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 South San Francisco Public
Library

•f
3 9048 07651196 7

PENGUIN BOOKS
A NEW GREEN HISTORY
OF THE WORLD
Clive Ponting was until recently Reader in Politics and
International Relations at the University of Wales,
Swansea. His most recent books are: World History: A
New Perspectives Thirteen Days: The Road to the First

World Wars The Crimean War and Gunpowder: From

the Alchemists of China to the Battlefields of Europe. He
recendy took early retirement and now lives on a small
Greek island where he is creating a Mediterranean
garden and cultivating olives.

DISCARD

S^.F. Public Library

West Orange
840 West Orange Ave.
CAtrth Snn Francisco, CA 94080
 CLIVE PONTING

A New
I
Green
History of the
World
The Environment and the Collapse
of Great Civilizations

PENGUIN BOOKS
 PENGUIN BOOKS
Published by the Penguin Group
Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, U.S.A.
Penguin Group (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 700, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada M4P 2Y3 (a division of Pearson Penguin Canada Inc.)
Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL, England
Penguin Ireland, 25 St Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2, Ireland (a division of Penguin Books Ltd)
Penguin Group (Australia), 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell,
Victoria 3 1 24, Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd)
Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi - 110 017, India
Penguin Group (NZ), 67 Apollo Drive, Rosedale, North Shore 0745,
Auckland, New Zealand (a division of Pearson New Zealand Ltd)
Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue,
Rosebank, Johannesburg 2196, South Africa

Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices:

80 Strand, London WC2R ORL, England

First published in Great Britain under the title

A Green History of the World by Sinclair-Stevenson Limited 1991

First published in the United States of America by St. Martin’s Press, Inc., 1992
Reprinted by arrangement with St. Martin’s Press, Inc.
Published in Penguin Books 1993
Revised edition published in Great Britain by Pimlico,
an imprint of The Random House Group 2007
Published in Penguin Books 2007

13579 10 8642
Copyright © Clive Ponting, 1991, 2007
All rights reserved

UBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBUCATION DATA

Ponting, Clive.
A new green history of the world : the environment and the collapse
of great civilizations / Clive Ponting. — Rev. ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: A green history of the world. 1991.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-14-303898-6
1. Nature —Effect of human beings on. 2. Natural history. 3. Natural resources.
4. Pollution. 5. Social change.
I. Ponting, Clive. Gteen history of the world. II. Tide.
GF75.P66 2007
304.2— dc22 2007015544

Printed in the United States of America

Except in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the condition
that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise
circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other
than that in which published and without a similar condition including
it is

this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

The scanning, uploading and distribution of this book via the Internet or via any other means
without the permission of the publisher is illegal and punishable by law. Please purchase only
authorized electronic editions, and do not participate in or encourage electronic piracy
of copyrighted materials. Your support of the author’s rights is appreciated.
 1

Contents

List of Maps vii

List of Tables and Charts vii

Preface ix

1 The Lessons of Easter Island i

2 The Foundations of History 8

3 Ninety-nine per cent of Human History 17

4 The Great Transition
First 36
5 Destruction and Survival 67
6 The Long Struggle 87
7 Ways of Thought 116
8 The Rape of the World 137
9 The Foundations of Inequality 17
10 Disease and Death 199
11 The Weight of Numbers 231
12 The Second Great Transition 265
13 The Rise of the City 294
14 Creating the Affluent Society 314
15 Polluting the World 342
16 The Threat to Global Systems 380
17 The Shadow of the Past 409

Guide to Further Reading 424

Index 435
 List of Maps

1 The settlement of the world 25

2 South-west Asia: key sites for the origins
of agriculture 43
3 Mesoamerica 49
4 Mesopotamia 55

List of Tables and Charts

1 World population, 10,000 bce-bce/ce 37

2 World population, 200 CE-1700 89
3 China population, 200 CE-1700 91
4 Europe population, 200 CE-1700 96
5 The worldwide diffusion of crops and animals 109
6 World fish catch, 1800-2000 152
7 World population, 1750-2000 231
8 Europe population, 1750-2000 233
9 Asia population, 1750-2000 233
10 Africa population, 1750-2000 234
11 North American population, 1750-2000 234
12 Latin America population, 1750-2000 235
13 World domesticated animal numbers, 1890-1990 237
14 World inorganic fertiliser use, 1900-2000 240
15 World irrigated area, 1800-2000 258
16 World water use 1700-2000 259
 1

