. Attitude Towards y Rejected priestly rituals, idol y Rejected orthodox Islamic formalities, focused on
Rituals worship was optional. inner devotion.
6. Impact on Society y Opposed caste discrimination, y Fostered communal harmony between Hindus and
promoted social equality. Muslims.

96
 8. Impact of Bhakti & Sufi Movements
Impact Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
1. Social y Weakened caste hierarchies, and promoted social unity. y Encouraged interfaith harmony.
y Women’s empowerment through spiritual participation. y Brought Islam closer to Indian traditions.
2. Cultural y Development of regional languages & literature. y Enriched Hindustani music, developed
y Boosted folk music & dance traditions. Qawwali & Ghazals.
3. Religious y Rise of Sikhism (Guru Nanak). y Popularity of Dargah pilgrimages
y ISKCON & Vaishnavism continue Bhakti traditions. (Ajmer, Delhi).
4. Political y Bhakti ideas influenced Akbar’s Sulh-e-Kul (peace for all). y Mughal rulers (Akbar, Jahangir)
y Used by Indian nationalist movements to unite people. patronized Sufi saints.

The Bhakti and Sufi movements played a crucial role in shaping India’s socio-religious fabric by promoting egalitarianism and
syncretism. Their legacy continues to inspire India's pluralistic and inclusive traditions today.

97
 38 Buddhism Scan to Read More

Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE, emphasized Dhamma, non-violence, and liberation from
suffering. It shaped Indian philosophy, art, architecture, and society profoundly.
UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals.
Elucidate. ( 2016)
2. Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate.(2020)

Origin and Core Tenets of Buddhism

Aspect Details Examples
1. Founder y Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE), born in y Became the ‘Buddha’ after
Lumbini, Nepal Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya
2. Core y Four Noble Truths y Buddha’s First Sermon at Sarnath
Principles y Eightfold Path (Middle Path) (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta)
y Karma and Rebirth
y Nirvana (freedom from suffering)
3. Philosophical y Practical ethics, rational inquiry, emphasis on y Critique of Vedic orthodoxy and caste
Approach self-effort over rituals or divine intervention hierarchy.
4. Key Concepts y Anatta (No Soul) y Emphasis on universal suffering and its
y Anicca (Impermanence) cessation.
y Dukkha (Suffering)

4. Buddhist Literature
Feature Description Examples
1. Tripitakas (Three y Canonical texts of Theravada Buddhism y Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules
Baskets) written in Pali; are divided into three parts. y Sutta Pitaka: Teachings of Buddha
y Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical analysis
2. Language of Texts y Early texts were in Pali (Theravada), y Milindapanha in Pali
Sanskrit (Mahayana), and later in y Lalitavistara in Sanskrit
Tibetan, Chinese. y Tripitakas translated into Chinese and Tibetan

98
3. Jataka Tales y Stories of Buddha’s previous births to y Ajanta paintings, Bharhut and Sanchi reliefs
impart moral lessons; deeply influenced depict Jataka stories like Sibi Jataka,
Indian art and literature. Vessantara Jataka
4. Avadanas y Similar to Jataka tales but not always y Divyavadana – a popular Mahayana text with
about Buddha’s past births; focus on legendary tales
karmic effects.
5. Milindapanha y Dialogue between Indo-Greek king y Combines narrative with scholastic discussion;
(Questions of Menander (Milinda) and monk Nagasena popular Pali text
Milinda) on Buddhist philosophy and logic.
6. Mahayana Texts y Emphasis on Bodhisattvas and y Lalitavistara, Saddharmapundarika (Lotus
philosophical idealism; composed in Sutra), Prajnaparamita Sutras
Sanskrit.
7. Tantric Texts y Esoteric works incorporating rituals, y Guhyasamaja Tantra, Kalachakra Tantra
(Vajrayana) spells, and mandalas; flourished in late
Buddhism.
8. Historical and y Accounts of Buddha’s life and spread of y Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita – Sanskrit
Biographical Buddhism. biography of Buddha
Texts y Mahavamsa – Sri Lankan chronicle
9. Commentaries y Later scholastic works interpreting original y Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa – influential
and Manuals scriptures. Theravada commentary

