Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / j vo l g e o r e s

Complex interaction between Strombolian and phreatomagmatic eruptions in the

Quaternary monogenetic volcanism of the Catalan Volcanic Zone (NE of Spain)
Joan Martí a,⁎, Llorenç Planagumà b, Adelina Geyer c, Esther Canal b, Dario Pedrazzi a
a
Institute of Earth Sciences “Jaume Almera”, CSIC, Lluis Solé Sabaris s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
b
Tosca, Environment Services of Education. Casal dels Volcans, Av. Santa Coloma, 17800 Olot, Spain
c
CIMNE, International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Edifice C1, Campus Nord UPC, Gran Capità, s/n, 08034 Barcelona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Catalan Volcanic Zone (CVZ), at the NE of the Iberian peninsula, is one of the Quaternary alkaline volcanic
Received 1 September 2010 provinces of the European rifts system. The CVZ has been active during the last 12 Ma. Despite the fact that
Accepted 11 December 2010 this volcanism is significant in extension and volume, and that eruptions have also occurred in Holocene
Available online 22 December 2010
times, it is mostly unknown compared to the contemporaneous alkaline volcanism in other parts of Western
and Central Europe. Volcanism younger than 0.5 Ma is mostly concentrated in an area of about 100 km2
Keywords:
Catalan Volcanic Zone
located between the main cities of Olot and Girona. This basaltic volcanic field comprises more than 50
monogenetic volcanism monogenetic cones including scoria cones, lava flows, tuff rings, and maars. Magmatic eruptions range from
phreatomagmatism Hawaiian to violent Strombolian. Phreatomagmatism is also common and has contributed to the construction
eruptive sequences of more than a half of these volcanic edifices, frequently associated with the Strombolian activity but also
independently, giving rise to a large variety of eruptive sequences. We describe the main characteristics of this
volcanism and analyse in particular the successions of deposits that form some of these volcanoes and discuss
the potential causes of such a wide diversity of eruptive sequences. We find that the main cause of such
complex eruptive behaviour resides in the stratigraphic, structural and hydrogeological characteristics of the
substrate above which the volcanoes were emplaced, rather than on the compositional characteristics of the
erupting magma, as they do not show significant variations among the different volcanoes studied.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1981, 1983; Wohletz, 1983; Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983; Wohletz and
McQueen, 1984; Wohletz, 1986; Lorenz, 1986, 1987; Zimanowski et al.,
Monogenetic basaltic zones are common in many volcanic 1991; Zimanowski, 1998; Morrisey et al., 2000). In monogenetic basaltic
environments and may develop under very different geodynamic volcanism, phreatomagmatic activity may be related to the interaction of
conditions (Francis, 1993; Connor and Conway, 2000; Walker, 2000). magma with surface and/or ground water, and the style and products of
A particular characteristic of this type of volcanism is the large the resulting eruptions will depend on degassing patterns, magma ascent
diversity of eruptive styles, morphologies and deposits that it may rates and degrees of interaction with external water (Wohletz, 1986;
display despite the usual monotony in magma composition Houghton et al., 1999; Morrisey et al., 2000). Interpretation of deposits,
(Houghton et al., 1999; Connor and Conway, 2000; Parfitt, 2004; including facies analysis, morphometric characterisation of pyroclasts, and
Valentine and Gregg, 2008). Strombolian, violent Strombolian, grain size distribution and component analysis, constitutes the essential
subplinian and even plinian magmatic events are described as tool to identify and reproduce the sequence of events involved in
common in such volcanic environment. More complicated is the phreatomagmatism and to evaluate its potential hazard in case of active
variation in the eruptive styles when magma–water interaction areas (Fisher and Waters, 1970; Heiken, 1971; Lorenz, 1973; Wohletz,
occurs, being this another common feature in many monogenetic 1986; Lorenz, 1986, 1987; Brand and Clarke, 2009; Brand et al., 2009;
volcanic fields (Houghton et al., 1999; White and Houghton, 2000). Sottili et al., 2009).
The physics of phreatomagmatism has been studied in detail since the Although there may exist clear similarities between the eruptive
70 s and this has allowed to obtain several experimental and theoretical activity displayed by different monogenetic volcanic fields, it is also true
models that constrain our understanding of the way in which magma and that important differences may arise when each succession of deposits
external water interact and of the large diversity of deposits that this (i.e.: eruptive sequence) is investigated in detail. These differences may
explosive interaction may generate (Lorenz, 1973; Sheridan and Wohletz, be due to changes in magma composition (e.g.: volatile content), magma
supply rate, local tectonics, distribution and characteristics of aquifers,
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34934095410; fax: +34934110012. etc., from one volcanic field to another (Vespermann and Schmincke,
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Martí). 2000; Walker, 2000). One example of this diversity among monogenetic

0377-0273/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.12.009
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 179

volcanic fields is provided by the Quaternary volcanism developed along them in terms of eruption dynamics, rather than a thorough
the European rifts system (Fig. 1), which includes several volcanic description of the deposits and their interpretation in terms of
provinces all them related to the same geodynamic event but with emplacement mechanisms, which by themselves would deserve a
distinct local tectonics and lithospheric and shallow geological structures separate study. We pay special attention to the diversity of
(Wilson and Downes, 1991, 1992; Downes, 2001). phreatomagmatic episodes that can be recognised in this volcanism
One of the least known and understood regions of the Quaternary and discuss the possible causes for the occurrence of such a large
alkaline volcanism in Europe is the Catalan Volcanic Zone (Martí et al., variety of eruptive sequences in a rather small area and associated
1992) (Fig. 1). The age of this volcanism ranges from N12 Ma to early with a monotonous magma composition.
Holocene and it is mainly represented by alkali basalts and basanites
(Cebriá et al., 2000). Small-sized scoria cones were produced during
monogenetic short-lived eruptions associated with widely dispersed 2. Geological setting of the CVZ and regional stratigraphy
fractures of short lateral extent. Important phreatomagmatic events also
occurred giving rise to a wide diversity of eruptive sequences (Martí and Cenozoic alkaline volcanism is widely distributed along an extensive
Mallarach, 1987). The total volume of extruded magma in each eruption rifts system in central and western Europe, including the Rhenish massif
is relatively small (0.01–0.2 km3), suggesting a relatively low magma and Rhinegraben of Germany, the Massif Central of France, and the
supply rate. western Pannonian Basin in Eastern Europe (Downes, 2001) (Fig. 1). The
In this paper we present an outline of the Quaternary monogenetic causal mechanism(s) of this rifts system is poorly understood. However,
volcanism of the Catalan Volcanic Zone, in which we describe the Hoernle et al. (1995) found that Sr, Nd and Pb isotope data for lavas from
main features of the eruptive activity of this volcanic field. We provide central Europe to the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the western
a general characterisation of the erupted products in order to classify Mediterranean may be explained as the result of mixing between