viii •
A New Green History of the World

17 World coal production, 1800-2000 281

18 World oil production, 1890-2000 287
19 Percentage share of world energy consumption,
1900 and 2000 •
289
20 Percentage of world population living in cities,
1800-2000 295
21 Number of people living in cities, 1800-2000 295
22 Number of cities with a population of more than
one million 31
23 World production of iron and 1700-2000
steel, 323
24 World production of copper, 1880-2000 324
25 World production of aluminium, 1928-2000 325
26 World car ownership, 1930-2000 329
27 Debt of 60 poorest countries, 1970-2002 340
28 World emissions of sulphur dioxide, 1850-2000 360
29 World organic chemical production, 1930-2000 366
30 United States hazardous waste production,
1970-2000 371
31 World CFG production, 1940-1990 381
32 Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide,
1750-2005 386
33 Percentage share of world carbon dioxide
emissions, 2003 402
34 Per capita carbon dioxide emissions, 2003 403
35 The world in the twentieth century 412
 Preface

The first edition of this book was published in 1991 and has since
then been translated into thirteen languages. Over the last sixteen
years much has changed in the world - the Soviet Union no longer
exists and the Cold War has been replaced by the problems posed by
the global dominance of the United States and the threat of terrorism.
Much has also changed in the environment. Some of it has been for
the better, for example the agreement to end the production of CFCs
and eventually HCFCs in order to stop the destruction of the world’s
ozone layer. Many of the changes though have been for the worse.
More than a billion extra people now live on the earth than when
the first edition of this book was written. Billions of tonnes of carbon
dioxide have been put into the atmosphere and the threat posed by
global warming is even more starkly apparent. The destruction of the
rainforests and other habitats has continued at an increasing pace.
I was therefore very pleased when Will Sulkin suggested that the

time was ripe for a new edition of the book. I have taken this oppor-
tunity to completely revise the text. Every chapter, apart from the
first, has been updated, revised, rewritten and expanded. One chapter

has been dropped and a new one added. I have also greatly increased
the number of charts and diagrams. In a world history it is inappro-
priate to use bc/ad and instead BCE (Before the Common Era) and
CE (Common Era) have been used instead. Where there is no ambiguity
CE has been dropped.
At the end of the first edition I tried to strike a balance between
pessimism and optimism when I wrote: ‘Past human actions have left
contemporary societies with an almost insuperably difficult set of prob-
lems to solve.’ In the last sixteen years the balance was clearly tipped
in favour of pessimism. It has been a period of wasted opportunities
on environmental problems. Machiavelli wrote in The Prince’.
X • A New Green History of the World

In state affairs, by foreseeing [problems] at a distance, which is

only done by men of talents, the evils which might arise from
them are soon cured; but when, from want of foresight, they

are suffered to increase to such a height that they are perceptible

to everyone, there is no longer any remedy.

How well has the world’s political leadership faced up to environmental

problems over the last decade and a half? World industrial output and
levels of consumption have continued to rise at unprecedented rates.
The consequences, in resource and energy consumption and associated
pollution, have become increasingly apparent. There can be no doubt
that global warming is the greatest single threat that the world now
faces. Over the last few years scientists have become increasingly
concerned that the world’s climate is about to reach a point where
dramatic changes may happen very quickly and that these changes
will be irreversible and bring in their wake major social and economic
disruption. The action taken to meet this threat has been minimal.
The United States refuses to do anything. The Kyoto treaty requires
only very small reductions in carbon dioxide output; it only involves
countries responsible for a third of the world’s output and they are
unlikely to meet the targets set in the treaty. By the time that the
effects of global warming become fully apparent, and that may be
very soon, it will be too late to take action to avoid disaster. The
world is now seeing the conjunction of a number of trends that emerged
over the last two centuries, all of which are likely to lead to immense
environmental problems in the next few years. This book tries to show
just how deep-rooted these trends are in the way human societies
have evolved.
I would like to thank Christopher Sinclair-Stevenson for commis-
sioning the first edition of this book and Will Sulkin for his enthusiasm
about a new edition. My greatest debt of gratitude though is to my
wife, Laura, who drew all the maps, charts and diagrams for this new
edition and who has given unstinting support throughout.