5. Buddhist Art
Feature Description Examples
1. Aniconic Phase (c. y Early Buddhist art avoided direct y Buddha represented by symbols: Bodhi Tree
5th - 1st century CE) depiction of Buddha in human form. (Enlightenment), Wheel (Dharma), Footprints, Stupa.
2. Narrative Art y Visual storytelling through panels y Bharhut and Sanchi gateways depict stories like
depicting Buddha’s life and the Monkey King, Chaddanta Jataka.
Jataka tales.
3. Jataka y Artistic renderings of Buddha’s y Ajanta paintings vividly portray Jataka tales (such
Illustrations previous births to teach moral lessons. as Vessantara, Mahajanaka).
4. Transition to Iconic y Buddha depicted in anthropomorphic y Earliest images in Mathura and Gandhara styles
Phase form from 1st century CE onward. (Kushan period).
5. Mathura School of y Indigenous style; robust, idealized y Red sandstone Buddha statues with urna,
Art human forms with spiritual ushnisha, halo, and simple monastic robes.
expressions.
6. Gandhara School y Influenced by Greco-Roman style; y Wavy hair, Roman toga-like robes, and calm
of Art realistic and Hellenistic features. expressions. Found in Taxila and Peshawar region.
7. Symbolism in Art y Use of recurring symbols to convey y Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Law), lotus (purity),
spiritual and ethical messages. lion (royal authority).
8. Paintings (Mural y Depiction of religious themes, y Ajanta Caves (2nd century BCE–6th
Art) emotions, and detailed scenes on cave century CE): Scenes from Buddha’s life and
walls. Jataka tales.
9. Bodhisattva y Especially prominent in Mahayana y Bodhisattva Padmapani and Avalokiteshvara
Images art; emphasizes compassion and murals in Ajanta.
salvation.
10. Mudras (Gestures) y Symbolic hand gestures used in y Abhaya Mudra (fearlessness), Dharmachakra
Buddha images to convey different Mudra (turning the wheel of law), Dhyana
teachings. Mudra.

Buddhist Stupa Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Anda y Hemispherical mound symbolizing the universe y Sanchi Stupa (MP) – solid brick and stone
(Dome) or the cosmic mountain (Mt. Meru); houses relics. dome; relics of Buddha said to be enshrined.

99
2. Harmika y The square railing on top of the dome represents y Sanchi – positioned above the dome,
the heaven of gods. indicating a sacred enclosure.
3. Chhatra y Triple-tiered parasol above the harmika denoting y Sanchi Stupa – iconic triple chhatra
(Umbrella) the Triratna (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha). representing spiritual sovereignty.
4. Vedika y Stone railing enclosing the stupa; demarcates y Bharhut and Sanchi – depict Jataka tales and
(Railing) sacred space; often intricately carved. scenes from Buddha’s life.
5. Torana y Monumental gateways in four cardinal y Sanchi Toranas – best examples, show events
(Gateway) directions; richly decorated with reliefs. like Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, miracles.
6. Medhi y Circular path or platform above base; used for y Seen in Amaravati Stupa – multiple terraces
(Terrace) pradakshina (circumambulation). and elaborate decoration.
7. Pradakshina y Circumambulatory path around the stupa; y Sanchi and Amaravati – designed for ritual
Patha promotes meditative walking worship. movement around the structure.
8. Axis Mundi y The central pillar (through chhatra) symbolizes y Present in most stupas, conceptually seen in
Concept the cosmic axis connecting heaven and earth. Sanchi with triple chhatras.
9. No Iconic y Early stupas show aniconic representations y Bharhut – Bodhi tree, empty throne,
Buddha (Early) (symbols instead of images of Buddha). footprints depict Buddha.
10. Material and y Initially made of brick (Mauryan period), y Ashokan stupas – brick; Sanchi (later phase)
Evolution later stone; evolved in size, ornamentation, – stone with sculptural enhancements.
and symbolism.