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Catalan Volcanic Zone and its surroundings (modified from Guérin et al., 1985). In the inset, distribution of the European rifts system. The
studied area is indicated by a squared frame.
180 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

several mantle components, one of which is a low-velocity component further erosion, the substrate varies under each volcano. The oldest unit
(LVC) common to the different regions. we can recognise corresponds to the schist, gneiss, granodiorites and
Probably, the least known episode of Cenozoic alkaline volcanism in granites of Permo-Carboniferous age. This unit is unconformably
Europe is the one related to the Valencia Trough (Martí et al., 1992; Muñoz overlaid by the Eocene Formations that from base to top include: 1)
et al., 2005). The Valencia Trough is a NE–SW oriented Neogene basin the blue marls and gypsum of the Banyoles Formation; 2) the marls and
located between the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic promontory brown sandstones of the Bracons Formation; 3) the red sandstones,
offshore of northeastern Spain (Fig. 1). The Valencia Trough has a complex mudstones, and conglomerates of the Bellmunt Formation; 4) the
geological history. Two main stages of magmatism have been identified glauconite sandstones and conglomerates of the Folgueroles Formation;
(Martí et al., 1992). During Early to Middle Miocene time, the area was and finally 5) the grey sandstones and marls of the Rocacorba Formation.
subjected to compressional tectonics accompanied by calc-alkaline Filling the bottom of the valleys and unconformably lying on the
volcanism. This was followed by a period of extensional tectonics and previous units there are unconsolidated gravels, clay and sands and
mafic alkaline volcanism from middle Miocene to Recent time. The alluvial deposits, which together with lava flows and pyroclastic
greatest concentration of Middle Miocene to Recent volcanism in the products form the Quaternary succession. The Palaeozoic terrains, the
region is found in the Catalan Volcanic Zone (CVZ) at the NE of the Iberian Bellmunt Formation, and the Quaternary deposits constitute the main
peninsula (Fig. 1). Despite the fact that this alkaline volcanism shows aquifers of the area, but the base of the Folgueroles Formation and the
strong similarities with the contemporaneous alkaline magmatism in Banyoles Formation may also act as aquifers in some sectors of the
other parts of Western and Central Europe, it has been poorly studied and studied area.
its significance is still not well understood. The age of the CVZ volcanism is not well constrained. Available
Available data indicate that the mafic volcanic products of the CVZ, like data indicate that volcanic activity started about more than 12 Ma ago
the parental magmas of the cumulate xenoliths, range from strongly silica- and continued till the beginning of the Holocene (Fig. 2). However,
undersaturated to nearly silica-saturated compositions (Araña et al., 1983; stratigraphic relationships suggest that younger eruptive events may
López-Ruiz and Rodriguez-Badiola, 1985; Martí et al., 1992; Cebriá et al., have occurred.
2000). This region comprises a suite of intracontinental leucite basanites,
nepheline basanites and alkali olivine basalts, which in most cases 3. Deposits successions and eruptive sequences
represent primary or nearly primary liquids (Cebriá et al., 2000). The
geochemical characteristics of these lavas are very similar to the analogous The best preserved outcrops of volcanic rocks from the CVZ are found
petrologic types of other Cenozoic volcanics of Europe, which are in La Selva and La Garrotxa sub-zones (Fig. 1). In this area more than 50
intermediate between HIMU mantle, depleted mantle (DM) and enriched well preserved volcanic cones can be recognised, and we have grouped
mantle by mineralised deep fluids (EM1) (Cebriá et al., 2000; Downes, them into two different sectors, one at the north (N sector)
2001). Geochemical and isotopic signatures of magmas suggest the corresponding to the Fluviá river basin, and one at the south (S sector)
participation of at least a sublithospheric component and an enriched coinciding with the Ter river basin (Fig. 3). The main concentration of
lithospheric component with a K-bearing phase in the mantle source volcanic cones corresponds to the N sector, where there are more than
(Martí et al., 1992; Cebriá et al., 2000). Cebriá et al. (2000) proposed a 30 cones, while the S sector contains no more than a dozen of them, but
geochemical model involving the generation of a hybrid mantle includes the largest ones. The substrate on which these monogenetic
lithosphere source produced by the infiltration of the sublithospheric volcanoes stand differs from one sector to the other. At the north the
liquids into enriched domains of the mantle lithosphere, shortly before the volcanic rocks lie on Tertiary sediments while towards the south they
melting event that generated the CVZ lavas. rest in most cases directly on the granites and schists of the Palaeozoic
The area has traditionally been divided into three different sub- basement. In the studied area, volcanic activity occurred sporadically
zones: L'Empordà to the Northeast (N12–8 Ma), La Selva (7.9–1.7 Ma) over a time period ranging from N500,000 to about 11,000 years ago,
to the south and La Garrotxa (0.5–0.01 Ma) to the west (Araña et al., with an eruptive event every 15,000 to 20,000 years (Guérin et al., 1985).
1983; Martí et al., 1992) (Fig. 1). The total volume of extruded magma The most recent activity in the CVZ was characterised by the presence
seems to increase progressively from the early episodes (L'Empordà) of small-sized scoria cones that were produced during short-lived
to the later ones (La Garrotxa). Thus, a progressive and concomitant eruptions associated with widely dispersed fractures of short lateral
increase of the volume of magma generated, as well as an increase in extent. The total volume of extruded magma in each eruption was small
the degree of partial melting, can be observed in the geochemistry of (0.01–0.2 km3 DRE), suggesting that the magma available to feed each
the rocks from the CVZ (Araña et al., 1983; Martí et al., 1992). Some eruption was also very limited. Strombolian and phreatomagmatic
volcanoes of the La Garrotxa sub-zone, contain ultramafic to mafic episodes alternated in most of these eruptions giving rise to complex
xenoliths. The xenoliths comprise pyroxenites, melanogabbros, stratigraphic successions composed of a wide range of pyroclastic
amphibolites and spinel lherzolites, the pyroxenites being the most deposits (Martí and Mallarach, 1987). The eruptive sequences that may
abundant. Pressure and temperature estimates for these xenoliths be deduced from these successions of deposits differ from one cone to
suggest that they may have crystallised in magma chambers located at another and reveal that eruptions did not follow a common pattern,
the crust–mantle boundary (Neumann et al., 1999), which according particularly for what concerns to phreatomagmatic episodes.
to geophysical estimates would be located at a depth of ~30 km All the volcanoes studied were constructed during single eruptions
(Gallart et al., 1984; Fernández et al., 1990; Gallart et al., 1991). These (i.e.: they must be referred to as monogenetic) commonly including
geophysical studies also indicate that the CVZ is characterised by a several distinctive phases. We can consider two groups of volcanic
regionally thinned lithosphere, about 60–70 km thick, by a high edifices depending on whether or not phreatomagmatic activity
elevation and a high thermal gradient, suggesting that the area is contributed to their construction. The volcanoes exclusively derived
affected not only by the topographic load of the Pyrenees but also by from magmatic activity correspond to scoria cones, symmetrical or
the opening of the Valencia trough. The local structure of the area is horseshoe shaped, built by the accumulation of scoria, with occasional
composed of a set of horsts and grabens bounded by a NW–SE system emissions of lava flows. Examples of this type of activity are the
of Neogene normal faults that determines the distribution of volcanoes of Puigalós, Puig de Martinyà, San Marc, Roca Negra, and Puig
volcanism and the fluvial network (Saula et al., 1995). Subià (Fig. 4). Volcanic cones including phreatomagmatic activity are
The lithostratigraphic units that crop out in the studied area and that much more complex, although morphologically they are similar to the
form the substrate above which the volcanic edifices were emplaced scoria ones. They may alternate phreatic phases produced by vapour
correspond to materials of upper Palaeozoic, Eocene and Quaternary age. explosions that only erupted lithic clasts from the substrate, with typical
Due to the Alpine folding, the Neogene normal faulting system, and phreatomagmatic phases that generated a wide diversity of pyroclastic
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 181

