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NEXT-GENERATION
VIDEO CODING
AND STREAMING
NEXT-GENERATION
VIDEO CODING
AND STREAMING

BENNY BING
Copyright © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
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be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in
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www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Bing, Benny.
Next-generation video coding and streaming / Benny Bing.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-89130-8 (hardback)
1. Video compression. I. Title.
TA1638.B56 2015
006.6′ 96–dc23
2015020396

Cover image courtesy of Godruma/Getty

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 2015
CONTENTS

Preface xvii

1 Digital Video Delivery 1

1.1 Broadband TV Landscape, 2
1.1.1 Internet TV Providers, 2
1.1.2 Netflix, 3
1.1.3 Hulu, 3
1.1.4 Amazon, 3
1.1.5 YouTube, 3
1.1.6 ESPN3, 4
1.1.7 HBO, 4
1.1.8 CBS, 4
1.1.9 Sony, 4
1.1.10 Retail Giants, 4
1.2 Internet TV Delivery Platforms, 5
1.2.1 Cloud TV, 5
1.2.2 Content Delivery Network, 6
1.2.3 Free CDN, 6
1.2.4 Video Transcoding, 7
vi CONTENTS

1.3 Second Screen Device Adoption, 7

1.3.1 Mobile Video, 8
1.3.2 Mobile Versus Traditional TV, 8
1.3.3 Over-the-Air Digital TV, 8
1.3.4 Non-Real-Time TV Delivery, 9
1.3.5 NRT Use Cases, 9
1.3.6 Cable Wi-Fi Alliance, 9
1.4 Screen and Video Resolution, 10
1.4.1 Aspect Ratios, 11
1.4.2 Video Resolution, 11
1.4.3 Visual Quality, 13
1.4.4 Matching Video Content to Screen Size, 13
1.5 Stereoscopic 3D TV, 14
1.5.1 Autostereoscopic 3D, 14
1.5.2 Anaglyph 3D, 14
1.6 Video Coding Standards, 15
1.6.1 Exploiting Video Content Redundancies, 15
1.6.2 High-Quality Versus High-Resolution Videos, 16
1.6.3 Factors Affecting Coded Video Bit Rates, 16
1.6.4 Factors Affecting Coded Frame Sizes, 17
1.7 Video Streaming Protocols, 18
1.7.1 Video Streaming over HTTP, 19
1.7.2 Adaptive Bit Rate Streaming, 19
1.7.3 Benefits and Drawbacks of Adaptive Streaming, 20
1.7.4 HTTP Progressive Download, 20
1.7.5 HTML5, 20
1.8 TV Interfaces and Navigation, 21
1.8.1 Streaming Adapters, 21
1.8.2 Streaming Boxes, 21
1.8.3 Media-Activated TV Navigation, 22
1.8.4 Smartphone and Tablet TV Navigation, 22
1.8.5 Digital Living Network Alliance, 22
1.8.6 Discovery and Launch, 23
1.8.7 UltraViolet, 23
References, 24
Homework Problems, 24

2 Video Coding Fundamentals 29

2.1 Sampling Formats of Raw Videos, 29
2.1.1 Color Subsampling, 30
2.1.2 YUV Versus RGB Color Space, 31
2.1.3 Bit Rate and Storage Requirements, 31
2.2 Impact of Video Compression, 32
2.2.1 Rate-Distortion Optimization, 32
CONTENTS vii