Fig. Parts of Sanchi Stupa

Other Buddhist Architecture

Feature Description Examples
1. Chaitya Griha y Rock-cut or structural hall with a stupa at the y Karle Chaitya (Maharashtra) – 2nd century CE;
(Prayer Hall) end for congregational worship; features largest surviving chaitya hall with elaborately
barrel-vaulted roof and colonnaded aisles. carved pillars and wooden ribbed ceiling.
2. Apse Design y Semi-circular rear end of the hall, often housing y Bhaja Chaitya (1st century BCE) – early
the stupa; allows for ritual circumambulation. example with horseshoe-shaped apse.
3. Rock-cut y Carved directly into rock cliffs, especially y Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra) – both chaityas
Architecture in western India; allowed permanence and and viharas; richly adorned with sculptures
grand scale. and murals.
4. Wooden y Architectural elements like beams and ribs y Karle and Bhaja Caves – stone ribs in the
Imitation in were carved in stone to imitate earlier wooden ceiling replicate wooden forms.
Stone construction.
5. Viharas y Used as living quarters for monks; initially y Ajanta Caves – Cave 1, 2, 16, 17 – serve as
(Monastic simple cells, later evolved into complex viharas with exquisite murals and structural
Residences) layouts with halls and cells. planning.
6. Multi-functional y Later viharas included prayer halls, cells, y Ellora Caves (Cave 5) – contains a long hall
Spaces lecture spaces, and even libraries. with benches, used possibly as a refectory or
lecture hall.

100
 7. Elaborate y Ornamented with intricate carvings, y Ajanta and Ellora – Buddha figures,
Facades and reliefs, and figures from Buddhist Bodhisattvas, floral motifs, mythical
Sculptures iconography. beings.
8. Integration of y Architectural elements often seamlessly y Ajanta Cave 1 & 2 – a fusion of painted murals
Art and integrate with painting and sculpture. with structural features.
Architecture
9. Adaptation to y Carved into a hillside or rock face, making y Nasik Caves – strategically cut into rock faces
Landscape use of natural contours for design. above the river to offer serenity and accessibility.

8. Role of Buddhism in Art, Ethics, and Society

Dimension Contribution
1. Ethical Framework y Promoted Ahimsa, compassion, equality, self-restraint
2. Social Reform y Critiqued caste, ritualism; accepted women and lower castes
3. Political Thought y Supported righteous kingship (Dhamma); Ashokan model
4. Artistic Contribution y New iconography, mural painting, narrative sculpture (Jataka)
5. Education y Built monastic universities like Nalanda and Takshashila

Buddhism’s egalitarian ideals, missionary zeal, and cultural patronage significantly influenced Asia. Though it declined in
India, its legacy endures through art, literature, and global spiritual relevance.

101
 39 Jainism
Scan to Read More

Jainism, emerging in the 6th century BCE, challenged Vedic rituals with its focus on non-violence and asceticism. Led by 24 Tirthankaras,
it thrived prominently in India until around the 13th century CE, after which it declined in mainland influence but persisted in regional
strongholds, shaping India’s spiritual and artistic landscape.