Clive Ponting
Greece, 2007
 1

The Lessons of Easter Island

Easter Island one of the most remote inhabited places on earth.

is

Only some 400 square kilometres in area, it lies in the Pacific Ocean,
3,200 kilometres off the west coast of South America and 2,000 kilo-
metres from the nearest inhabitable land of Pitcairn Island. At its
peak the population was only about 7,000. Yet, despite its superficial
insignificance, the history of Easter Island is a grim warning to the
world.
TTieDutch Admiral Roggeveen, on board the Arena, was the first
European to visit the island on Easter Sunday 1722. He found a society
in a primitive state with about 3,000 people living in squalid reed huts
or caves, engaged in almost perpetual warfare and resorting to canni-
balism in a desperate attempt to supplement the meagre food supplies
available on the During the next European visit in 1770 the
island.
Spanish nominally annexed the island but it was so remote, underpop-
ulated and lacking in resources that no formal colonial occupation ever
took place. There were a few more brief visits in the late eighteenth
century, including one by Captain Cook in 1774. An American ship
stayed long enough to carry off twenty-two inhabitants to work as slaves
killing seals on Masafuera Island off the Chilean coast. The population

continued to decline and conditions on the island worsened: in 1877

the Peruvians removed and enslaved all but no old people and children.
Eventually the island was taken over by Chile and turned into a giant
ranch for 40,000 sheep run by a British company, with the few remaining
inhabitants confined to one small village.
What amazed and intrigued the first European visitors was the
evidence, amongst all the squalor and barbarism, of a once flourishing
and advanced society. Scattered across the island were over 600 massive
stone statues, on average over six metres high. When anthropologists
began and culture of Easter Island early in
to consider the history
the twentieth century they agreed on one thing. The primitive people
2 •
A New Green History of the World

such poverty-stricken and backward conditions when the

living in
Europeans first visited the island could not have been responsible for
such a socially advanced and technologically complex task as carving,
transporting and erecting the statues. Easter Island therefore became
a ‘mystery’ andwide variety of theories were advanced to explain
a
its history. Some of the more fantastic ideas involved visits by spacemen

or lost civilisations on continents that had sunk into the Pacific leaving
Easter Island as a remnant. The Norwegian archaeologist Thor Heyer-
dahl, in his popular book Aku-Aku written in the 1950s, emphasises
the strange aspects of the island and the mysteries that lay hidden in
its history. He argued that the island was first settled from South

America and that from there the people inherited a tradition of

monumental sculpture and stonework (similar to the great Inca
achievements). To account for the decline he introduced the idea that
at a late stage other settlers arrived from the west and began a series
of wars between the so-called ‘long-ears’ and the ‘short-ears’ that
destroyed the complex society on the island. Whilst this theory is less
extravagant than some of the others that have been put forward it
has never been generally accepted by other archaeologists.
The history of Easter Island is not one of lost civilisations and
esoteric knowledge. Rather it is a striking example of the dependence
of human societies on their environment and of the consequences of
irreversibly damaging that environment. It is the story of a people
who, starting from an extremely limited resource base, constructed
one of the most advanced societies in the world for the technology
they had available. However, the demands placed on the environment
of the island by this development were immense. When it could no
longer withstand the pressure, the society that had been painfully built
up over the previous thousand years fell with it.
The colonisation of Easter Island belongs to the last phase in the
long-drawn-out movement of human settlement across the globe. The
first people arrived sometime in the fifth century at a period when

the Roman empire was collapsing in western Europe, China was still

in chaos following the fall of the Han empire two hundred years
earlier, India saw the end of the short-lived Gupta empire and the
great city ofTeotihuacan dominated most of Mesoamerica.They were
Polynesians and part of a great process of exploration and settlement
across the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. The original Polynesians
came from south-east Asia and they reached the islands of Tonga and
Samoa about 1000 bce. From there they moved further east to the
Marquesas Islands about 300 CE and then in two directions, south-
 The Lessons of Easter Island •
3

east to Easter Island and north to Hawaii in the fifth century. The
last phases of the movement were to the Society Islands about 600

