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Reviews in Modern Astronomy

16
Further ‘l3tles in Astronomy
Holliday, K. Diver, D.
Introductory Astronomy A Plasma Formulary for Physics,
1998,314pages, Softcover. Technology and Astrophysics
ISBN 0-471-98332-2 2001,204 pages, Hardcover.
ISBN 3-527-40294-2
Liddle, A.
An Indroduction to Modem Plait, PC
Cosmology Bad Astronomy - Misconceptions &
2003,192 pages, Soft- and Hardcover. Misuses Revealed
ISBN 0-470-84835-9 SC from Astrology to the Moon Landing
ISBN 0-470-84834-0HC “Hoax”
2002,288 pages, Softcover.
Coles, l? I Lucchin, F. ISBN 0-471-40796-6
Cosmology, 2nd edition
2002,552 pages, Hardcover. Maran
ISBN 0-471-48909-3 Astronomy For Dummies
1999,360pages, Softcover.
Mark, H. ISBN 0-7645-5155-8
Enyclopedia of Space Science and
Technology MochC, D. L.
2003,1258 pages, Hardcover. A Self-Teaching Guide
ISBN 0-471-32408-6 5th edition
2000, XII, 352 pages, Softcover.
Shore, S. ISBN 0-471-38353-8
The Tapestry of Modem
Astrophysics ScientificAmerican I Carlson, S.
2002,888 pages, Hardcover. (eds.)
ISBN 0-471-16816-5 The Amateur Astronomer
2001, XIV, 272 pages, Softcover.
Foukal, P. ISBN 0-471-38282-5
Solar Astrophysics, 2nd edition
October 2003, approx. 475 pages Schielicke,R. E. (Ed.)
ISBN 3-527-40374-4 Reviews in Modern Astronomy 15
JENAM 2001:Astronomy with Large
Weigert, A. I Wendker, H. J. I Telescopes from Ground and Space
Wisotzki, L. 2002, X, 294 pages, Hardcover.
Astronomie und Astrophysik. ISBN 3-527-40404-X
Ein Grundkurs
4th edition,Textbook
January 2004, approx. 380 pages, Astronomische Nachrichten I
Softcover. Astronomical Notes
ISBN 3-527-358-2 ISSN 0004-6337
Reinhard E. Schielicke (Ed.)

Reviews in
Modern Astronomy 16
The Cosmic Circuit of Matter

WILEY-
VCH
WILEY-VCH CmbH & Co.
Edited on behalf of the Asfronomische Gesellschafrby
Dr. Reinhard E. Schielicke
Universitats-Sternwarte Jena
SchillergaBchen 2, D-07745 Jena
Germany

This book was carefullyproduced. Nevertheless,author and publisher do not warrant the information
contained therein to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements,data, i h -
strations,procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Cover picture:
Giant galactic nebula NGC 3603
This picture illustrates the entire stellar life cycle of stars starting with the Bok globules and giant
gaseous pillars (evidence of embryonic stars), followed by circumstellar disks around young stars, and
progressing to aging, massive stars in a young starburst cluster.The blue super-giant with its ring and
bipolar outflow (upper left of center) marks the end of the life cycle.
Credit: Wolfgang Brandner (JPL/IPAC),Eva K. Grebe1 (Univ. Washington),You-Hua Chu (Univ. Illinois
Urbana-Champaign), and NASA

Library of Congress Card No. applied for.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data:

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-Publication Data:

A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek.

ISBN 3-527-40451-1

02003 WILEY-VCH GrnbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheirn

Printed on acid-free paper.

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be repro-
duced in any form - by photoprinting,microfilm, or any other means - nor transmitted or translated into a
machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks,etc. used in
this book, even when not specificalty marked as such, are not considered unprotected by law.