2.2.2 Partitions in a Video Frame, 33

2.2.3 Video Coding Standards, 34
2.2.4 Profiles and Levels, 34
2.3 General Video Codec Operations, 34
2.3.1 Transform Coding, 35
2.3.2 Quantization, 35
2.3.3 Deblocking Filter, 37
2.4 Transform Coding, 38
2.4.1 Orthonormal Transforms, 38
2.4.2 Discrete Cosine Transform, 40
2.4.3 Discrete Sine Transform, 44
2.4.4 Asymmetric DST, 44
2.4.5 Comparison of KLT, ADST, and DCT, 44
2.4.6 Hybrid Transforms, 46
2.4.7 Wavelet Transform, 46
2.4.8 Impact of Transform Size, 46
2.4.9 Impact of Parallel Coding, 47
2.5 Entropy Coding, 47
2.5.1 Variable Length Codes, 47
2.5.2 Golomb Codes, 48
2.5.3 Arithmetic Coding Overview, 48
2.5.4 Nonadaptive Arithmetic Coding, 49
2.5.5 Steps in Nonadaptive Arithmetic Coding, 49
2.5.6 Context-Based Adaptive Arithmetic Coding, 50
2.5.7 Code Synchronization, 50
2.6 MPEG (H.26x) Standards, 51
2.6.1 MPEG Frames, 51
2.6.2 I Frames, 51
2.6.3 P Frames, 52
2.6.4 B Frames, 52
2.6.5 Intracoded P and B Frames, 52
2.7 Group of Pictures, 53
2.7.1 GOP Length, 53
2.7.2 Closed GOP, 53
2.7.3 Error Resiliency in a Closed GOP, 54
2.7.4 Decoding Sequence, 55
2.7.5 Open GOP, 55
2.7.6 Variable GOP Length, 56
2.7.7 Random Access of MPEG Frames, 56
2.8 Motion Estimation and Compensation, 57
2.8.1 Motion Estimation, 57
2.8.2 Motion Search in P Frames, 58
2.8.3 Motion Search in B Frames, 58
2.8.4 Fractional (Subsample) Motion Search, 59
2.8.5 Motion Compensation, 60
viii CONTENTS

2.8.6 Computational Complexity, 61

2.8.7 Motion Search Algorithms, 63
2.8.8 Accelerating Motion Search, 65
2.8.9 Impact of Video Resolution, 66
2.9 Non-MPEG Video Coding, 66
2.9.1 Motion JPEG, 66
2.9.2 Dirac, 67
2.9.3 WebM Project, 67
2.10 Constant and Variable Bit-Rate Videos, 67
2.10.1 CBR Encoding, 68
2.10.2 VBR Encoding, 68
2.10.3 Assessing Bit Rate Variability, 69
2.10.4 Scene Change Detection, 70
2.10.5 Adaptive Scene Change Detection, 71
2.10.6 I Frame Size Prediction, 72
2.11 Advanced Audio Coding, 72
2.11.1 Low and High Bit Rate AAC, 74
2.11.2 High-Efficiency and Low-Complexity AAC, 74
2.11.3 MPEG Surround, 74
2.12 Video Containers, 74
2.12.1 MPEG-4, 75
2.12.2 MP4 Access Units, 75
2.12.3 Binary Format for Scenes, 75
2.12.4 MP4 Overheads, 76
2.12.5 MPEG-2 TS, 76
2.12.6 MPEG-2 TS Structure, 76
2.12.7 MPEG-2 TS Audio and Video PESs, 77
2.12.8 MPEG-2 TS IP/Ethernet Encapsulation, 77
2.13 CLOSED CAPTIONS, 77
References, 78
Homework Problems, 78

3 H.264/AVC Standard 83
3.1 Overview of H.264, 83
3.1.1 Fundamental H.264 Benefits, 84
3.1.2 H.264 Applications, 84
3.2 H.264 Syntax and Semantics, 84
3.2.1 Profiles and Levels, 85
3.2.2 Baseline, Extended, Main Profiles, 85
3.2.3 High Profiles, 85
3.3 H.264 Encoder, 89
3.3.1 H.264 Slice Types, 89
3.3.2 H.264 Intraprediction, 90
3.3.3 Intraprediction for 4 × 4 Blocks, 91
CONTENTS ix