and from there to New Zealand about 800. When this settlement was
complete, the Polynesians were the most widely spread people on
'earth, encompassing a huge triangle from Hawaii in the north to New
Zealand in the south-west and Easter Island in the south-east - an
area twice the size of the present continental United States. Their
long voyages were made
double canoes, joined together by a broad
in
central platform to transport and shelter people, plants, animals and
food. These were deliberate colonisation missions and they represented
considerable feats of navigation and seamanship since the prevailing
currents and winds in the Pacific are against west-to-east travel.
When the first people found Easter Island, they discovered a world
with few resources. The island was volcanic in origin, but its three
volcanoes had been extinct for 400 years before the Polynesian
at least

settlers arrived. Both temperatures and humidity were high and,

although the soil was adequate, drainage was very bad and there were
no permanent streams on the island; the only fresh water available
was from lakes inside the extinct volcanoes. Because of its remoteness
the island had only a few species of plants and animals. There were
thirty indigenous species of flora, no mammals, a few insects and two
types of small lizard. The waters around the island contained very
few The arrival of the
fish. first humans did very improve the
little to
situation. The Polynesians in their home islands depended on a very
limited range of plants and animals domes-
for subsistence: their only
ticated animals were chickens, pigs, dogs and the Polynesian rat and
the main crops were yam, taro, breadfruit, banana, coconut and sweet
potato. The settlers on Easter Island brought only chickens and rats
with them and they soon found that the climate was too severe for
semi-tropical plants such as breadfruit and coconut and extremely
marginal for the usual mainstays of their diet, taro and yam. The
inhabitants were, therefore, restricted to a diet based mainly on sweet
potatoes and chickens. The only advantage of this monotonous, though
nutritionally adequate, diet was that the cultivation of the sweet potato
was not very demanding and left plenty of time for other activities.
It is notknown how many settlers arrived in the fifth century but
they probably numbered no more than twenty or thirty at most. As
the population slowly increased the forms of social organisation
familiar in the rest of Polynesia were adopted. The basic social unit
was the extended which jointly owned and cultivated the land.
family,
Closely related households formed lineages and clans, each of which
4 •
A New Green History of the World

had its own centre for religious and ceremonial activity. Each clan
was headed by a chief who was able to organise and direct activities
and act as a focal point for the redistribution of food and other essen-
tials within the clan. It was this form of organisation and the

competition (and probably conflict) between the clans that produced

both the major achievements of Easter Island society and ultimately
its collapse.
Settlements were scattered across the island in small clusters of
peasant huts with crops grown in open fields. Social activities were
centred around separate ceremonial centres, which were occupied for
part of the year. The chief monuments were large stone platforms,
similar to those found in other parts of Polynesia and known as ahu,
which were used for burials, ancestor worship and to commemorate
past clan chiefs. What made Easter Island different was that crop
production took very little effort and there was therefore plenty of
free time and labour which the clan chiefs were able to direct into
ceremonial activities. The result was the creation of the most advanced
of all the Polynesian societies and one of the most complex in the
world for its limited resource base. The Easter Islanders engaged in
elaborate rituals and monument construction. Some of the ceremonies
involved recitation from the only known Polynesian form of writing
called rongorongo, which was probably less a true script and more a
series of mnemonic devices. One set of elaborate rituals was based
on the bird cult at Orongo, where there are the remains of forty-seven
special houses together with numerous platforms and a series of high-
relief rock carvings. The crucial centres of ceremonial activity were
the ahu. Over 300 of these platforms were constructed on the island,
mainly near the coast. The level of intellectual achievement of at least
some parts of the Easter Island society can be judged by the fact that
a number of these ahu have, sophisticated astronomical alignments,
usually towards one of the solstices or the equinox. At each site they
erected between one and fifteen of the huge stone statues that survive
today as a unique memorial to the vanished Easter Island society. It
is these statues which took up immense amounts of peasant labour.

The statues were carved, using only obsidian stone tools, at the quarry
at Ranu Raraku.They were fashioned to represent in a highly stylised
form a male head and torso. On top of the head was placed a ‘topknot’
of red stone weighing about ten tonnes from another quarry. The
carving was a time-consuming rather than a complex task. The most
challenging problem was to transport the statues, each some six
metres in length and weighing several tens of tonnes, across the island
 The Lessons of Easter Island •
5

and then erect them on top of the ahu.