Printing: Strauss Offsetdruck GmbH, Morlenbach

Bookbinding: GroBhuchbinderei Schiiffer GmbH & Co. KG, Griinstadt

Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany

Preface
The annual series Reviews in Modem Astronomy of the ASTRONOMISCHE
GESELLSCHAFT was established in 1988 in order to bring the scientific events of the
meetings of the Society to the attention of the worldwide astronomical community.
Reviews in Modern Astronomy is devoted exclusively to the Karl Schwarzschild
Lectures, the Ludwig Bierman Award Lectures, the invited reviews, and to the High-
light Contributions from leading scientists reporting on recent progress and scientific
achievements at their respective research institutes.
The Karl Schwarzschild Lectures constitute a special series of invited reviews
delivered by outstanding scientists who have been awarded the Karl Schwarzschild
Medal of the Astronomische Gesellschaft, whereas excellent young astronomers are
honoured by the Ludwig Biermann Prize.
Volume 16 continues the series with thirteen invited reviews and Highlight Con-
tributions which were presented during the International Scientific Conference of
the Society on “The Cosmic Circuit of Matter”, held at Berlin, September 24 to 29,
2002.
The Karl Schwarzschild medal 2002 was awarded to Professor Charles H. Townes,
Berkeley, USA. His lecture with the title “The Behavior of Stars Observed by
Infrared Interferometry” opened the meeting.
The talk presented by the LudwigBiermann Prize winner 2002, Dr Ralf S.
Klessen, Potsdam, Germany, dealt with the topic “Star Formation in Turbulent Inter-
stellar Gas”.
Other contributions to the meeting published in this volume discuss, among other
subjects, the Solar atmosphere, formation of stars, substellar objects, galaxies, and
clusters of galaxies.

The editor would like to thank the lecturers for stimulating presentations. Thanks
also to the local organizing committee from the “Zentrum fiir Astronomie und
Astrophysik” of the Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany, chaired by Erwin
Sedlmayr.

Jena, April 2003 Reinhard E. Schielicke

The Astronomische Gesellschaft awards the Karl Schwarzschild Medal.
Awarding of the medal is accompanied by the Karl Schwarzschild lecture held at
the scientific annual meeting and the publication.
Recipients of the Karl Schwarzschild Medal are

1959 Martin Schwarzschild:

Die Theorien des inneren Aufbaus der Sterne.
Mitteilungen der AG 12,15
1963 Charles Fehrenbach:
Die Bestimmung der Radialgeschwindigkeiten
mit dem Objektivprisma.
Mitteilungen der AG 17,59
1968 Maarten Schmidt:
Quasi-stellar sources.
Mitteilungen der AG 25,13
1969 Bengt Stromgren:
Quantitative Spektralklassifikation und ihre Anwendung
auf Probleme der EntwicHung der Sterne und der MilchstraBe.
Mitteilungen der AG 27,15
1971 Antony Hewish:
Tree years with pulsars.
Mitteilungen der AG 3 1, 15
1972 Jan H. Oort:
On the problem of the origin of spiral structure.
Mitteilungen der AG 32,15
1974 Cornelis de Jager:
Dynamik von Sternatmosphiiren.
Mitteilungen der AG 36, 15
1975 Lyman Spitzer, jr.:
Interstellar matter research with the Copernicus satellite.
Mitteilungen der AG 38,27
1977 Wilhelm Becker:
Die galaktische Struktur aus optischen Beobachtungen.
Mitteilungen der AG 43,2 1
1978 George B. Field:
Intergalactic matter and the evolution of galaxies.
Mitteilungen der AG 47,7
1980 Ludwig Biermann:
Dreil3ig Jahre Kometenforschung.
Mitteilungen der AG 5 1,37
1981 Bohdan Paczynski:
Thick accretion disks around black holes.
Mitteilungen der AG 57,27
1982 Jean Delhaye:
Die Bewegungen der Sterne
und ihre Bedeutung in der galaktischen Astronomie.
Mitteilungen der AG 57, 123
1983 Donald Lynden-Bell:
Mysterious mass in local group galaxies.
Mitteilungen der AG 60,23
1984 Daniel M. Popper:
Some problems in the determination
of fundamental stellar parameters from binary stars.
Mitteilungen der AG 62, 19
1985 Edwin E. Salpeter:
Galactic fountains, planetary nebulae, and warm HI.
Mitteilungen der AG 63, 11
1986 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar:
The aesthetic base of the general theory of relativity.
Mitteilungen der AG 67, 19
1987 Lodewijk Woltjer:
The future of European astronomy.
Mitteilungen der AG 70, 21
1989 Sir Martin J. Rees:
Is there a massive black hole in every galaxy.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 2, 1
1990 Eugene N. Parker:
Convection, spontaneous discontinuities,
and stellar winds and X-ray emission.
Reviews in Modern Astronomy 4, 1
1992 Sir Fred Hoyle:
The synthesis of the light elements.
Reviews in Modern Astronomy 6 , l
1993 Raymond Wilson:
Karl Schwarzschild and telescope optics.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 7, 1
1994 Joachim Triimper:
X-rays from Neutron stars.
Reviews in Modern Astronomy 8 , 1
1995 Henk van de Hulst:
Scaling laws in multiple light scattering under very small angles.
Reviews in Modern Astronomy 9, 1
1996 Kip Thorne:
Gravitational Radiation - A New Window Onto the Universe.
Reviews in Modern Astronomy 10, 1
 1997 Joseph H. Taylor:
Binary Pulsars and Relativistic Gravity.
not published
1998 Peter A. Strittmatter:
Steps to the LBT - and Beyond.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 12, 1
1999 Jeremiah P. Ostriker:
Historical Reflections
on the Role of Numerical Modeling in Astrophysics.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 13, 1
2000 Sir Roger Penrose:
The Schwarzschild Singularity:
One Clue to Resolving the Quantum Measurement Paradox.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 1 4 , l
2001 Keiichi Kodaira:
Macro- and Microscopic Views of Nearby Galaxies.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 1 5 , l
2002 Charles H. Townes:
The Behavior of Stars Observed by Infrared Interferometry.
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 16, 1

