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Comparative Government
and Politics
An Introduction
6th Edition

Rod Hague and Martin Harrop

Comparative Government and Politics

Visit the companion website for this

text at:
http://www.palgrave.com/politics/hague
COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Founding Series Editor: The late Vincent Wright

Published
Rudy Andeweg and Galen A. Irwin
Government and Politics of the Netherlands
Nigel Bowles
Government and Politics of the United States (2nd edition)
Paul Brooker
Non-Democratic Regimes: Theory, Government and Politics
Robert Elgie
Political Leadership in Liberal Democracies
Rod Hague and Martin Harrop
Comparative Government and Politics (6th edition)
Paul Heywood
The Government and Politics of Spain
B. Guy Peters
Comparative Politics: Theories and Methods
[Rights: World excluding North America]
Tony Saich
Governance and Politics of China (2nd edition)
Anne Stevens
The Government and Politics of France (3rd edition)
Ramesh Thakur
The Government and Politics of India

Forthcoming
Judy Batt
Government and Politics in Eastern Europe
Robert Leonardi
Government and Politics in Italy

Comparative Government and Politics

Series Standing Order
ISBN 0–333–71693–0 hardcover
ISBN 0–333–69335–3 paperback
(outside North America only)

You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by
placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in the
case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name
and address, the title of the series and an ISBN quoted above.

Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd

Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England
Comparative Government
and Politics
An Introduction
6th Edition

Rod Hague
and
Martin Harrop
© Rod Hague and Martin Harrop 1982, 1987, 2001, 2004
© Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin 1992, 1998

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication

may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save

with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited
copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W1T 4LP.

Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First edition 1982

Second edition 1987
Third edition 1992
Fourth edition 1998
Fifth edition 2001
Sixth edition 2004

Published by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010
Companies and representatives throughout the world

PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the new global academic imprint of

St. Martin’s Press LLC Scholarly and Reference Division and
Palgrave Publishers Ltd (formerly Macmillan Press Ltd).

ISBN 1–4039–1314–5 hardcover

ISBN 1–4039–1315–3 paperback

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made

from fully managed and sustained forest sources

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04

Printed in China
Summary of Contents

PART I Foundations
1 Politics and government 1
2 The state in a global context 17
3 Democracy 35
4 Authoritarian rule 51
5 The comparative approach 69

PART II Politics and society

6 Political culture 89
7 Political communication 105
8 Political participation 122

PART III Linking society and government

9 Elections and voters 145
10 Interest groups 166
11 Political parties 185

PART IV Government and policy

12 Constitutions and the legal framework 209
13 Federal, unitary and local government 228
14 Legislatures 247
15 The political executive 268
16 The bureaucracy 290
17 The policy process 309

v
Contents

List of illustrative material viii Comparing institutions, societies and states 75

Preface x Techniques of comparison 79
Key reading 85

PART I Foundations
PART II Politics and society
1 Politics and government
Politics 3 6 Political culture
Government 4 The civic culture 89
Governance 6 Political trust and social capital 90
The state and sovereignty 7 Postmaterialism 93
Nations and nationalism 8 Political culture in new democracies 95
Nations and states 10 Political culture in authoritarian states 96
Power 12 Elite political culture 98
Authority 13 Political socialization 100
Legitimacy 15 Islam and the West 102
Key reading 16 Key reading 104

2 The state in a global context 7 Political communication

How the state emerged 17 Development of the mass media 106
The Western state 19 The media: contemporary trends 108
The post-colonial state 21 The media in established democracies 112
The state and international organizations 25 The media in new democracies 115
The state in the global economy 30 Public opinion 116
Key reading 34 The media in authoritarian states 119
Key reading 121
3 Democracy
Direct democracy 36 8 Political participation
Representative and liberal democracy 38 Participation in established democracies 122
Waves of democratization 39 Participation in new democracies 124
New democracies 43 Social movements 127
Semi-democracy 46 Participation in authoritarian states 131
Key reading 49 Political violence and terror 134
Revolution 136
4 Authoritarian rule Key reading 141
Traditional authoritarian rule 51
Communist, fascist and military rule 53
The Arab and Muslim worlds 62 PART III Linking society and
China in transition 66 government
Key reading 68
9 Elections and voters
5 The comparative approach Scope and franchise
Why compare? 69 Electoral systems: legislatures 146
The risks of comparison 71 Electoral systems: presidents 154