1. Origins and Rise of Jainism

Aspect Details Examples
1. Timeline y 6th century BCE, eastern India (Magadha, Vaishali), y Mahavira born in Kundagrama, Bihar.
amid Vedic unrest and urban growth.
2. Founder y Vardhamana Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), born 540 y Attained supreme knowledge at Pawa.
BCE, attained Kaivalya at 42, died 468 BCE.
3. Cause of y Reaction to complex Vedic rituals, Brahmin y Kshatriyas opposed Brahmins.
Emergence dominance, and caste rigidity; offered equality.
4. Reasons for y Simple language (Prakrit), non-violence, and practical y Mahavira’s preachings in Kosala,
rise ethics drew masses. Magadha.
2. Core Teachings and Philosophy
Teaching Essence Key Concept Examples
1. Pancha y Five vows: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya y Path to y Mahavira added
Mahavratas (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha liberation for Brahmacharya to
(non-possession), Brahmacharya (celibacy). monks. Parsvanatha’s four.
2. Ratnatraya y Three jewels: Right Belief, Right y Guide to y Samyak Darshan in
Knowledge, and Right Action. Moksha. Acharanga Sutra.
3. Anekantavada y Reality has multiple perspectives; truth is y Promotes y Syadvada’s “maybe” logic.
relative. tolerance.
4. Soul & y Soul (Jiva) is trapped by Karma; liberation y Jiva vs. Ajiva y Mahavira’s asceticism for
Moksha through penance frees it. (matter). Kaivalya.
5. Rejects Vedic y World runs on eternal laws, not a supreme y Self-reliance y Jainism rejected Vedic rituals
authority deity; for salvation. and authority, emphasizing
individual spiritual effort
(self-realization).
3. Jain Literature: Features and Examples
Feature Description Examples
1. Scriptural y Jain literature is divided into canonical (Agamic) y Agamas (Svetambara), Shatkhandagama,
Division and non-canonical (non-Agamic) texts. Kasayapahuda (Digambara).
2. Language of y Early Jain texts were written in Prakrit dialects y Tattvartha Sutra (Sanskrit), Samayasara
Literature (especially Ardha-Magadhi), later in Sanskrit, (Prakrit), Jain Puranas in Kannada.
Apabhramsha, Tamil, and Kannada.
3. Sects and Textual y Svetambara and Digambara sects have different y Svetambara: Acaranga Sutra, Sutrakritanga
Canon canons due to doctrinal differences. y Digambara: Shatkhandagama, Kasayapahuda
4. Doctrinal Content y Focuses on ethics, cosmology, karma theory, y Tattvartha Sutra, Samayasara,
metaphysics, conduct for monks and laity, and Ratnakaranda Sravakachara.
stories of Tirthankaras.
5. Fourfold Division y Digambaras classify literature based on themes: y Padma Purana (Pratham), Mulachara
of Non-Canonical Pratham, Charan, Karan, and Dravya (Charan), Tiloyapannatti (Karan),
Texts (Anuyogas) Anuyoga. Samayasara (Dravya)
6. Commentarial y Jain scholars wrote extensive commentaries and y Sarvarthasiddhi by Pujyapada (on Tattvartha
Tradition digest works to preserve and interpret original texts. Sutra), Niyamsara by Kundakunda
7. Role in y Jain texts contributed to grammar, poetics, y Gommatsara, Tiloyapannatti (cosmology),
Preservation of mathematics, astronomy, and biographies of Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra.
Indian Knowledge ancient rulers and saints.

102
 8. Moral & Ethical y Emphasis on non-violence, asceticism, y Acaranga Sutra (code of conduct),
Focus detachment, and soul purification. Ratnakaranda Sravakachara
9. Narrative and y Use of legends, parables, and universal history y Adi Purana, Uttara Purana, Lilavati
Didactic Works to convey ethical teachings. Saram
10. Biographical y Chronicles the lives of Tirthankaras, saints, and y Kalpa Sutra (Bhadrabahu), Vasudevahindi,
Literature illustrious devotees. Charitras
11. Gender and y Some texts highlight the spiritual equality of y Stories of Jain nuns and the role of women
Inclusivity women, though interpretations vary between in Kalpa Sutra.
sects.