The Ludwig Biermann Award was established in 1988 by the Astronomische Ge-
sellschaft to be awarded in recognition of an outstanding young astronomer. The
award consists of financing a scientific stay at an institution of the recipient’s choice.
Recipients of the Ludwig Biermann Award are
1989 Dr. Norbert Langer (Gottingen),
1990 Dr. Reinhard W. Hanuschik (Bochum),
1992 Dr. Joachim Puls (Munchen),
1993 Dr. Andreas Burkert (Garching),
1994 Dr. Christoph W. Keller (Tucson, Arizona, USA),
1995 Dr. Karl Mannheim (Gottingen),
1996 Dr. Eva K. Grebe1 (Wurzburg) and
Dr. Matthias L. Bartelmann (Garching),
1997 Dr. Ralf Napiwotzki (Bamberg),
1998 Dr. Ralph Neuhauser (Garching),
1999 Dr. Markus Kissler-Patig (Garching),
2000 Dr. Heino Falcke (Bonn),
2001 Dr. Stefanie Komossa (Garching),
2002 Dr. Ralf S. Klessen (Potsdam).
Contents

Karl Schwarzschild Lecture:

The Behavior of Stars Observed by Infrared Interferometry
By Charles H. Townes (With 17 Figures) .................................... 1

Ludwig Biermann Award Lecture:

Star Formation in Turbulent Interstellar Gas
By Ralf S. Klessen (With 11 Figures) ...................................... 23

Dynamics of Small Scale Motions in the Solar Photosphere

By Arnold Hanslmeier (With 4 Figures) ................................... 55

The Interstellar Medium and Star Formation: The Impact of Massive Stars
By JosC Franco, Stan Kurtz, and Guillermo Garcia-Segura (With 12 Figures) . . 85

Circuit of Dust in Substellar Objects

By Christiane Helling (With 10 Figures) .................................. 115

Hot Stars: Old-Fashioned or Trendy?

By A. W. A. Pauldrach (With 24 Figures) ................................. I33

Gas and Dust Mass Loss of 0-rich AGB-stars

By Franz Kerschbaum, Hans Olofsson, Thomas Posch,
David Gonzilez Delgado, Per Bergman, Harald Mutschke,
Cornelia Jager, Johann Dorschner, and Fredrik Schoier (With 9 Figures) . . . . . 171

Finding the Most Metal-poor Stars of the Galactic Halo

with the HamburgESO Objecrive-prism Survey
By Norbert Christlieb (With 6 Figures) ............................... . 191

A Tale of Bars and Starbursts:

Dense Gas in the Central Regions of Galaxies
By Susanne Huttemeister (With 8 Figures) ................................ 207

Tip-AGB Mass-Loss on the Galactic Scale

By Klaus-Peter Schroder (With 6 Figures) ................................ 227

The Dusty Sight of Galaxies:

ISOPHOT Surveys of Normal Galaxies, ULIRGS, and Quasars
By Ulrich Klaas (With 13 Figures) ....................................... 243

Abundance Evolution with Cosmic Time

By James W. Truran (With 7 Figures) .................................... 261
Matter and Energy in Clusters of Galaxies
as Probes for Galaxy and Large-Scale Structure Formation in the Universe
By Hans Bohringer (With 24 Figures) .................................... 275

Index of Contributors ............................................. 303

General Table of Contents ........................................ 305

General Index of Contributors ................................... 317

ASTRONOMISCHE
GESELLSCHAFT:
Reviews in Modem Astronomy 16,l-22 (2003)