vi
 CONTENTS vii

Voting behaviour 156 Unitary government 236

Turnout 159 Local government 239
Referendums 160 Subnational government in new
Elections in new democracies 163 democracies 244
Elections in authoritarian states 164 Subnational government in authoritarian
Key reading 165 states 245
Key reading 246
10 Interest groups
Classifying interest groups 167 14 Legislatures
Channels of access 169 Structure 248
Iron triangles and issue networks 172 Functions 252
Conditions of influence 175 Recruitment 259
Pluralism and corporatism 177 Legislatures in new democracies 263
Interest groups in new democracies 181 Legislatures in authoritarian states 264
Interest groups in authoritarian states 182 Key reading 267
Key reading 184
15 The political executive
11 Political parties Presidential government 268
Party organization 186 Parliamentary government 274
Selecting candidates and leaders 189 Semi-presidential government 281
Membership and finance 191 The executive in new democracies 284
The social base 193 The executive in authoritarian states 285
Party systems 194 Key reading 289
Parties in new democracies 200
Parties in authoritarian states 201 16 The bureaucracy
Key reading 205 Evolution 291
Recruitment 292
Organization 293
PART IV Government and policy Accountability 299
New public management 301
12 Constitutions and the legal framework Bureaucracy in new democracies 303
Constitutions 210 Bureaucracy in authoritarian states 304
Judicial review and constitutional courts 212 Key reading 307
Judicial activism, independence and
recruitment 216 17 The policy process
Administrative law 221 Stages of the policy process 309
Law in new democracies 223 Public policy in established democracies 315
Law in authoritarian states 224 Public policy in new democracies 319
International law 225 Public policy in authoritarian states 322
Key reading 227 Key reading 324

13 Federal, unitary and local government

Federalism 228 Appendix: list of boxes 325
Federal-state relations 231 References 326
Assessing federalism 235 Index 348
List of illustrative material

Maps 11.1 Falling party membership in some

Map of the world xii European democracies, 1960–99 192
4.1 Post-communist Eastern Europe and 13.1 Some federations in established
Central Asia 55 democracies 230
4.2 Asia and the Middle East 65 13.2 Subnational government in unitary
10.1 The European Union 173 states: some European examples 238
13.3 Average population of elected local
authorities in some European
Tables democracies 241
3.1 The British electorate as a percentage 14.1 Selection to the upper chamber in
of the adult population, 1831–1931 42 some established democracies 250
4.1 Post-communist states in Eastern 14.2 Average length of service in national
Europe and the former Soviet Union 54 parliaments 263
4.2 Islam and democracy, 2001 62 16.1 The structure of Germany’s Ministry
6.1 Confidence in political institutions, of Economics and Labour 296
2001 92 17.1 Introduction of social insurance to
7.1 The development of communication some democracies 316
media 107 17.2 Case-by-case privatization in the
7.2 Countries in which a majority of United Kingdom, 1980s 319
people use the internet, 2002/03 109
7.3 Time taken for new media to reach
50 million households in the USA 111 Figures
7.4 Countries ranked by press freedom, 1.1 Number of states belonging to the
2001/02 116 United Nations, 1949–2002 8
8.1 Female representation in national 2.1 Number of intergovernmental
legislatures, 1950s–2000s 125 organizations, 1909–97 26
8.2 The ten larger demonstrations against 3.1 The direct democracy of ancient Athens 37
the Iraq War, by city, 15–16 February 3.2 Liberal democracy: the separation of
2003 130 powers in the United States 41
8.3 World Trade Center fatalities by 4.1 The ending of military rule in Latin
nationality, September 11, 2001 135 America 60
8.4 The ten most lethal governments, 5.1 Easton’s model of the political system 77
1900–87 136 5.2 Population and assembly size 83
9.1 The Canadian elections of 1993 and 6.1 Almond and Verba’s theory of the
2000 150 civic culture 90
9.2 Explicit thresholds of representation in 6.2 Americans’ trust in the ‘government in
some PR systems 152 Washington’, 1964–2002 91
9.3 How the additional member system 6.3 How elite political culture affects
works: Germany, 2002 153 political stability 99
9.4 Declining turnout at national elections, 6.4 Political learning and participation
1950s–1990s 159 across the life cycle 101
9.5 Turnout in some countries with 7.1 The transmission model of political
compulsory voting 161 communication 105