3.3.4 Intraprediction for 16 × 16 Macroblocks, 92

3.3.5 Intra Pulse Code Modulation Mode, 93
3.3.6 H.264 Interprediction, 93
3.4 Rate Distortion Optimization, 94
3.4.1 RDO under VBR, 95
3.4.2 RDO under CBR, 95
3.4.3 In-Loop Deblocking Filter, 96
3.5 Video Coding and Network Abstraction Layers, 96
3.5.1 Video Coding Layer, 96
3.5.2 Network Abstraction Layer, 97
3.5.3 Hypothetical Reference Decoder, 97
3.5.4 Supplemental Enhancement Information, 98
3.6 Error Resilience, 98
3.6.1 Slice Coding, 98
3.6.2 Data Partitioning, 99
3.6.3 Slice Groups, 100
3.6.4 Redundant Slices, 101
3.6.5 Flexible Macroblock Ordering, 101
3.6.6 FMO Types, 102
3.6.7 FMO Overhead, 103
3.6.8 Arbitrary Slice Ordering, 103
3.7 Transform Coding, 104
3.7.1 Transform Types, 104
3.7.2 Hadamard Transforms, 105
3.7.3 Transform Implementation, 106
3.8 Entropy Coding, 106
3.8.1 Context-Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding, 106
3.8.2 CABAC Performance, 107
3.8.3 Context-Adaptive Variable-Length Coding, 107
3.9 Motion Vector Search, 108
3.9.1 Motion Search Options, 108
3.10 Multiple Reference Slices, 109
3.10.1 Motivations for Using More Reference Slices, 109
3.10.2 Switching Reference Slices, 109
3.11 Scalable Video Coding, 109
3.11.1 Temporal Scalability, 110
3.11.2 Spatial Scalability, 110
3.11.3 Video Quality Scalability, 110
3.11.4 Disadvantages of SVC, 110
References, 111
Homework Problems, 111

4 H.265/HEVC Standard 115

4.1 H.265 Overview, 115
x CONTENTS

4.1.1 Fundamental H.265 Benefits, 116

4.1.2 H.265 Applications, 118
4.1.3 Video Input, 118
4.2 H.265 Syntax and Semantics, 118
4.2.1 Parameter Set Structure, 119
4.2.2 NAL Unit Syntax Structure, 119
4.2.3 Reference Frame Sets and Lists, 119
4.2.4 H.265 GOP Structure, 120
4.2.5 Support for Open GOPs and Random Access, 121
4.2.6 Video Coding Layer, 122
4.2.7 Temporal Sublayers, 122
4.2.8 Error Resilience, 123
4.2.9 RTP Support, 124
4.3 Profiles, Levels, and Tiers, 124
4.3.1 Profiles, 124
4.3.2 Levels, 125
4.3.3 Range Extensions, 126
4.4 Quadtrees, 126
4.4.1 Variable Block Size Quadtree Partitioning, 127
4.4.2 Coding Tree Units, 128
4.4.3 Splitting of Coding Blocks, 129
4.4.4 Frame Boundary Matching, 130
4.4.5 Prediction Blocks and Units, 130
4.4.6 Transform Blocks and Units, 132
4.4.7 Determining the Quadtree Depth, 132
4.4.8 Coding Unit Identification, 133
4.5 Slices, 133
4.5.1 Tiles, 134
4.5.2 Dependent Slice Segments, 135
4.5.3 Wavefront Parallel Processing, 136
4.5.4 Practical Considerations for Parallel Processing, 137
4.6 Intraprediction, 137
4.6.1 Prediction Block Partitioning, 138
4.6.2 Intra-Angular Prediction, 138
4.6.3 Intra-DC and Intra-Planar Prediction, 140
4.6.4 Adaptive Smoothing of Reference Samples, 140
4.6.5 Filtering of Prediction Block Boundary Samples, 141
4.6.6 Reference Sample Substitution, 141
4.6.7 Mode Coding, 142
4.7 Interprediction, 143
4.7.1 Fractional Sample Interpolation, 143
4.7.2 Motion Vector Prediction, 145
4.7.3 Merge Mode, 146
4.7.4 Skip Mode, 147
CONTENTS xi