Karl Schwarzschild Lecture

The Behavior of Stars

Observed by Infrared Interferometry

Charles H. Townes
University of California
Department of Physics, Berkeley, CA 94720-7300, USA
cht @ ssl.berkeley.edu

History
Successful stellar interferometry was initiated by Michelson and Pease who were
the first to successfully measure the size of a star, aOrionis, in 1921 (Michelson
and Pease, 1921). Since that time, a number of additional somewhat similar mea-
surements have been made. In addition, intensity interferometry was initiated and
successfully used by Hanbury Brown et al. (Hanbury Brown et al., 1967). But it is
only during the last two decades that stellar interferometryhas been growing rapidly,
undertaken or planned by a number of different scientific groups. This growth and
optimism about its use is largely because of newly developed technology which can
make such measurements more precise and sensitive. This includes the use of lasers
for accurate distance measurement and control, new sensitive detectors, particularly
at infrared wavelengths, adaptive optics, and computers which can automatically
control complex systems. There are now many different interferometersbuilt or un-
der construction, operating at a variety of wavelengths. A system using heterodyne
detection in the mid-infrared ( w 10 pm) region will be described here with results it
has obtained in studying stars and their behavior.
Michelson and Pease’s pioneering measurement gave a diameter for CY Orionis of
48.5 mas f 1 0 %. Michelson also commented that this size could be too small be-
cause of limb darkening, the effect of gas immediately surrounding the star shading
the edges of the star more than the center. However, he had no immediate estimate of
the magnitude of this effect at the optical wavelengths where he and Pease made the
measurement. Other astronomers used interferometry from time to time to measure
stellar diameters, but the technique was difficult enough that there was no steady
stream of data. Measurements of LY 015over the years from 1921 to about 1980 by a
number of different individuals is summarized in Figure 1. The diameters are plotted
as a function of the phase of what was thought to be a roughly 5-year cyclic varia-
tion in size, a variation which is not very convincing from the data shown. Figure 1
shows that subsequent measurements of (Y Ori were not substantially more accurate
2 Charles H. Townes

I I I I I I I I I I
1

a I
PT~ T
w
#-
W
I

‘i
4:
E 40-
a I

PHASE

Figure 1: Measured angular diameters of a Ori made between 1921 and 1980 plotted against
the phase of an apparent 5 year cycle in luminosity (from White etal., 1980). Points sur-
rounded by parentheses were measured under what was reported as poor seeing conditions.
Evidence for a cydic change in luminosity is not strong, nor is evidence for systematic changes
in size, which this diagram, made by White, was designed to examine.

than Michelson’s first one, and that his value of 48.5 mas is close to the average
(- 45 mas) of all subsequent measurements at optical wavelengths. Today new
technology allows a substantial improvement in the precision of such measurements.

An Interferometer for the Mid-IR

by Heterodyne Detection
There are good reasons for present use of a variety of interferometers using a variety
of wavelengths. The system to be described here operates at mid-infrared wave-

wavelengths, each over the relatively narrow frequency range of -

lengths and uses heterodyne detection, which provides measurements at a variety of

- 6 x lo9 Hz or
0.2 cm-l. Reasons why this type of interferometry is useful for measuring stars
include the following:

1. Theoretical expectations are that limb darkening of the older stars is much less
at longer wavelengths than in the visible region. Estimates give the apparent
size of a Ori about 15 % smaller than reality when measured at visible wave-
lengths, but less than 1 % smaller at wavelengths near 10 pm.
The Behavior qf Sturs Observed by Infrared Interferometry 3