Fig. 2. Age of the Catalan Volcanic Zone volcanism (data from Donville, 1976; Araña et al., 1983, and Guérin et al., 1985).

density currents and fallout deposits, with typically Strombolian phases The Croscat and Santa Margarida volcanoes, together with La
including explosive and effusive episodes. The resulting eruptive Pomareda cone, lie on a 3 km long eruption fissure oriented NW–SW
sequences that can be deduced from the successions of deposits show (Figs. 6 and 7). The eruption started at the southern end of the fissure with
substantial variations among the cones, indicating their different a vent opening phreatomagmatic phase that excavated a relatively large
eruptive behaviour. Examples of this type of activity are represented (350 m across and 70 m deep) explosion crater in the Eocene substrate.
by the volcanoes of Santa Margarida, Croscat, Garrinada, Montsacopa, This first explosive episode formed the Santa Margarida crater and
Can Tià and Cairat in the N sector (Fig. 4), and the volcanoes of Puig generated a massive lithic rich pyroclastic flow deposit, only visible on the
d'Adri, Puig de Banya del Boc, Clot de l'Omera, Granollers and Sant eastern flank of the Santa Margarida volcano, and several widespread
Dalmai in the S sector (Figs. 3 and 5). Table 1 summarises the different medium to coarse grained pyroclastic surges, and associated fine-ash
eruptive sequences deduced for the studied volcanoes. We describe in deposits, which covered most of the area forming the unit on which the
the later part some of the most representative examples of the recent Croscat succession built up (Figs. 8 and 9a). This phreatomagmatic phase
CVZ volcanism. was followed by a short Strombolian phase that generated a thin, lithic-
rich, coarse scoria lapilli fallout deposit that overlaid the previous deposits
3.1. Croscat and Santa Mararida volcanoes in the vicinity of the Santa Margarida crater. Immediately after this first
phreatomagmatic phase the eruption progressed along the central and
The Croscat and Santa Margarida volcanoes are located at the northern sectors of the fissure with the extrusion of basaltic magma and
interior of an eroded anticline of Eocene rocks (Figs. 6 and 7). They are generated massive spatter and occasionally rheomorphic, welded scoria
the most representative edifices of the N sector of the studied area. agglomerates, all them forming the first cone-building deposits of Croscat
Despite they have been traditionally considered as two separate and La Pomareda. No more magma was erupted during this and further
volcanoes with independent eruption dynamics (Mallarach, 1982; phases through the Santa Magarida crater.
Martí and Mallarach, 1987), new stratigraphic data reveal that they Later on, the eruption concentrated in the central part of the fissure,
belong to the same eruptive episode. Part of the eruptive sequence of changing from fissural (Hawaiian) to a central conduit (Strombolian)
the Croscat volcano has been investigated in detail by Di Traglia et al. and giving rise to the construction of the rest of the Croscat scoria cone.
(2009) and Cimarelli et al. (2010), who pointed out the transition The Croscat Strombolian activity generated two main scoria fallout units
between different eruptive styles in basaltic monogenetic volcanism (Fig. 8). The lower one conformably overlies the basal spatter and is
and emphasised the role of phreatomagmatism in triggering violent formed by a several metres thick, poorly stratified coarse lapilli size
Strombolian eruptions. However, new data from field work conducted scoria deposit with several scoria bomb beds . The upper unit constitutes
in this study and water boreholes drilled in the vicinity of the Croscat the main volume of the Croscat cone and is formed by a well stratified to
volcano reveal that the eruption history of this volcano is more thinly laminated, medium to fine lapilli size scoria deposit, more than ten
complex than envisaged by Di Traglia et al. (2009) and Cimarelli et al. metres thick that contains sparse scoria bombs and blocks. The upper
(2010), being intimately related to that of its neighbour Santa scoria lapilli unit also forms most of the intermediate to distal outcrops
Margarida volcano (Figs. 7 and 8). towards the east of the volcano, being recognised at distances farther
182 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

Fig. 3. Satellite image of the studied area with indication of N and S sectors described in the text.