viii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL ix

8.1 Patterns of participation in democracies 123 The political significance of the internet 111
8.2 The J-curve theory of revolutions 138 Bowling alone 126
9.1 Methods for selecting presidents 155 Compulsory voting 161
10.1 A peak association: Britain’s CBI 169 Is the USA a pluralist political system? 179
10.2 Channels of interest group influence 169 Parties as vote-maximizers 197
10.3 Iron triangles: how subgovernments A political role for the judiciary 219
operated in the USA 174 A federal Europe? 237
11.1 A bell-shaped distribution: parties The decline of legislatures? 265
converge at the centre 196 Presidential government for a new
11.2 Organization of the Chinese democracy 273
Communist Party 204 A representative bureaucracy? 295
12.1 Establishing constitutional courts in
Western Europe 215
12.2 Levels of judicial activism in selected Profiles
democracies 218 The world 24
12.3 Administrative courts in France 222 Mexico 45
14.1 Population and assembly size 248 Nigeria 61
14.2 Typical steps in making a law 256 Germany 94
15.1 Presidential government 269 Russia 128
15.2 Parliamentary government 274 The United States 147
15.3 Formateurs and coalition governments 277 The European Union 176
15.4 Semi-presidential government 282 Italy 198
15.5 Typical executive structure in South Africa 213
communist states 287 Canada 232
16.1 Delimiting the bureaucracy 290 United Kingdom 261
16.2 Founding of cabinet-level departments France 283
in the USA 294 Japan 305
17.1 Stages of the policy process 309

50 years of
Debates The European Union 29
State sovereignty or humanitarian The European Court of Justice 217
intervention? 31 The European Parliament 255
‘Asian democracy’ 48
Authoritarian rule as a recipe for economic Boxes
development 57 A full list of boxes is provided in the Appendix.
Preface

This edition retains the purpose of its predeces- and framing’. And the participation chapter now
sors: to provide a wide-ranging, contemporary and covers ‘Social movements’.
clearly written introductory text for courses in The decline in formal political participation in
comparative politics, and for other introductory contemporary democracies is an issue that inter-
courses in politics and political science. We have ests students – and rightly so. This theme features
retained the framework and chapter division used more significantly in Part III, with ‘Turnout’ and a
in the previous edition but we have added 14 new debate topic on compulsory voting added to the
sections and subsections addressing current devel- chapter on elections and voters. Falling party
opments in the subject and the literature. We have membership and its implications are carried
also rewritten many existing sections and revised though to the updated chapter on parties which
the entire book to provide more recent examples now covers both ‘Party membership and finance’
and references; to enhance clarity; and to take and ‘Selecting candidates and leaders’.
account of suggestions from readers and our own We have also strengthened Part IV on the struc-
evolving appreciation of the subject matter.
It might be helpful to outline the thinking B OX P. 1
behind the new sections. In Part I, we have added
‘Nations and states’ to the opening chapter,
New sections and subsections in
seeking to distinguish more sharply between two this edition
concepts that can no longer be presented as a
compound ‘nation-state’. We have restructured Chapter 1 Politics and government
Chapter 2 to present the state in a more historical Nations and states
and global context, with new sections on ‘How Chapter 2 The state in a global context
the state emerged’, ‘The Western state’ and ‘The How the state emerged
post-colonial state’. We hope the changes here The Western state
blend this chapter’s global themes more success- The post-colonial state
fully with the book’s comparative approach, as Chapter 4 Authoritarian rule
recommended by Haynes (2003). Chapter 3 on The Arab and Muslim worlds
authoritarian rule includes extended coverage of China in transition
contemporary authoritarian regimes with a par-
Chapter 6 Political culture
ticular focus (in the light of increased interest
Political trust and social capital
since 9/11) on ‘The Arab and Muslim worlds’. Islam and the West
We have also added ‘China in transition’ not least
to show that authoritarianism is not just a feature Chapter 7 Political communication
of Islamic societies. The material on China, in Reinforcement, agenda-setting and framing
this section and elsewhere, also reflects the Chapter 8 Political participation
country’s growing importance in the world Social movements
economy. Chapter 9 Elections and voters
In Part II, the chapter on political culture now Turnout
includes a section on ‘Political trust and social
Chapter 11 Political parties
capital’ as well as an introduction to cultural
Selecting candidates and leaders
aspects of the relationship between ‘Islam and the Party membership and finance
West’. Within the political communication
chapter, we have extended the material on media Chapter 15 The political executive
impact through ‘Reinforcement, agenda-setting Presidential government: Brazil