2. It is now well recognized that older stars can have rather large spots of vary-
ing intensity. In particular, such a spot has been found on a Ori with about
15 % of the total optical luminosity. Such bright spots gives an interferometric
measurement of the star a misleading diameter unless the star is extensively
mapped at very high angular resolution. A surface temperature variation of
10 % can change the optical luminosity by about a factor of two, but would
change the 10 pm intensity by only about 10 %, due to the nature of the Planck
function. Hence the star can be expected to be more uniform over its surface at
mid-IR wavelengths than in visible light and the apparent size closer to reality.
3. Many old stars emit gas, from which dust is formed so that the stars are sur-
rounded by dust. Mid-IR wavelengths not only penetrate the dust more easily
than do shorter waves and thus see the star more clearly, they can also detect
and measure objects which are cooler than the star, down to temperatures of a
few hundred Kelvin, and thus can study the dust itself. The emission of dust,
its distribution about the star, and its motions are important parts of the study
of stellar behavior, and mid-IR wavelengths are well adapted to such study.
4. Although dust is generally not closer than a few stellar radii from the star since
the temperature must be below about 1300 K for it to condense, there are fre-
quently atoms and molecules surrounding the star whose radiation or radiation
absorption can substantially distort a measurement of stellar size. Hence it is
often important to do interferometry over a region of limited bandwidth which
can avoid coincidence with spectral lines. The narrow bandwidth of hetero-
dyne detection readily allows this.
5. To study stellar behavior, one also wants to study the gas emitted by and sur-
rounding a star. Hence a narrow bandwidth which coincides with a spectral
line is useful in examining the distribution of radiation emitted or absorbed by
gas.
It must be emphasized again that there are good reasons for many types of inter-
ferometers, such as an interferometer at shorter wavelengths and using a broad band
of wavelengths in order to study the less intense stars, or to examine the change in
intensity over a star’s surface. However, the above lists some of the reasons why the
interferometer to be discussed here is useful. Further description and discussion of
our heterodyne system have been published (Hale et al., 2000).

Technical Design
A schematic of the design used for an individual telescope of our initial two-telescope
interferometer is shown in Figure 2. A flat 2.03 m alt mirror on an alt-azimuth mount
sends starlight into a f3.16 parabolic mirror of 1.65 m diameter which focuses it
through a hole in the flat mirror onto an optics table. There a Schwarzschild mirror
combination produces a small diameter f 80 beam on an optics table. This beam is
mixed with local oscillator power from a COz laser and sent to a detector in a liquid
4 Charles H. Townes

starlight

_.ii:...___....._..
sleerabte Rat mirmr

1 wlsl A. Tip-tin miror locaiion (mirror no1 shown)

c _

B. Lag8 Sdmarzschild nurror mwnl

C. Oplicstabb

Figure 2: A schematic of one of the 1.65 meter mobile telescopes used in the infrared Spatial
Interferometer (ISI).

3 GHz

UCB IS1
Detection

Figure 3: A schematic of the IS1 system using two telescopes and heterodyne detection. The
two local oscillators (LO) are C02 lasers. These are locked in phase by mixing their signals,
with the phase lock circuit (PLL) making one LO follow the other in frequency and phase.
The local oscillators, mixers, and correlator which produces an interference fringe (shown as
a peaked signal) are actually in the trailers which enclose the telescopes, but are shown here
outside the trailers for clarity of their diagram.
The Behavior of Stars Observed by infrared interferometry 5

Nz Dewar. This mirror arrangement is chosen so that the mirrors can be on rather
rigid mounts close to the ground and avoid vibration. The trailer allows the telescope
to be moved so that baselines of various lengths and orientations may be used.
A schematic of two telescopes operating as an interferometer is shown in Fig-
ure 3. The mixers are actually located on the optics table with each telescope, but
shown separated here for clarity. They respond fast enough to produce frequencies
up to about 3 x lo9 Hz, so that the total bandwidth, including two sidebands, is ap-
proximately 6 x lo9 Hz. The signals from the two telescopes are then sent by cable
to the correlator which allows them to beat together, adding if they are in phase and
subtracting if they are out of phase, thus producing a fringe. The entire system is
completely analogous to microwave or radio interferometry, which of course also
use heterodyne detection. The C02 laser local oscillators in the two telescopes must
be kept in phase. This is done by sending a beam of COz radiation from one tele-
scope to the other, beating this together with a signal from the other COz laser, and
locking the two together in phase. Since the path length between the two telescopes
is long and may vary, it too must be controlled. This is done by reflecting part of the
beam coming from one telescope to the other directly back on exactly the same path.
On arrival back at its origin, this beam is interferred with the initial wave, and the
path length automatically adjusted so that the total round trip is exactly an integral
number of wavelengths. Overall, the system keeps the two lasers in phase to a preci-
sion of about 5”. Relative phases of the two oscillators are actually changed steadily
to maintain a constant fringe frequency, or rate of change in phase between the two
telescope signals, so that the correlation yields a convenient constant beat frequency
of 100 Hz .
The delay line shown is a device which automatically switches in or out small
lengths of cable in order to maintain approximate equality of the total path lengths
from the star through the two telescopes and circuitry to the correlator. For our
narrow bandwidth, these path lengths need to be equal only to an accuracy of about
5 millimeters.
Figure 4 is a photo of the three telescopes now used. They are shown on mini-
mum length baselines with separations of 4, 8, and 12 meters. A 4 meter baseline
for an interferometer provides approximately the same resolution as a 10 m circular
telescope. This distance was hence chosen to overlap the resolution of images taken
by a 10m Keck telescope. Other positions for the telescopes provide baselines as
long as about 75 m, and resolve objects as small as 15 mas.