than 5 km. It also covers the Pomareda spatter and the phreatomagmatic 10 m. The total volume of magma (DRE) emitted during the Croscat
deposits and the explosion crater of Santa Margarida (Fig. 8). The contact and Santa Margarida eruption is of the order of 0.2 km3.
between the lower and upper scoria lapilli units is clearly marked by a The gradual transition between the phreatomagmatic deposits
change in the internal stratification of the deposits and the grain-size of from the Santa Margarida crater and the Strombolian scoria close to
the scoria clasts. The vesicularity of the scoria lapilli clasts ranges from the vent area indicates that some magma continued erupting for a
57% to 78% and their morphology is mostly characterised by irregular while without interacting with groundwater through the same
shapes with spherical vesicles but woody-shaped, highly vesicular conduit. The absence of paleosoils and erosion surfaces between
stretched scoria fragments are occasionally present in the lower unit. A these phreatomagmatic deposits and the fissure-vent derived scoria
detailed morphoscopic and textural analysis of the Croscat scoria has and spatter that crops out at the base of the Croscat and La Pomareda
been carried out by Di Traglia et al. (2009). successions, indicates that both deposits were emplaced sequentially.
Towards the top the upper scoria lapilli unit is characterised by the This suggests that shortly after the first phreatomagmatic episode
appearance of centimetric-sized lithic clasts from old lavas, which magma migrated through the fissure towards the north–west and
progressively increase in abundance, thus defining a gradual change started to erupt along it forming the spatter deposits. After that,
to the uppermost unit of the Croscat pyroclastic succession. This eruption concentrated at the middle sector of the fissure forming a
transition is also defined by a decrease in the degree of vesicularity of central conduit and gave rise to the construction of the Croscat cone.
the scoria lapilli and the appearance of blocky shaped ash fragments The products from the Croscat Strombolian phase also reached distal
which become predominant at the overlaying unit. These textural and areas to the east mantling the whole Santa Margarida crater and its
compositional characteristics suggest a transition from magmatic to surroundings.
phreatomagmatic activity during the last explosive episodes of the This interpretation differs from that given by Di Traglia et al. (2009)
Croscat eruption, which is also supported by the sedimentological and Cimarelli et al. (2010) who placed the first phreatomagmatic episode
characteristics of the uppermost unit of the Croscat pyroclastic between the two scoria lapilli units of Croscat. According to this, they
succession. This corresponds to a lithic-rich, thinly laminated unit, proposed that the first phreatomagmatic phase occurred during the
of a few metres thick, which extends for several kilometres to the east waning of the scoria cone phase (lower lapilli unit) and suggested that it
changing from planar to cross-bedded stratification from proximal to caused a significant change in the eruption dynamics conditioning the
distal facies (Fig. 9b). The last eruptive phase of Croscat is represented occurrence of a violent Strombolian phase (upper lapilli unit). However, as
by a lava flow the emplacement of which caused the breaching of the explained previously, field and water borehole stratigraphic relationships
western flank of the cone. This lava covered an area of 5 km2 and (Figs. 7 and 8) reveal that the first phreatomagmatic phase preceded the
flowed more than 10 km to the west, with an average thickness of initiation of the construction of the Croscat cone and corresponds to the
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 183

Fig. 4. Simplified geological and structural map of the N sector of the studied area with indication of the location and name of the main volcanic cones.

vent opening phase that originated the Santa Margarida crater, latter size (≤2 to 30 cm) of Eocene red sandstones, with an interbedded ash
mantled by the Croscat scoria (Fig. 8). layer at the upper part. The number of lithics increases gradually towards
the top of the deposit, thus suggesting the initiation of a new
3.2. Can Tià phreatomagmatic phase. The uppermost unit of the succession shows
a planar contact with the underlying scoria lapilli and corresponds to a
It forms part of the group of three cones (Fontpobra, Tuta de Colltort, massive pyroclastic flow deposit, up to 3 m thick, which contains
and Can Tià) that are located close to the scarp formed by the western abundant Eocene lithic clasts and highly vesicular scoria lapilli
margin of the eroded Eocene anticline (Figs. 4 and 7). The Can Tià fragments, all them surrounded by a lithic-rich, ash matrix nearly
volcano corresponds to a maar-type construction, with a crater of 270 m completely transformed into clay minerals, zeolites and iron oxides.
in diameter and 20 m deep that shows a flat bottom. It is asymmetrical The succession of deposits observed in this volcano reveals how the
showing a higher rim sector towards the south. The stratigraphic explosive activity initiated with a short explosive event, probably of
succession of this volcano is only composed of pyroclastic deposits. It phreatomagmatic nature according to the composition of the resulting
includes four different units from base to top (Fig. 8). The lower unit deposit. Then, the eruption immediately changed into magmatic (second
corresponds to a 10 cm thick deposit composed of small (b1 cm) and third units), and again into phreatomagmatic (upper part of third
juvenile and lithic clasts in an ashy matrix, which rests unconformably unit and fourth unit). The succession of deposits and the distribution of
on a palaeosoil. The second unit is formed by a poorly stratified, non- lithics reveal that the first change in the eruptive behaviour (from
welded, highly vesicular scoria lapilli deposit, up to 6 m thick, which phreatomagmatic to magmatic) was abrupt but the second one (from
contains a few lithic clasts, some of block size. The third unit conformably magmatic to phreatomagmatic) was gradual. Also, the nature of the lithic
overlies the previous one and is a 1.5 m thick thinly laminated, well clasts found in these deposits clearly indicates a variation in the position
sorted, fine-grained scoria lapilli deposit rich in lithic clasts of variable of the fragmentation level during the course of the eruption and provide
184 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

Fig. 5. Simplified geological and structural map of the northern side of the S sector of the studied area with indication of the location and name of the main volcanic cones.

the clues to understand the dynamics of this eruption (see Discussion). proportion. The third unit is characterised by the progressive appearance
Although all the lithic clasts found correspond to Eocene rocks that form again of red sandstone lithic clasts belonging to the Bellmunt Formation,
the substrate below Can Tià volcano, they concentrate differently located deeper in the stratigraphic sequence of the area. These lithic
depending on each phase of the eruption. The first unit contains mostly clasts become clearly predominant towards the top of this unit and
lithics from the Bellmunt Formation, which constitutes the main aquifer constitute the main lithic fraction of the fourth unit, which represents the
in the area and is located at about 300 m below the surface. The lithic culmination of the second phreatomagmatic phase and marks the end of
clasts found at the base of the second unit are grey sandstones from the the eruption.
Rocacorba Formation, the uppermost stratigraphic unit in this sector of
the studied zone. Towards the upper part of this unit lithics of brown 3.3. Cairat
sandstones from the Folgueroles Formation appear in a significant
The Cairat volcano is located on the eastern flank of the eroded
Eocene anticline that limits the Olot depression at the north–east
Table 1
Diversity of eruption sequences deduced from the deposit successions of the studied (Fig. 7). The Cairat is a maar-type volcano with a crater of 120 m of
volcanoes. diameter excavated in the Eocene substrate. It is one of the few
examples in the studied area nearly exclusively composed of
Volcano type Eruptive sequence (from beginning to the end)
phreatomagmatic deposits. The pyroclastic deposits that form this
Puig d'Adri Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian–Phreatomagmatic– volcanic edifice were preferentially emplaced to the north and south
Strombolian–Hawaiian
of the crater. The characteristics of the deposits and the nature of the
Crosa de Sant Dalmai Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian–
Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian abundant lithic clasts they content suggest that most of the eruptive
Santa Margarida–Croscat Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian– activity of the Cairat volcano involved interaction of the erupting
Phreatomagmatic–Hawaiian magma with groundwater from the main Eocene aquifer (Martí and
Garrinada Hawaiian–Strombolian–Phreatomagmatic–Hawaiian
Mallarach, 1987). The succession of pyroclastic deposits of the Cairat
Can Tia Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian–Phreatomagmatic
Montsacopa Hawaiian–Strombolian–Phreatomagmatic
volcano is composed of a 20 m thick succession of lithic rich explosion
Puig de Banya de Boc Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian–Hawaiian breccias and lapilli-sized fallout, and pyroclastic surge deposits
Cairat Phreatomagmatic–Strombolian (Fig. 9c and d)). The main characteristic of this succession of deposits
Clot de l'Omera Phreatomagmatic is the presence of abundant lithic clasts from the Eocene basement,
Roca Negra Strombolian
which in this area is formed (from top to base) by the Banyoles
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 185

Fig. 6. Panorama of the N sector with indication of the main volcanic cones and morphological features.