4. Jain Art and Architecture: Features and Examples

Feature Description Examples
1. Emphasis on y Jain architecture emphasizes austere design, y Simple meditation cells in Udayagiri-Khandagiri
Simplicity and reflecting the ideals of renunciation, non- Caves, Dilwara Temples show balance between
Symbolism violence, and spiritual elevation. ornamentation and spiritual calm.
2. Rock-Cut Caves y One of the earliest forms, especially during the y Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves (Odisha),
Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods. Used as Ellora Jain caves (9th–10th century,
monastic dwellings and prayer halls. Maharashtra).
3. Stupa y Jain stupas are similar to Buddhist ones but y Mathura Jain Stupa, Kankali Tila Stupa,
Architecture often have images of Tirthankaras and were with railings and narrative sculptures.
used to house sacred relics.
4. Iconography of y Jain art is known for detailed iconography of the y Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola
Tirthankaras 24 Tirthankaras, mostly depicted in kayotsarga (Gommateshwara), sculptures of Rishabhanatha,
(standing) or padmasana (seated) posture. Parshvanatha with snake hoods.
5. Temple y Early Jain temples show simple design with y Deogarh Jain Temple (UP, Gupta
Architecture emphasis on worship halls and sanctum, period), Jain temples in Aihole, Badami
– Early Phase built under regional dynasties like Guptas, (Karnataka).
Chalukyas, and Rashtrakutas.
6. Temple y Later temples show highly ornate carvings, y Dilwara Temples (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan – 11th–
Architecture elaborate mandapas, and richly decorated 13th century), Ranakpur Temple (15th century),
– Later Phase domes and ceilings. Khajuraho Jain temples (10th–12th century).
7. Use of Marble y Jain temples used high-quality white marble y Dilwara Temples are known for their white
and Stone or sandstone, symbolizing purity and spiritual marble carvings; Ranakpur Temple for
illumination. intricately carved white stone.
8. Towers and y Jain temples often have multiple shikharas y Shikharji Temples, Palitana Temples
Domes symbolizing ascent to moksha and feature (Gujarat) with a cluster of shikharas on
(Shikharas) toranas (gateways) and cloisters. hilltops.
9. Pillared Halls and y Jain temples include beautifully carved pillars y Dilwara Temples’ Lotus Ceiling,
Mandapas with geometric and floral motifs, often with Ranakpur Temple’s 1,444 carved pillars,
narrative panels and ceiling medallions. no two alike.
10. Symbolism in y Use of lotus, kalasha, svastika, serpents, and y Lotus ceiling motifs, Ambika Yakshi statues,
Ornamentation yakshas/yakshis to denote auspiciousness and Siddhachakra diagrams in temple walls
spiritual values.
11. Manastambha y Erected in front of temples as a symbol of y Manastambha at Shravanabelagola,
(Pillars of humility, indicating ego suppression before Moodabidri, Kulpakji Temple
Honor) entering the divine space.
12. Sculptural y Walls and railings of Jain structures often have y Kankali Tila, Ellora Jain caves, Khajuraho
Narrative Panels sculpted panels depicting episodes from lives Jain temples
of Tirthankaras and Jaina legends.
13. Regional y Jain architecture adapted to local styles y Chalukyas (Aihole), Rashtrakutas (Ellora),
Influence and – Dravidian, Nagara, and Vesara – and Solankis (Mount Abu), Hoysalas
Patronage received patronage from multiple dynasties (Shravanabelagola), Pallavas (Sittanavasal)
across India.
14. Pilgrimage y Temples were often built atop hills y Shatrunjaya (Palitana), Sammed Shikharji,
Complexes on symbolizing spiritual elevation, forming large Girnar, Shravanabelagola
Hills sacred complexes.

Jainism, founded on ahimsa, anekantavada, and aparigraha by Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), emphasizes asceticism and karma
theory, significantly influencing Indian ethics, ecology, and non-violent movements.

103
 40 Indian Philosophy Scan to Read More

Indian philosophy, rooted in the Vedas and Upanishads, explores dharma, karma, and moksha through orthodox and heterodox
schools, blending spirituality, logic, and ethics.

UPSC Previous Year Question

1. Indian philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the
monuments and their art in India. Discuss. (2020)

Orthodox Schools (Āstika Darśanas)

School Core Features Key Concepts Relevance
1. Nyāya y Focuses on logic, reasoning, and y 4 Pramāṇas: Perception y Basis for Indian logic
epistemology (pratyakṣa), Inference and debate traditions
y Aims to remove ignorance through valid (anumāna), Comparison y Used in ancient law
knowledge (pramāṇa) (upamāna), Verbal courts and philosophical
y Views liberation (moksha) as a result of testimony (śabda) disputations.
right knowledge
2. Vaiśeṣika y Closely allied with Nyāya y 7 Padārthas: Substance, y Early form of physical
y Explains the universe through atomistic Quality, Motion, science in Indian
theory Generality, Particularity, thought
y Believes all objects are composed of Inherence, Non-existence y Influenced Ayurveda
eternal atoms (paramāṇu) and cosmology.
y Liberation is through knowledge of reality
3. Sāṅkhya y Oldest philosophical system y 25 Tattvas y Influenced Bhagavad
y Dualistic: Reality is composed of Puruṣa (elements of reality) Gītā and classical Yoga
(consciousness) and Prakṛti (matter) y Satkāryavāda (effect y Mentioned in Sāṅkhya
y Liberation is separation of Puruṣa from pre-exists in cause) Kārikā by
Prakṛti Īśvarakṛṣṇa .
4. Yoga y Practical extension of Sāṅkhya y Aṣṭāṅga Yoga y Described in Yoga
y Seeks mental and physical discipline for (Eight-limbed path): Sūtras of Patañjali
spiritual liberation Yama, Niyama, Āsana, y Sculptural depictions
y Accepts the concept of a personal God Prāṇāyāma, etc. of yogic poses at
(Īśvara) y Chitta-vṛtti-nirodha Mahabalipuram
(control of mind) temples.