x
 PREFACE xi

tures of government, aware that what should be We invite you to visit our website. It supports
the core of the book was in danger of sliding this book specifically and your access to it is free
towards its periphery. In particular, we have added and unrestricted. A major new feature for this
a subsection on presidentialism in Brazil to the edition is an entirely new chapter – only available
chapter on the executive, enabling us to broaden on the website – on comparative political
the discussion of presidential government beyond economy.
the United States. Our classroom experience is We would like to thank our publisher Steven
that student interest in President Lula da Silva can Kennedy and his reviewers for their constructive
be carried though to a broader appreciation of the advice; Keith Povey and Glynis Harris for their
diversity in presidential systems. To reflect recent copy-editing skills; and Tim Flower of Florida
research on the parliamentary executive, we have International University for advising us on recent
also rewritten ‘Minority and coalition govern- changes to the decree powers of the Brazilian pres-
ment’. ident. We would also like to acknowledge a more
We continue in this edition to use as the orga- general debt to the thousands of political scientists
nizing framework within each chapter a three-part who provided the findings and insights on which
division of states into established democracies, this edition, in particular, is based. Without their
new democracies and authoritarian states (see effort, this book could not exist.
Boxes 3.1 and 4.1). Given that most new democ- In all its manifestations, this book has now sold
racies have now survived for a number of years, we well over 100,000 copies. We are grateful for the
have in this edition placed our discussion of them support reflected in this figure and also for the
immediately after the section on established corrections and suggestions provided by the many
democracies. This strikes us as a more intuitive teachers and students around the world who use
sequence. the book. We continue to welcome all feedback,
not least because some errors of fact or interpreta-
tion are bound to have crept into this new edition.
B OX P. 2 Please contact Martin Harrop at
Key features of the website
http://www.palgrave.com/ School of Geography, Politics and Sociology
University of Newcastle
politics/hague Newcastle upon Tyne
England
 An extra comparative political economy chapter NE1 7RU
 Hague and Harrop’s Guide to Comparative Politics
on the internet
e-mail [email protected]
 A searchable bibliography for each chapter
 Chapter summaries
 Essay questions and reading. Rod Hague
Martin Harrop
 xii
11
1 9
4
2 3
12 5

10

Areas featured in Profiles are shaded on map

1 Canada p. 232 4 Germany p. 94 7 Mexico p. 45 10 South Africa p. 213
2 European Union p. 176 5 Italy p. 198 8 Nigeria p. 61 11 United Kingdom p. 261
3 France p. 283 6 Japan p. 305 9 Russia p. 128 12 United States p. 147
World p. 24

Map of the World

Part I
FOUNDATIONS

In this part we set out the foundations of compar- chapters discuss the two main ways of organizing
ative government and politics. Chapter 1 outlines power in the state: democracy (Chapter 3) and
the key concepts of the subject while Chapter 2 authoritarian rule (Chapter 4). In Chapter 5, we
focuses in more detail on the state: its emergence, conclude the part by discussing the comparative
character and alleged crisis. The subsequent approach used in the book.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Politics and government

Politics 3 activity. When the American president and
Government 4 Congress start their annual tussle over the federal
Governance 6 budget, they are clearly engaged in politics. When
The state and sovereignty 7 terrorists crashed hijacked planes into the World
Nations and nationalism 8 Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001, their acts
Nations and states 10 were patently political. The heartland of politics,
Power 12 as represented by such examples, is clear. However,
Authority 13 the boundaries of the political are less precise.
Legitimacy 15 When one country invades another, is it engaged
Key reading 16 in politics or merely in war? Would politics occur
if resources were unlimited? Is politics restricted to