Formation (blue marls), the Bracons Formation (grey sandstones and differences between the Montsacopa and Garrinada successions of
lutites), and the Bellmunt Formation (red sandstones and lutites). deposits, which clearly indicate the existence of different eruptive
These lithic clasts range in size from a few centimetres up to 2 m. pulses in each phase of these eruptions, both show a similar general
Although the distribution of the largest blocks is rather irregular they behaviour for what concerns to magma/water interaction. In both
tend to concentrate towards the base of the sequence and in some cases the eruption started and progressed for a while being purely
lithic-rich units in the middle and upper parts. Some of the lithics magmatic. However at about the middle of the eruption in the case of
from the Bellmunt Formation are deeply hydrothermally altered. the Garrinada volcano, and towards the end of it in the case of the
Juvenile fragments are less abundant than lithic clasts and correspond Monstacopa volcano, the eruptions changed into phreatomagmatic
to poorly vesicular scoria lapilli, a few cauliflower bombs, and blocky due to the interaction of magma with a shallow aquifer located in the
shaped ash fragments. Quaternary unconsolidated sediments, as it is evidenced in both cases
The eruptive activity of the Cairat volcano mostly produced lithic by the characteristics of the resulting deposits and the nature of the
breccias, with a massive emplacement of ballistic blocks, and some more lithic clasts included (Gisbert et al., 2009). This phreatomagmatic
energetic episodes that generated thinly bedded, pyroclastic density activity produced in both cases several lithic-rich explosion breccias,
currents. The location of the vent at a hill's crest, with steep slopes at both and pyroclastic density current deposits that represent different
sides, conditioned the accumulation of volcanic materials which were magma/water ratios (Gisbert et al., 2009). Montsacopa ended its
affected by continuous sliding until they redeposited on a more stable eruption with this explosive activity. However, the Garrinada volcano
slope. This implied a continuous syn-depositional remobilisation of the returned to the magmatic activity with the emission of several lava
original pyroclastic products deposited on the highest parts. At the flows, not identified by Gisbert et al. (2009).
northern side the products of this continuous debris avalanching were
channelised inside a pre-existing gully where they eroded and 3.5. Clot de l'Omera and Puig de Banya del Boc
incorporated part of the non-volcanic sediments that existed there.
This also contributed to the large variety of lithic fragments found in These two volcanoes are located at the S sector of the studied area
these pyroclastic deposits and the chaotic aspect of some of the units. (Figs. 5 and 10) and were originated during the same eruption. Puig de
However, it is still surprising the relative significant amount of lithics Banya del Boc is located on a normal fault that puts in contact Tertiary
from the Bracons and Banyoles formations, both older and located sediments with Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks (Fig. 5). It corresponds to a
stratigraphically deeper than the Bellmunt Formation, the stratigraphic cone 120 m high with an elliptical crater and rests in part on Palaeozoic
unit that constitutes the main aquifer in this area. The reason for the metamorphic rocks. Magmatic and phreatomagmatic eruptive phases
appearance in the deposits of this volcano of lithic clasts from occurred during the construction of this volcano (Fig. 10). A vent opening
stratigraphic levels located below the aquifer that interacted with the phreatomagmatic phase characterised the onset of the eruption and
erupting magma is purely tectonic, as in this particular site the action of generated a lithic-rich explosion breccia irregularly distributed and rich in
an Alpine thrust caused the inversion of the stratigraphic succession . Paleozoic fragments. Overlying this breccia there is a 3 m thick succession
of thinly bedded, fine to coarse grained pyroclastic surge deposits that
3.4. Garrinada and Montsacopa volcanoes show characteristic high energy bedforms such as dunes and antidunes
(Fig. 9e and f). These pyroclastic surges were radially emplaced around the
Garrinada and Montsacopa volcanoes are located in the city of Olot vent before being channelised into the main gullies close to the volcano.
and, together with Montolivet (Fig. 4), form a looking/seeming oriented This phreatomagmatic phase ended with the emplacement of an up to
alignment of cones following a NE–SW direction. The tree cones do not 20 m thick massive pyroclastic flow deposit, rich in Paleozoic lithic
belong to the same eruption but correspond to three eruptive events fragments, poorly vesicular juvenile scoria lapilli, and cauliflower bombs.
separated one from the other by several thousands of years. In all cases The eruption continued with a magmatic phase that generated the cone-
the eruptive fissures that controlled the eruption of basaltic magma building scoria lapilli deposit that formed most of the Puig de Banya del
were oriented NW–SE, so that the structural alignment that the three Boc cone, covering most of the phreatomagmatic deposits which did not
cones seems to define does not correspond to any tectonic feature. form any positive relief. This Strombolian scoria lapilli deposit is rich in
While Montolivet volcano was entirely constructed by purely peridotitic mantle nodules and granitic xenoliths. The eruption ended
magmatic activity, Garrinada and Montsacopa show a similar with the emission of three lava flows emplaced towards de north and
sequence involving a Strombolian phase at the beginning and a south of the volcano.
phreatomagmatic one at the end (Fig. 7). The Garrinada volcano has The Clot de l'Omera volcano originated on a conjugate fault of the
been studied by Gisbert et al. (2009) who have carried out a detailed main one on which the Puig the Banya del Boc formed and which only
analysis of its deposits and eruption sequence. Despite obvious affects Paleozoic terrains (Fig. 5). It is a maar-type volcano with an
186 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

Fig. 7. Synthetic stratigraphic sections of the volcanoes studied at the N sector. All the stratigraphic logs have been obtained using new field data. In the case of the Croscat–Santa
Margarida stratigraphic section we have been able to use unpublished data from water boreholes provided by the Natural Park of La Garrotxa Volcanoes.

elliptical crater of 550 by 450 m and 20 m deep that was entirely towards the south (Fig. 5). The construction of the Puig d'Adri volcano
excavated in the Palaeozoic basement. The external slopes are rather involved the superposition of three volcanic edifices, starting with the
gentle but the internal border is very steep. The succession of deposits formation of a tuff-ring of 850 m in diameter, followed with the
that form this volcanic edifice is composed of a 15 m thick alternation development at the western side of the tuff-ring of a scoria cone of small
of lithic-rich pyroclastic surge deposits and explosion breccias, which dimensions, and ending with the construction of a new scoria cone that
show an asymmetric distribution having the maximum thickness formed the main relief of the volcano and covered most of the previous
towards the south. It represents a single phreatomagmatic eruptive structures.
episode that occurred at the same time than the phreatomagmatic The Puig d'Adri volcano shows one of the most complex eruption
phase of the Puig de Banya del Boc volcano. sequences of the CVZ, which includes five different eruption phases. The
eruption started with a phreatomagmatic event that generated an
3.6. Puig d'Adri irregularly distributed deposit of lithic-rich explosion breccia and a
succession of lithic-rich pyroclastic surges which were emplaced towards
This volcano is located on the Adri normal fault, which puts in contact the south–east flowing for more than 5 km from the vent following the
Palaeocene and Eocene materials and is buried by Neogene sediments main gullies. This initial explosive phase was immediately followed by a
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 187