4.7.5 Advanced MV Prediction, 148

4.7.6 Restrictions on Motion Data, 148
4.7.7 Practical Considerations, 149
4.8 Transform, Scaling, and Quantization, 149
4.8.1 Alternative 4 × 4 Transform, 150
4.8.2 Scaling, 151
4.8.3 Quantization, 151
4.9 Entropy Encoding, 151
4.9.1 H.265 Binarization Formats, 152
4.9.2 Context Modeling, 152
4.9.3 CABAC Throughput Issues, 154
4.9.4 CABAC Encoding, 154
4.9.5 CABAC Decoding, 155
4.9.6 Coefficient Scanning, 155
4.9.7 Coefficient Coding, 156
4.10 In-Loop Filters, 156
4.10.1 In-Loop Deblocking Filter, 157
4.10.2 Sample-Adaptive Offset Filter, 158
4.11 Special H.265 Coding Modes, 161
References, 162
Homework Problems, 162

5 Assessing and Enhancing Video Quality 165

5.1 Introduction, 165
5.1.1 Subjective Metrics, 166
5.1.2 Limitations of Subjective Metrics, 166
5.1.3 Objective Metrics, 166
5.1.4 Types of Objective Metrics, 167
5.1.5 References for Objective Metrics, 167
5.1.6 Network Impact, 168
5.2 Distortion Measure, 169
5.2.1 Sum of Absolute Differences, 169
5.2.2 Sum of Absolute Transformed Differences, 169
5.3 Peak Signal to Noise Ratio, 170
5.3.1 Combined PSNR, 170
5.3.2 Impact of Video Resolution and QP on PSNR, 172
5.3.3 Limitations of PSNR, 173
5.4 Structural Similarity Index, 173
5.5 Observable Versus Perceptual Visual Artifacts, 175
5.5.1 Limited Information Provided by PSNR, 176
5.5.2 Observable Artifacts and Link Quality, 176
5.5.3 Combined Spatial and Temporal Video Quality
Assessment, 176
xii CONTENTS

5.6 Error Concealment, 177

5.6.1 Error Resilience, 177
5.6.2 Impact on Visual Artifacts, 178
5.6.3 Types of Error Concealment, 179
5.6.4 Comparison of EC Methods, 179
5.6.5 Increasing Frame Rate Using EC, 179
5.6.6 Actions Performed After EC, 180
5.7 Color Science, 180
5.7.1 Color Reception, 180
5.7.2 Color Reproduction, 180
References, 181
Homework Problems, 181

6 Coding Performance of H.262, H.264, and H.265 183

6.1 Coding Parameters, 184
6.1.1 Coding Block Size, 184
6.1.2 Transform Block Size, 187
6.1.3 TMVP, SAO, AMP, 188
6.2 Comparison of H.265 And H.264, 189
6.2.1 Absolute Coding Efficiency, 189
6.2.2 Relative Coding Gain, 190
6.2.3 Videos with Different Levels of Motion, 191
6.3 Frame Coding Comparison, 192
6.3.1 I Frame Coding Efficiency, Quality, and Time, 193
6.3.2 P Frame Coding Efficiency, Quality, and Time, 195
6.3.3 B Frame Coding Efficiency, Quality, and Time, 197
6.3.4 Overall Frame Coding Efficiency, Quality, and Time, 199
6.4 Impact of Coding Block Size on Frame Coding Efficiency, 201
6.4.1 Impact of Transform Block Size on Frame Coding
Efficiency, 201
6.4.2 Impact of Coding Block Size on Frame Encoding Time, 203
6.4.3 Impact of Transform Block Size on Frame Encoding Time, 203
6.4.4 Impact of CU Size on Encoding Time, 203
6.4.5 Decoding Time, 205
6.5 Summary of Coding Performance, 205
6.6 Error Resiliency Comparison of H.264 and H.265, 205
6.6.1 H.264 Error Resiliency, 208
6.6.2 H.265 Error Resiliency, 212
6.7 H.264/H.265 Versus H.262, 214
6.7.1 Performance Comparison, 214
6.7.2 H.262 Frame Coding Efficiency, 215
6.7.3 Impact of GOP Size, 218
References, 219
Homework Problems, 219
CONTENTS xiii