I n this book we examine the organization of poli-

tics in countries around the world. We focus on
how nations solve the core political problem of
governments or can it also be found in families,
universities and even seminar groups?
A crisp definition of politics – one which fits
making collective decisions. But we cannot jump just those things we instinctively call ‘political’ – is
straight into these issues. For just as what impossible. Politics is a term with varied uses and
astronomers ‘see’ in the sky depends on the type of nuances. Perhaps the nearest we can come to a
telescope through which they peer, so too does any capsule statement is this: politics is the activity by
interpretation of politics depend on the concepts which groups reach binding collective decisions
through which we approach the topic. Indeed, in through attempting to reconcile differences among
politics it often seems as though everyone has their their members. Four significant points inhere in
own telescope – and claims that their own instru- this definition (Miller, 1991):
ment is best!
In politics, major concepts remain at the fore-  Politics is a collective activity, involving people
front of discussion in a way that does not normally who accept a common membership or at least
apply to more scientific disciplines. Political acknowledge a shared fate. Robinson Crusoe
analysis is far more than mere opinion; yet even so, could not practise politics.
conclusions vary with the analyst rather more than  Politics presumes an initial diversity of views,
is comfortable for those who advocate a strictly about goals or means or both. Were we in agree-
scientific approach to the subject. Comparative ment all the time, politics would be redundant.
politics, based on a range of countries, is especially  Politics involves reconciling such differences
suited to the task of revealing contrasting perspec- through discussion and persuasion. Communi-
tives on our subject matter. So in this chapter we cation is therefore central to politics.
discuss some central concepts of the discipline, not  Political decisions become authoritative policy
so much to establish ‘correct’ definitions as to for a group, binding members to agreements
introduce our own interpretations. that are implemented by force if necessary.
Politics scarcely exists if decisions are reached
solely by violence, but force, or its threat,
Politics underpins the execution of policy.

To start at the beginning: what is politics? We can The necessity of politics arises from the collec-
easily list, and agree on, some examples of political tive character of human life. We live in groups that

3
4 FOUNDATIONS

must reach collective decisions about sharing Most often a course of action will produce both
resources, about relating to other groups and about winners and losers.
planning for the future. A family discussing where Here we arrive at what is the essence of the
to take its vacation, a country deciding whether to subject: politics is about reaching decisions which
go to war, the world seeking to limit the damage impinge on both the shared and the competing
caused by pollution – all are examples of groups interests of the group’s members. Indeed some
seeking to reach decisions which affect all their authors define political situations as those in which
members. As social creatures, politics is part of our the participants mix common and competing
fate: we have no choice but to practise it. interests. ‘Pure conflict is war’, wrote Laver (1983,
Indeed, the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384– p. 1). ‘Pure cooperation is true love. Politics is a
322 BC) argued that ‘man is by nature a political mixture of both.’
animal’ (1962 edn, p. 28). By this he meant not So one aim of politics is compromise: to reach
just that politics is unavoidable but also that it is an agreement acceptable to all even if the first
the essential human activity, the feature which choice of none. Thus, Crick (2000, p. 21) defines
most sharply separates us from other species. For politics as the ‘activity by which differing interests
Aristotle, people can only express their nature as within a given unit of rule are conciliated by
reasoning, virtuous beings through participating giving them a share in power in proportion to
in a political community. Politics is what we are their importance to the welfare and the survival of
for. their community’. Crick’s definition is somewhat
Of course, members of a group rarely agree, at idealistic; it seems to dismiss the possibility of pol-
least initially, on what plan of action to follow. itics occurring at all in dictatorships. But he is
Even if there is agreement over goals, there may surely right to stress that politics involves (if not
still be a skirmish over means. Yet a decision must exclusively) negotiation, bargaining and compro-
be reached, one way or the other, and once made mise. And the venue for such discussions is gov-
it will commit all the members of the group. Thus ernment.
politics consists in procedures for allowing a range
of views to be expressed and then combined into
an overall decision. As Shively (2002, p. 11) Government
points out,
Groups must not only reach decisions on their
political action may be interpreted as a way to common affairs, they must also work out how
work out rationally the best common solution to their decisions are to be agreed and implemented.
a common problem – or at least a way to work Small groups can often reach agreement by
out a reasonable common solution. That is, poli- informal discussion, without needing to develop
tics consists of public choice. special procedures for decision-making. And their
agreements can be self-executing: those who make
By debating the options, the quality of the final the decision put it into practice themselves.
choice should improve as the participants to the However, these simple mechanisms are impractical
discussion become both better informed and more for large groups, which must develop special insti-
committed to the agreed course of action. In other tutions for making and enforcing collective deci-
words, good politics yields policy which is both sions. By definition, these bodies form the
well-designed and well-executed. government – the arena within which political
But the members of a group share some interests issues are resolved.
but not others. A collective decision will typically Once government reaches a decision, it must be
engage both common and conflicting interests. put into effect. In Easton’s famous definition
Deciding to expand higher education is one thing; (1965a and b), ‘politics is the authoritative alloca-
working out who should pay for it is quite tion of values’. Values are allocated through imple-
another. A decision will affect all, and may even menting decisions, not just by making them. Taxes
benefit all, but not everyone will gain equally. must be raised as well as set; wars must be fought
 POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT 5