104
 5. Pūrva y Emphasizes the ritualistic portion of the y Apūrva: unseen force y Basis of Vedic
Mīmāṃsā Vedas (karma-kāṇḍa) generated by rituals ritualism
y Believes in the authority of the Vedas but y Śabda (verbal testimony) y Foundation for
not in a creator God as the supreme source of Dharmaśāstra and
y Liberation is achieved through the correct knowledge priestly duties in
performance of rituals temples.
6. Vedānta y Philosophical culmination of the Vedas y Advaita (Śaṅkara): y Inspired Bhakti
(Uttara and Upaniṣads Non-dualism movements and
Mīmāṃsā) y Seeks knowledge of Brahman (Ultimate y Viśiṣṭādvaita temple-building (such
Reality) (Rāmānuja): Qualified as Śaṅkara temples,
y Three main sub-schools with differing non-dualism Rāmānuja’s
views on the Brahman-Ātman y Dvaita (Madhva): Srivaishnavism)
relationship Dualism y Based on Brahma
Sūtras, Upaniṣads,
Bhagavad Gītā

Heterodox (Nāstika) Schools

School Core Features Key Concepts Relevance
1. Cārvāka y Materialist and atheistic school y Lokāyata (worldly y Critique of ritualism and
y Rejected Vedas, afterlife, and liberation way) Brahmanical orthodoxy
y Advocated direct perception y Hedonism: “Eat, drink, y Early Indian school of
(pratyakṣa) as the only valid source of and be merry” rationalism and
knowledge y No soul, no rebirth skepticism.
2. Jainism y Founded by Mahavira (6th century y Anekāntavāda y Inspired temples at Mount
BCE) (multi-faceted reality) Abu (Dilwara),
y Atheistic but spiritual y Syādvāda (conditional Shravanabelagola
y Believes in karma, rebirth, and liberation perspective) (Gommateshwara statue)
y Emphasizes strict ethical conduct and y Ahimsā (non-violence) y Influenced environmental
asceticism and ethical movements.
3. Buddhism y Founded by Gautama Buddha (6th y Four Noble Truths y Inspired art like Sanchi
century BCE) y Eightfold Path Stupa, Ajanta murals
y Denies authority of Vedas and existence y Anicca (impermanence), y Led to the development of
of a permanent self (anattā) Anattā (non-self), Gandhara and Mathura
y Focuses on overcoming suffering through Dukkha (suffering) schools of sculpture.
the Eightfold Path
4. Ājīvika y Founded by Makkhali Gosāla y Niyati (fate governs all) y Mentioned in Ashokan
(contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira) y Rejected effort edicts (decline after the
y Accepted karma and rebirth but denied (purushārtha) as futile Mauryan era)
free will y Fatalism and ascetic y Influenced early ascetic
y Believed in absolute determinism lifestyle traditions
(niyati) y Critiqued by both Jains
and Buddhists.

Role of Indian Philosophy in Monuments and Art

Philosophy Role in Monuments/Art Examples
1. Vedanta y Temples reflect Brahman’s unity and cosmic y Chola temples (such as Brihadeeswara, 11th CE)
order, inspiring awe and devotion. embody Brahman in architecture.
2. Buddhism y Stupas and caves symbolize peace, y Sanchi Stupa (3rd BCE) mirrors the Four Noble
meditation, and the Buddha’s path. Truths in its dome.
3. Jainism y Temples showcase intricate carvings, reflecting y Dilwara Temples (11th-13th CE) depict
non-violence and the soul’s purity. Anekantavada in art.
4. Yoga/ y Ritual spaces in temples align with cosmic y Thillai Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil
Mimamsa rhythms, aiding spiritual practice. Nadu, is rich in yoga and cosmic symbolism.
5. Epics y Sculptures narrate Dharma and Karma, y Khajuraho panels (10th CE) depict Gita’s ideals.
(Gita) teaching moral lessons visually.

From Advaita’s oneness to Charvaka’s materialism, Indian philosophy’s diversity continues to inspire
global thought on existence and liberation.

105