Michelson’s “Visibility”
Michelson used and defined a quantity called “visibility” of an interferometer. Fig-
ure 5 illustrates its meaning and significance. The circular objects represent a star,
and the lobes represent the intensity pattern received by an interferometer. This in-
tensity varies sinusoidally from maximum when the two signals received by the two
telescopes are in phase to minimum when they are out of phase. In the upper figure
a small star is illustrated passing through rather widely spared lobes of the interfer-
ometer’s response. In this case two signals will add and subtract completely, giving a
6 Charles H. Townes

Figure 4: A picture of three IS1 (Infrared Spatial Interferometer ) telescopes in position on

Mt. Wilson with their shortest baselines. The telescopes here are separated by distances of
4 m (numbers 1 and 2), 8 m (number 2 and 3), and 12 m (numbers 1 and 3).

Unresolved Object

Resolved Object
Figure 5: A diagram of the lobes and maximum and minimum interference intensity on the
sky, illustrating the visibility, or fractional change in total signal as an object such as a star
moves across the lobes. In the upper figure the circular object (star) is as small as the width
of a lobe, and hence its signal in the interferometer goes from essentially zero to essentially
maximum. This is defined as a visibility of unity. In the lower picture, a larger object (star)
extends over both maxima and minima of lobes, hence its interferometric intensity does not
vary so much, i.e., its visibility is less than unity. A real stellar interferometer has many
millions of lobes across the sky rather than the rather widely spaced lobes illustrated here.
The Behavior ofStur.s Observed by Infrared Inte$erometty 7

maximum fringe signal, which Michelson defined as a visibility of unity. The lower
figure illustrates a larger star and more closely spaced lobes of responsivity. In this
case, some parts of the star will give maximum interference signal and some mini-
mum, so that the total variation in the signal is less than maximum as the star moves
through the lobes. For sufficiently closely spaced lobes, there would be no variation
in the signal at all, giving a “visibility” of zero. This visibility actually represents
the amplitude of components of a Fourier spectrum of intensity on the sky. For two
telescopes, one can obtain the amplitude of the Fourier spectrum but not the phases,
since it is impossible to be sure of the relative distance from a star to two sepa-
rated telescopes with an accuracy of a fraction of a wavelength. If the object being
observed has reflection symmetry, then the phase is zero, e. g., one can assume all
cosine functions for the separate Fourier components. A circular star has such sym-
metry and hence phase information is not needed. However, to image more complex
objects phase is needed. It can be obtained if three or more telescopes are used. For
three telescopes, the sum of measured phases of fringe variation between telescopes
1 and 2 , 2 and 3, and 3 and 1, known as phase closure, is zero if the object is symmet-
ric but otherwise is not zero and gives phase information for the Fourier spectrum.
Since it has become very clear that many dust shells around stars are not symmetric,
we have now built a third telescope to obtain this phase closure and hence complete
an accurate mapping of asymmetric infrared intensity distributions.

Phenomena at Astronomical Objects

Seeing Conditions
Actual fringe power obtained from observation of an astronomical object ( a Ori) is
shown in Figure 6. The signal in this figure at 100 Hz frequency and of very nar-
row bandwidth represents the visibility of a Ori measured under exceptionally good
seeing conditions. The other fringe record is from a Ori when the seeing was ex-
ceptionally poor. Its bandwidth is about 20 Hz wide, indicating a major change in
relative phase of the signal arriving at the two telescopes due to atmospheric fluc-
tuations in a time as short as about 1/20 s. This illustrates the importance of good
seeing for accurate interferometry, or measurement of visibility. Nevertheless, the
a Ori signal is strong enough that even in the very poor seeing case one can inte-
grate the total curve and obtain a rather accurate measurement of the fringe power.
For very weak signals, a narrow type of fringe obtained under good seeing helps to
provide accurate measurements.

Sars Surrounded by Dust

A simple model of a star surrounded by dust in illustrated in Figure 7. As gas emitted
by the star expands, dust forms at a distance where the temperature is sufficiently low,
perhaps 1000 to 1300 K. A temperature of 1300 K corresponds roughly to a distance
of 3 stellar radii from a stellar surface temperature of 2600 K. Hence there is a distinct
separation between star and dust shell which allows interferometry to separate rather
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