and not merely declared. Here we encounter the In addition, government offers the benefits of
harder edge of politics. Public authority – ulti- security and predictability (Peters, 1999). In a
mately, force – is used to implement collective well-governed society, citizens expect laws to be
decisions. If you break the rules, the government durable, or at least not to be changed arbitrarily;
may put you in prison; at any rate, it is the only they know that rules apply to other people as well
body with the authority to do so. The words ‘poli- as to themselves; and they have grounds for
tics’ and ‘police’, it is well worth noting, come expecting that decisions will be enforced fairly. In
from the same root. these ways, government serves as an escape hatch
Further, your government has not explicitly from the gloomy state of nature envisaged by the
asked you whether you would like to abide by its English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes (1588–
laws, pay its taxes or die in its wars. You may have 1679):
played no part in shaping the laws of your country
but you are still expected to abide by them. And Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men
even if you leave one country, you will be subject live without a common power to keep them all
to the government of another. From government in awe, they are in that condition which is called
there is no escape. You cannot – in the contempo- war; and such a war, as is of every man, against
rary world – choose a life without government. every man.
(Hobbes, 1651, p. 100)
Definition
A government consists of institutions respon- Without government, Hobbes continued, the
sible for making collective decisions for society. life of man is ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and
More narrowly, government refers to the top short’. Only when government overcomes the war
political level within such institutions. of all against all, can society – including industry,
science and culture – flourish. Thus government
In popular use, ‘the government’ refers just to creates a framework of settled order within which
the highest level of political appointments: to pres- endeavours such as a free market and a welfare
idents, prime ministers and cabinet members. But state can emerge.
in a broader sense government consists of all orga- Once government is established, it may of
nizations charged with reaching and imple- course have unforeseen consequences. The danger
menting decisions for the community. Thus by of Hobbes’s common power is that it will abuse its
our definition public servants, judges and the own authority, creating more problems than it
police all form part of the government, even solves. As one of Hobbes’s critics pointed out,
though such people are not usually appointed by there is no profit in avoiding the dangers of foxes
political methods such as election. In this broad if the outcome is simply to be devoured by lions
sense, government provides the landscape of insti- (Locke, 1690). This point is one on which the 130
tutions within which we experience public million people murdered by their own govern-
authority. ment during the lethal twentieth century would
Given the special authority of government, why doubtless agree, were they in a position to
should individuals ever agree to cede their comment.
autonomy to such a body? One argument for gov- Further, even when a government does secure
ernment, much favoured by contemporary econo- internal peace, it may simply turn its attention to
mists, is the efficiency gained by establishing a external war. The twentieth century was an era of
standard way of reaching and enforcing decisions. warfare states as well as welfare states. Govern-
If every decision had to be preceded by a separate ment, then, is a two-faced, high-risk enterprise,
agreement on how to reach and apply it, politics offering the rewards of peace but also the danger
would be tiresome indeed. Efficiency gains mean of intensified conflict. Our aim in studying gov-
that people who disagree on what should be done ernment should be to work out how to control
can nonetheless agree on a mechanism for Hobbes’ common power while also securing its
resolving their disagreement. benefits.
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