Fig. 8. Geological cross-section of the Croscat and Santa Margarida volcanoes. Note that the phreatomagmatic deposits (pyroclastic surges and phreatomagmatic ash) resulting from
the vent opening phase of the Santa Margarida volcano appear below the Croscat pyroclastic succession, and how the Croscat scoria mantles the Santa Margarida crater and products.

short Strombolian episode that generated a scoria lapilli deposit with 1 m. The breccia deposits that appear at the base and top of the first and
limited extend. The eruption activity returned to phreatomagmatic with second phreatomagmatic phases, respectively, are characterised by the
higher intensity than the previous phase, generating a new succession of presence of large angular lithic clasts of the same composition than those
pyroclastic surge deposits similar to the former one, explosion breccias, from the pyroclastic surges, and of a smaller proportion of juvenile scoria
and a pyroclastic flow deposit that flowed for more than 3 km towards fragments of coarse lapilli size and sparse cauliflower bombs. These
the south inside the course of the Canet river (Fig. 9i and j). Most of the deposits do not show internal stratification and their spatial distribution
tuff-ring structure was constructed during this second phreatomagmatic is rather irregular around the proximal areas. The pyroclastic flow
episode. The eruption continued with a sustained Strombolian phase that deposit is similar to those found in other volcanoes of the studied area
generated a widespread scoria lapilli deposit around the main vent (Puig de Banya de Boc, Garrinada, Arcs, etc.) (Martí and Mallarach, 1987)
covering most of the proximal phreatomagmatic products and giving rise and consists of large lithic clasts of Eocene rocks, up to 1 m in diameter,
to the construction of the main scoria cone. The eruption ended with an and decimetric highly to poorly vesicular scoria fragments, and few
effusive phase that generated two lava flows that caused the breaching of cauliflower bombs in an abundant fine-grained matrix composed of
the north-western flank of the scoria cone. One of the lavas flowed for small lithics and juvenile clasts, which has been mostly transformed into
more than 12 km towards the south (Fig. 5). clay aggregates, zeolites, and iron oxides. Lithic clasts tend to show
Most of the lithic clasts in the phreatomagmatic deposits of the Puig normal grading while the largest juvenile fragments show reverse
d'Adri volcano correspond to red sandstones and marls of the Eocene grading. The deposit is composed of several flow units separated by
Bellmunt Formation, indicating once again the significance of such unit planar contacts, being each unit internally massive. The deposit reaches a
as aquifer at a regional level. This stratigraphic unit is located several maximum thickness of 20 m. A particular characteristic of this
hundred metres below Puig d'Adri. The size of the lithic fragments varies pyroclastic flow deposit is the presence a crude, large-scale (up to 5 m
depending on the deposit. In the pyroclastic surges such clasts are of across) columnar jointing, which allowed the vertical erosion of the
millimetric to centimetric size while in the explosion breccias and the deposit by pervasive infiltration of meteoric water along the columnar
pyroclastic flow deposit they may reach several tens of centimetres joints (Fig. 9j).
across. Juvenile fragments of basaltic composition are also present in
variable proportions and sizes in these deposits. They include poorly- 3.7. Crosa de Sant Dalmai
vesicular, fine to coarse grained scoria lapilli and blocky shaped ash
fragments in all pyroclastic density current deposits, but also cauliflower This maar volcano is located at the boundary between La Selva tectonic
bombs in the pyroclastic flow and the explosion breccias. This size and depression, replenished with Pliocene and Quaternary sediments, and the
content variation of the lithic and juvenile clasts suggest different Transversal chain formed by Palaeozoic granites and metamorphic rocks
degrees of fragmentation and a variable magma/water ratio during these (Figs. 1 and 11). It is mostly composed of phreatomagmatic deposits
phreatomagmatic episodes. The Puig D'adri pyroclastic surge deposits which form a circular tuff-ring around a shallow crater of 1250 m in
are well stratified, thinly laminated and show high energy sedimentary diameter. The tuff-ring is asymmetrical, being higher at the west
structures (Fig. 9g and h), and are somewhat consolidated due to post- (maximum height of 50 m), where the internal and external slopes are
emplacement alteration of the juvenile fragments. The total thickness of also steeper, than at the east (maximum high of 30 m). Also, the deposits
the surge successions may reach 2 m in some points but it is usually up to surrounding the rim show a wider distribution towards the east (Fig. 11).
188 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 189

Fig. 10. Synthetic stratigraphic sections of the volcanoes studied at the S sector.

Fig. 9. Field photographs of pyroclastic deposits from the studied volcanoes: a) Lithic-rich pyroclastic flow deposit forming the base of the sequence at Santa Margarida volcano. This
deposit is conformably overlaid (contact is indicated by a discontinuous black line) by a lithic-rich Strombolian lapilli deposit that represents the last erupted product from the Santa
Margarida crater. b) Distal facies of the pyroclastic surge deposits corresponding to the phreatomagmatic phase that marks the end of the explosive activity at the Croscat volcano. c)
Example of a lithic-rich explosion breccia with some interbedded lithic-rich basaltic scoria horizons from the Cairat volcano. d) Well stratified alternance of explosion breccias and
lithic-rich pyroclastic surge deposits from the Cairat volcano. e) Close view of a dry pyroclastic surge deposit showing cross-bedding from the Banya del Boc volcano. f) Alternation of
well stratified wet and dry pyroclastic surge deposits. Note the presence of soft-sediment deformation and ballistic impacts on one of the wet deposits. g) Detail of a succession of fine
and coarse grained pyroclastic surge deposits from the first phreatomagmatic phase at the Puig d'Adri volcano showing a well defined planar bedding. On top of these deposits and in
stratigraphic continuity there is a lithic-rich Strombolian lapilli deposit. h) Detail of a strongly indurated pyroclastic surge deposit from the second phreatomagmatic phase at the
Puig d'Adri volcano showing a marked wave form at the base. i) Close view of the lithic-rich facies found at the base of a pyroclastic flow unit from the Puig d'Adri volcano. j) Detail of
the pyroclastic flow deposits from the Puig d'Adri volcano emplaced into the course of the Canet river, showing large-scale (up to 5 m across) columnar jointing, which allowed the
vertical erosion of the deposit by pervasive infiltration of meteoric water along the columnar joints.
190 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

Fig. 11. Simplified geological map of the Crosa de Sant Dalmai volcano (modified from Martí et al., 1986).