7 3D Video Coding 221

7.1 Introduction, 221
7.1.1 3D Video Transmission and Coding, 222
7.1.2 View Multiplexing, 222
7.1.3 View Expansion and Display, 223
7.1.4 View Packing Methods, 223
7.2 Multiview Coding, 224
7.2.1 MVC Bitstream, 224
7.2.2 2D to 3D Conversion, 225
7.2.3 H.264 Multiview Coding Extension, 225
7.2.4 MVC Inter-view Prediction, 225
7.2.5 MVC Inter-view Reordering, 227
7.2.6 MVC Profiles, 227
7.2.7 Comparing MVC with 2D H.264 Video Coding, 227
7.3 Correlation Between Left and Right Views in S3D VIDEOS, 228
7.4 View Expansion Via Sample Interpolation, 230
7.4.1 Impact of Sample Interpolation, 230
7.4.2 Inter-view Versus Intraview Sample Interpolation, 233
7.4.3 Interframe Versus Intraview Sample Interpolation, 235
7.4.4 Impact of Quantization on Interpolated S3D Videos, 235
7.5 Anaglyph 3D Generation, 235
7.5.1 H.264 Coding Efficiency for Anaglyph Videos, 238
7.5.2 Delta Analysis, 239
7.5.3 Disparity Vector Generation, 242
References, 243
Homework Problems, 244

8 Video Distribution and Streaming 245

8.1 Adaptive Video Streaming, 246
8.1.1 Playlists and Bandwidth Estimation, 247
8.1.2 Quality (Bitstream) Switching, 247
8.2 Video Quality and Chunk Efficiency, 248
8.2.1 Video Quality for Different VBR Chunk Durations, 248
8.2.2 VBR Chunk Bit Rate Versus Chunk Duration, 250
8.2.3 VBR Chunk Efficiency Versus Chunk Duration, 250
8.2.4 Capped VBR Chunk Efficiency Versus Chunk Duration, 252
8.2.5 CBR Chunk Efficiency Versus Chunk Duration, 253
8.2.6 Instantaneous and Average Rates for Different Chunk
Durations, 254
8.3 Apple HLS, 257
8.3.1 Overview of HLS Operation, 257
8.3.2 GOP Structure, 258
8.3.3 Super and Dynamic Playlists, 259
xiv CONTENTS

8.3.4 Media Control, 260

8.4 HLS Over 4G and 802.11, 261
8.4.1 Startup Delay, 261
8.4.2 Switching Quality Levels, 263
8.4.3 One-Level Versus Unfragmented HLS, 265
8.4.4 Multi-Level HLS, 266
8.4.5 Duplicate Video Chunks with Audio, 268
8.4.6 Duplicate Video Chunks, 269
8.4.7 Duplicate Audio Chunks, 271
8.4.8 Duplicate Chunk Suppression, 272
8.4.9 Server-Based Chunk Suppression, 272
8.4.10 Custom App Chunk Suppression, 274
8.5 Impact of Varying Chunk Duration, 274
8.5.1 Impact of Varying Quality Levels, 276
8.5.2 Summary of HLS Performance, 277
8.6 Microsoft Silverlight Smooth Streaming, 280
8.6.1 Overview of MSS Operation, 280
8.6.2 MSS Streaming over 802.11n and 802.16, 281
8.6.3 802.16 MSS Streaming, 283
8.6.4 802.11n MSS Streaming, 284
8.6.5 Comparison of HLS and MSS Streaming, 287
8.7 Traffic Rate Shaping, 287
8.7.1 Impact of Shaping and Scene Complexity on Quality
Switching, 288
8.7.2 Impact of Shaping on Quality Switch Delay, 290
8.7.3 Impact of Shaping on Playback Duration, 291
8.7.4 Impact of Shaping on Start of Playback, 291
8.7.5 Impact of Shaping and Scene Complexity on Duplicate
Chunks, 292
8.7.6 Impact of Unshaped Traffic on Quality Switching, 293
8.8 Adobe HTTP Dynamic Streaming, 294
8.9 MPEG-DASH (ISO/IEC 23009), 294
8.9.1 DASH Process, 296
8.9.2 DASH Media Formats, 296
8.9.3 DASH for HTML5, 297
8.9.4 DASH Industry Forum, 297
8.10 Aggregate Adaptive Stream Bandwidth Prediction, 297
8.10.1 Permanence Time, 298
8.10.2 Prediction Model Implementation, 298
8.11 Limitations of Client-Based Adaptive Streaming, 298
8.11.1 Limitations of Fixed-Size Chunks, 300
8.11.2 Server-Based Adaptive Streaming, 301
8.11.3 Linear Broadcast Systems, 302
8.11.4 Adaptive Streaming and Scalable Video Coding, 302
8.12 Tips for Efficient Adaptive Streaming, 302
CONTENTS xv