The Easter Islanders’ solution to the problem of transport provides
the key to the subsequent fate of their whole society. Lacking any
draught animals they had to rely on human power to drag the statues
across the island using tree trunks as rollers. The population of the
island grew steadily from the original small group in the fifth century
to about 7,000 at its peak in 1550. Over time the number of clan
groups would have increased and also the competition between them.
By the sixteenth century hundreds of ahu had been constructed and
with them over 600 of the huge stone statues. Then, when the society
was at its peak, it suddenly collapsed, leaving over half the statues
only partially completed around Rano Raraku quarry. The cause of
the collapse and the key to understanding the ‘mysteries’ of Easter
Island was massive environmental degradation brought on by defor-
estation of the whole island.
When the first Europeans visited the island in the eighteenth century
it was completely treeless apart from a handful of isolated specimens

at the bottom of the deepest extinct volcano crater of Rano Kao.

However, recent scientific work, involving the analysis of pollen types,
has shown that at the time of the initial settlement Easter Island had
a dense vegetation cover including extensive woods. As the population
slowly increased, trees would have been cut down to provide clearings
for agriculture, fuel for heating and cooking, construction material
for household goods, pole and thatch houses and canoes for fishing.
The most demanding requirement of all was the need to move the
large number of enormously heavy statues to ceremonial sites around
the island. The only way this could have been done was by large
numbers of people guiding and sliding them along a form of flexible
tracking made up of tree trunks spread on the ground between the
quarry and the ahu. Prodigious quantities of timber would have been
required and in increasing amounts as the competition between the
clans to erect statues grew. As a result by 1600 the island was almost
completely deforested and statue erection was brought to a halt, leaving
many stranded at the quarry.
The deforestation of the island was not only the death knell for
the elaborate social and ceremonial life, it also had other drastic effects
on the everyday life of the population. From 1500 the shortage of
trees was forcing many people to abandon building houses from
timber and live in caves, and when the wood eventually ran out alto-
gether about a century later everyone had to use the only materials
left. They resorted to stone shelters dug into the hillsides or flimsy
6 •
A New Green History of the World

reed huts cut from the vegetation that grew round the edges of the
crater lakes. Canoes could no longer be built and only reed boats
incapable of long voyages could be made. Fishing was also more diffi-
cult because nets had previously been made from the paper mulberry
tree (which could also be made into cloth) and that was no longer
available. Removal of the tree cover also badly affected the soil of the
island, which would have already suffered from lack of suitable animal
manure to replace the nutrients taken up by the crops. Increased
exposure caused soil erosion and the leaching out of essential nutrients.
As crop yields declined. The only source of food on the island
a result
unaffected by these problems was the chickens. As they became ever
more important, they had to be protected from theft and the intro-
duction of stone-built defensive chicken houses can be dated to this
phase of the island’s history. It became impossible to support 7,000
people on this diminishing resource base and numbers fell rapidly.
After 1600 Easter Island society went into decline and regressed
to ever more primitive conditions. Without trees, and so without
canoes, the islanders were trapped in their remote home, unable to
escape the consequences of their self-inflicted environmental collapse.
The social and was equally important.
cultural impact of deforestation
The inability to erect any more statues must have had a devastating
effect on the belief systems and social organisation and called into
question the foundations on which the complex society had been
built. There were increasing conflicts over diminishing resources,
resulting in a state of almost permanent warfare. Slavery became
common and as the amount of protein available fell the population
turned to cannibalism. One of the main aims of warfare was to destroy
the ahii of opposing clans. A few survived as burial places but most
were abandoned. The magnificent stone statues, too massive to destroy,
were pulled down. The first Europeans found only a few still standing
when they arrived in the eighteenth century and all had been toppled
by the 1830s. When they were asked by the visitors how the statues
had been moved from the quarry, the primitive islanders could no
longer remember what their ancestors had achieved and could only
say that the huge figures had ‘walked’ across the island. The Europeans,
seeing a treeless landscape, could think of no logical explanation
either and were equally mystified.
Against great odds the islanders had painstakingly constructed,
over many centuries, one of the most advanced societies of its type
in the world. For a thousand years they sustained a way of life in
accordance with an elaborate set of social and religious customs that
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