The age of this volcano is not well constrained. Although it is localised in deposits are always angular and may constitute up to 80% of the
the la Selva sector (Figs. 1 and 2) where most of the outcropping volcanic deposit. The juvenile clasts are of basaltic composition and lapilli size,
rocks have ages older than 2 Ma (Araña et al., 1983), it is evident from the and are typically poorly vesicular except the scoria lapilli fragments that
state of preservation of its morphology and juvenile components that the form the Strombolian deposit in the middle of the succession, which are
Crosa de Sant Dalmai volcano must be much younger. highly vesiculated as well as the ones that form the inner scoria cone.
The succession of deposits that form the Crosa de Sant Dalmai shows The presence of mantle derived nodules and inclusions is common in
the same stratigraphy all around the tuff-ring, thus suggesting that the juvenile fragments, thus suggesting a rapid ascent of magma from
most of them were radially distributed from the vent. They reached the source/storage region.
distances of nearly 4 km towards the east and only of a few hundred
metres towards the west. This asymmetrical distribution of the deposits 4. Discussion
seems to be related to different strength of the rocks that form the
substrate at each side below the volcano. At the east the substrate As it has been described in the previous section, the successions of
corresponds to unconsolidated Pliocene and Quaternary gravels, pyroclastic deposits at the youngest volcanoes of the CVZ suggest the
whereas toward the west the substrate is formed by Palaeozoic granites existence of diverse eruptive sequences characterising the eruptive
and schists. This difference in rock strength may have played a major activity of this monogenetic volcanic field (Table 1). This contrasts with
role during the eruption making it easier to excavate towards the the relative compositional monotony of the magmas (alkali basalts and
eastern side in each explosion (Martí et al., 1986). The lowermost unit basanites) involved. The physico-chemical characteristics, also including
of the succession of deposits of the Crosa de Sant Dalmai volcano is not the degree of vesicularity and crystallisation, of the CVZ magmas are very
fully exposed and corresponds to N1 m thick coarse lithic-rich breccia similar in most of the studied volcanoes. They mainly correspond to
with blocks up to 70 cm in diameter of granites and schists with leucite basanites, nepheline basanites and alkali olivine basalts, with a
subordinate scoria lapilli and cauliflower bombs. Above it there is a phenocrysts (olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase) content up to 12%, with
uniform sequence composed of 22 alternating units of lithic-rich an aphiric to microcrystalline or microlitic groundmass, and a total water
explosion breccia deposits and crudely stratified, coarse-grained content up to 1.5% (Cebriá et al., 2000). The vesicularity of juvenile clasts
pyroclastic surge deposits (Figs. 10 and 12). The next unit in the in pure Strombolian deposits typically ranges between 65 and 85% in
stratigraphic succession corresponds to a 1 m thick Strombolian, non- most cases, and it may decrease till less than 40% in the phreatomagmatic
welded scoria lapilli deposit, which is followed by six more alternating ones. Ascent velocities of the order of 0.2 m/s were calculated using the
units of lithic-rich breccia and pyroclastic surges. The eruption ended presence of large mantle derived nodules and lower crust xenoliths in
with a new Strombolian episode from a new vent opened at the interior some of these volcanoes (Martí et al., 1992). Densities in the range of 2.70
of the maar, which formed a small scoria cone and a lava flow emplaced to 2.87 g/cm3 and typical viscosities of the order of 10–102 Pa s have been
inside the maar. The lithic clasts contained in the phreatomagmatic calculated using standard methods based on crystal content and rock
 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193 191

Fig. 12. Field photograph of the alternating lithic-rich explosion breccias and pyroclastic surge deposits that form most of the stratigraphic succession of the Crosa de Sant Dalmai volcano.

composition and assuming temperatures of the order of 1200–1300 °C. For example, the eruptive sequence deduced for the Croscat–Santa
Despite some variations in the dynamics of the magmatic episodes may Margarida volcanoes reveals how complex monogenetic volcanism
be attributed to changes in magma flow conditions related to changes in may be when phreatomagmatic episodes alternate with pure
crystallinity and vesicularity (gas content) of the erupting magma magmatic ones. In addition, in this particular case, eruption changed
(Cimarelli et al., 2010), it is obvious that variations in magma physics is from a localised vent at the beginning, to a fissural vent and again to a
not the main reason to account for the large diversity of eruption central vent different from the first one. The phreatomagmatic events
sequences recorded in the CVZ when we also take into account the that we have identified at the beginning and at the end of the
phreatomagmatic episodes. explosive activity in this eruption correspond, respectively, to the
In fact, as it can be deduced from the successions of deposits interaction of the erupting magma with two different aquifers. The
observed in each volcano, differences in eruptive behaviour are first phreatomagmatic episode, which corresponds to the Santa
related in many cases to the occasional interaction of the ascending Margarida vent opening phase, was caused by the interaction of the
magma with groundwater. Magma/water interaction is, thus, the ascending magma with the Eocene aquifer located at about 250 m of
main reason why a large number of these volcanoes significantly depth below the paleosurface, as it is suggested by the abundance of
deviate from the typical Hawaiian–Strombolian behaviour that lithic clasts of such lithology. The second phreatomagmatic event, at
characterise some of them and monogenetic basaltic volcanoes in the end of the explosive activity of Croscat, occurred by the interaction
general. The way and timing in which such magma/water interaction of the erupting magma with a shallow aquifer installed in Quaternary
occurred during the course of the CVZ eruptions may differ unconsolidated deposits and lavas from previous eruptions.
considerably from one volcano to other. This contrasts with other The Can Tià eruptive sequence also illustrates a situation in which
monogenetic volcanic fields where eruptions seem to follow a more magma/water interaction occurred at different stages of the eruption,
general pattern (Houghton et al., 1999; Valentine and Gregg, 2008; but in this case in the same aquifer. In the first phreatomagmatic
Brand and Clarke, 2009; Brand et al., 2009; Clarke et al., 2009; Sottili phase magma/water interaction occurred by invasion of the Eocene
et al., 2009). In the present case, the large diversity of eruption aquifer by the ascending magma. As magma pressure in the conduit
sequences observed should be explained by variations in the was still high enough to cross the aquifer and to avoid a massive
stratigraphy and structure of the substrate beneath each volcano interaction of water with magma, this was short and volumetrically
and the hydraulic characteristics of each aquifer. small. Magma ascended to shallower levels, probably using other
Two main sedimentary aquifers have interacted with CVZ magmas parts of the same eruptive fissure, and continued its decompression
causing such a wide variety of phreatomagmatic episodes and eruptive and consequent fragmentation without interacting with groundwa-
sequences. One aquifer is located at an average depth of a few hundred ter. As eruption progressed during this Strombolian phase magma
meters below the volcanic cones, while the other is much shallower, just pressure decreased progressively in the conduit causing the progres-
a few tens of metres below the surface. The deep aquifer corresponds to sive deepening of the fragmentation level. Groundwater from the
Eocene continental sediments, known as the Bellmunt Formation, Eocene aquifer interacted again with magma when its pressure was
composed of conglomerates, feldspar-rich sandstones and red mud- higher than that of magma in the conduit, thus indicating that the
stones, and the shallow aquifer corresponds to volcanic and alluvial magma column was already significantly vesiculated or fragmented.
deposits of Quaternary age, mostly formed by unconsolidated gravels, However, as it is indicated by the progressive appearance of lithics in
sands and clays and volcanic products (lavas and pyroclasts) from the lapilli deposit this was a gradual process, till the pressure
former eruptions. There is also a third aquifer that has played a difference reached a threshold in which the entrance of water into
significant role in some of the most important eruptions (Puig de Banya the magma conduit became massive. This caused an increase in
del Boc and Crosa de Sant Dalmai), which corresponds to the highly explosivity and the sudden enlargement (by erosion) of the conduit,
fractured (granites and schists) Palaeozoic rocks. The depth of this last and a subsequent increase in the eruption rate. The erupted mixture of
aquifer varies depending on the local structure in each area but it may be relatively cold lithics and fragmented magma was too dense and cold
a few hundred metres deep or shallower. to be sustained by an eruption column and immediately collapsed on
192 J. Martí et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 201 (2011) 178–193