8.12.1 Quality Levels and Chunk Duration, 302

8.12.2 Encoder Efficiency, 303
8.12.3 Bit Rates of Quality Levels, 303
8.12.4 Server Bandwidth Shaping, 303
8.12.5 Server Bandwidth Estimation, 304
8.12.6 Analyzing Network Congestion, 304
References, 305
Homework Problems, 305

Glossary 311
Index 317
PREFACE

TV remains the single most important and engaging source of information and enter-
tainment. U.S. teenagers spend more than three times of their spare time watching
TV than on social media. The global footprint of TV has been enhanced recently by
online video, which includes online TV. U.S. consumers watch more movies online
than on DVDs, Blu-ray discs and other physical video formats. This trend is driven
by the flexibility of on-the-go mobile entertainment and the widespread adoption
of video-capable smartphones and tablets. These personal devices have become
ubiquitous with greatly expanded computing power and memory, improved displays,
and network connectivity. The accelerated growth of video traffic on the Internet
is expected to continue. However, supporting high-quality video delivery presents
a significant challenge to Internet service providers due to the higher bandwidth
demands compared to data and voice traffic.
This book describes next-generation video coding and streaming technologies
with a comparative assessment of the strengths and weaknesses. Specific emphasis
is placed on the H.265/HEVC video coding standard and adaptive bit rate video
streaming. H.265/HEVC has been developed to meet the demands of emerging UHD
video services and pervasive online video streaming. The commercial adoption of
H.265/HEVC has started to gain traction since 2014. Invaluable insights into the
coding efficiencies of the intracoded and intercoded frames are described in this book,
including the impact of different types of video content and powerful feature sets such
as the hierarchical block structure and new coding parameters. Adaptive streaming
is a key enabling technology that can achieve smooth and reliable video delivery
over heterogeneous wireline and wireless networks, as well as multiscreen personal
devices. It provides autonomous bandwidth management and maintains quality of
service even as link conditions and network congestion vary. This book provides
xviii PREFACE

an in-depth study on the practical performance of the popular adaptive streaming

platforms and useful tips for streaming optimization. Innovative techniques related
to aggregate adaptive stream bandwidth prediction, duplicate chunk suppression, and
server-based adaptive streaming are also discussed.
I wish to thank Wiley’s Publisher Dr. Simone Taylor, for her encouragement and
patience in overseeing this book project. I also like to acknowledge my industry
collaborators and former students who have been generous in sharing many useful
comments. The book includes over 220 illustrative figures and over 110 homework
problems containing interesting ideas and extensions to key concepts. Powerpoint
slides and solutions to the homework problems are available to instructors who
adopt the book for a course. Please feel free to send your comments and questions
to [email protected].