the vent forming a poorly expanded pyroclastic flow. Eruption could addition to magma physics and chemistry, the geology of the substrate
end either because magma supply stopped or because the conduit below the monogenetic volcanic fields in order to understand potential
collapsed and blocked. eruption mechanisms when groundwater may be present. The large
Another interesting example of the variation in the eruption diversity of eruptive sequences deduced in the CVZ reveal that most of
dynamics that can be offered by two close volcanoes corresponds to the variables that have controlled them depend on the local geology
the Clot the l'Omera and Puig de Banya de Boc volcanoes. The rather than on magma composition, crystal content, vesiculation and
phreatomagmatic activity that characterises the eruption of the Clot fragmentation prior to explosive interaction with groundwater, which
de l'Olmera volcano and the first eruptive episodes of the Puig de do not change significantly among the cases studied in this paper. This is
Banya del Boc volcano, and the sole presence of Palaeozoic lithic particularly relevant when we try to conduct hazard assessment in these
fragments in their deposits, indicate that there was an important areas. In addition to the initial problem that is usually imposed by the
aquifer in the metamorphic rocks that form the substrate of these lack of a precise geochronology in long lived volcanic fields, we need to
volcanoes. The synchronicity of both eruptions and the different consider the wide variety of potential eruptive scenarios that may occur,
erupted products generated in both phreatomagmatic phases suggest as it is the case in the CVZ. Phreatomagmatism is traditionally considered
that the aquifer was intersected at the same time by the ascending unpredictable mainly because the hydrological characteristics of the
magma in two different points of the same eruptive fissure and that terrain are not always well known. Magma/water interaction increases
the resulting magma/water interaction changed from one point to explosivity and may significantly alter the course of a magmatic eruption
other. In the Puig de Banya del Boc the magma/water ratio increased giving rise to the appearance of more hazardous phenomena. The
during its phreatomagmatic episode passing from the generation of example of the CVZ illustrates quite well this relevant aspect of
dry pyroclastic surges to that of a wet pyroclastic flow. However, in phreatomagmatism, but also that having a good knowledge of the
the Clot de l'Omera the alternation of dry pyroclastic surges and geology and hydrogeology of the substrate it may not be so
explosion breccias suggest a pulsating sequence of phreatomagmatic unpredictable.
explosions in which magma/water interaction was intermittent but
with more or less the same ratio in each explosion.
5. Conclusions
In this sample of different eruptive behaviours it is also relevant to
mention the eruption of Puig d'Adri volcano that, in a similar way than in
We have presented the main characteristics of the youngest volcanic
the Santa Margarida and Can Tià volcanoes, it also initiated with a
episodes of the Catalan Volcanic Zone, a Quaternary alkaline volcanic
phreatomagmatic event triggered when the ascending basaltic magma
province of the European rifts system. In this monogenetic volcanic field
interacted with a relatively deep aquifer. This first magma/water
we have recognised more than 50 well preserved volcanic edifices, in
interaction episode suddenly stopped giving rise to a short Strombolian
most of which purely magmatic episodes (Hawaiian to violent Strombo-
episode that generated a restricted fallout scoria lapilli deposit, which
lian) alternated with phreatomagmatic ones, giving rise to a large variety
started as purely magmatic and gradually incorporated an increasing
of eruptive sequences and corresponding successions of deposits. We
amount of lithics of Eocene rocks. This represents another example, as
conclude that the diversity of eruptive sequences deduced reveal that the
Can Tià and Croscat, of a progressive interaction of magma with an
main cause of such complex eruptive behaviour resides in the
aquifer. In this case the magma/water interaction occurred in the Eocene
stratigraphic, structural and hydrogeological characteristics of the
aquifer and increased progressively until giving rise to a new
substrate above which the volcanoes were emplaced, rather than on
phreatomagmatic event. This was marked by the eruption of a new
changes of magma composition, crystal content, vesiculation and
series of pyroclastic surges and a final pyroclastic flow, which represents
fragmentation prior to explosive interaction with groundwater.
the culmination of the magma/water interaction in Puig d'Adri volcano,
and after which the eruption continued as purely magmatic.
Finally, the eruption of the Crosa de Sant Dalmai volcano is a classical Acknowledgements
example of phreatomagmatism caused by the interaction of the ascending
magma with a shallow aquifer. In this case the aquifer was probably We thank the Natural Park of the La Garrotxa Volcanic Zone and its
installed into the Quaternary unconsolidated sediments but it may have staff to allow us to undertake this research and for all the support we
been also a significant contribution from a second aquifer installed into the have always received from them. A. Geyer is grateful for her Beatriu de
fragmented Palaeozoic rocks, as it is suggested by the abundance of Pinó́s post-doctoral fellowship 2008BPB00318. Constructive reviews
angular lithic fragments of these lithologies. Magma supply was by Danillo Palladino, Karoly Nemeth and an anonymous reviewer are
continuous during the whole eruption but the amount of water available greatly appreciated.
was not constant, as it is indicated by the variations of the proportions of
lithics and juvenile fragments in the resulting deposits and the presence of References
pure Strombolian phases at the middle and end of the eruption.
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