Benny Bing
1
DIGITAL VIDEO DELIVERY

Television has in many ways promoted understanding and cooperation among people
all over the world. About 600 million people saw the first person walk on the moon
and a billion people watched the 20th Summer Olympic Games. By 2012, there
were over 3.6 billion viewers for the 30th Summer Olympic Games. TV watching
used to be confined primarily to the living room. This has changed. The ubiquity
of HD-capable smartphones and tablets equipped with powerful video decoders
enables TV view time on mobile devices to surpass view time on the TV. The
Internet has become a key media distribution platform that has opened up new ways
for discovering, sharing, and consuming TV content anywhere, anytime, and on
any device. Online Internet TV providers are trumping cable and satellite pay-TV
providers with a dramatic increase in subscription and advertising revenue in recent
years. Ala-carte-style Internet TV has now started to break the traditional pay-TV
distribution model that is based on channel bundling. Although pay-TV providers
are making TV content available online for their subscribers, they may now have
to migrate to online streaming boxes and ditch the venerable set-top. Cable is now
a broadband business. Among the top cable providers, broadband Internet service
accounted for more subscribers than cable TV. Ultimately, pay-TV providers may
have to rely on broadband to grow profits. Currently, over 10 million US households
are broadband-only. In this chapter, we analyze these game-changing trends in
digital video delivery.

Next-Generation Video Coding and Streaming, First Edition. Benny Bing.

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 DIGITAL VIDEO DELIVERY

1.1 BROADBAND TV LANDSCAPE

Over 80% of Internet users watch video while 30% of these users watch TV. In the
United States, viewers spent an average of more than 6 h/month watching video on
the Internet. Streaming live sports programs online makes truly national or global
events possible, reaching millions of consumers via handheld devices. There are sev-
eral challenges. Due to the mobility of subscribers and the heterogeneity of the user
devices, the streaming server has to adapt the video content to the characteristics and
limitations of both the underlying network and the end devices. These include vari-
ations in the available network bandwidth and user device limitations in processing
power, memory, display size, battery life, or download limits.

1.1.1 Internet TV Providers

The emergence of over-the-top (OTT) online content providers such as Netflix,
Hulu, and Amazon offers more choices to the consumer by providing replacement
or supplementary TV services, usually TV shows and movies but no sports pro-
gramming. The service is either free or much cheaper than pay-TV and this has led
to a steady migration of subscribers from pay-TV to online TV, despite efforts from
cable and satellite pay-TV providers in making TV content available online. Unlike
OTT providers, these “TV Everywhere” Web portals may include both sports and
video on demand (VOD) or time-shifted TV content.
Because broadcast pay-TV tends to surpass online TV in visual quality, it delivers
better overall experience. For example, the quality of online TV service may fluc-
tuate according to the bandwidth availability on the broadband Internet connection.
However, other factors such as choice of content, flexible viewing time, and content
portability are also important for the consumer. Thus, hardware set-top box (STB)
vendors (e.g., TiVO) traditionally aligned to linear broadcast programming cable TV
service have integrated OTT streaming content to their channel lineup.
Pay-TV operators may follow this lead and let OTT content into their STB. In
doing so, subscription rates may be lower compared to traditional pay-TV subscrip-
tion. For example, Walt Disney recently signed a carriage deal with Dish Network,
making it the first pay-TV provider to bundle ABC, ESPN, and other channels owned
by Disney in a TV service delivered entirely over the Internet. This lower-cost prod-
uct will allow Dish to broaden their customer base and target new broadband-only
consumers who do not currently subscribe to any form of cable or satellite TV. It
is interesting to note that Dish is employing a small-scale version of the traditional
multichannel subscription bundling, which provides carriage fees to the TV industry
for large packages of channels.
Ala-carte-style Internet TV, where users can subscribe to individual channels, has
now arrived. The new age of Web-delivered TV allows viewers to have more options
to pay only for the TV networks or programs they want to watch and to decide how,
when, and where to watch them. Unlike pay-TV, many of these subscription-based
video on demand (SVOD) providers are currently ad-free. However, ad-based
OTT service may appear in future to further reduce subscription fees. As live
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