Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

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Enhancing thermal properties of mortars through partial sand replacement

with diatomite and phase change materials☆
Houssem Hachemi a,* , Chakib Seladji a , M. Reda Haddouche b, Müslüm Arıcı c ,
Smain Melouka d , Omar Taleb d , Brahim Farid Houti d,e , Djahida Mahmoudi a ,
Mohammed Abdelbassit Kherrafi a, Sabrina Taieb Bouderbal a
a
Laboratory of Energy and Thermal Applied (ETAP), University of Tlemcen, B. P 230, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria
b
Department of Industrial Engineering and Building, University of Lleida, Catalonia, Spain
c
Mechanical Engineering Department, Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Turkey
d
EOLE (Eau et Ouvrages dans Leur Environnement), Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of Tlemcen, PB 230, Tlemcen, Algeria
e
Department of Civil Engineering, Laboratory of Materials LABMAT, ENPO Maurice Audin, BP. 1523, El Mnaouer, Oran 31000, Algeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The growing demand for sustainable building materials highlights the importance of enhancing the hygrothermal
Diatomite performance of mortars, a key component in construction. This study investigated the use of diatomite (in
Mortar powder and gravel forms) and phase change materials (PCM) as sand substitutes to improve mortar properties.
PCM
These innovations target construction professionals seeking to reduce energy consumption and improve building
Construction materials
Humidity control
efficiency. The research consisted of two phases. The first involved experimental optimization of standard mortar
FEM by replacing traditional sand with varying proportions of diatomite powder and gravel. Mortar samples were
tested under controlled temperature and humidity using the ZL-7918A apparatus, with temperature fluctuations
recorded every 10 min over 7 h (420 min). The results showed significant improvements in thermal performance,
with diatomite gravel outperforming powder. Notably, mortar with 80 % diatomite gravel (MDG8) reduced heat
flow by 31 % compared to ordinary mortar (OM). The second phase employed numerical modeling using the
finite element method (FEM) to validate experimental findings. The model demonstrated strong agreement with
experimental results, with a relative error of less than ± 5 %. Additionally, the study analyzed three hollow brick
walls with different finishes: OM, MDG8, and MDG8 with PCM (MDG8PCM). The numerical results revealed that
the wall with the MDG8PCM finishing layer contributed to a 10 % reduction in thermal flux compared to a wall
with the MDG8 finishing layer. This novel approach, combining experimental and numerical methods, provides
valuable insights for sustainable construction practices, offering effective solutions to improve thermal regula-
tion in buildings.

1. Introduction priority to enhance thermal comfort in residential and commercial

spaces [10–14]. The building sector in Algeria consumes over 45 % of
Fossil fuel reliance poses significant environmental challenges, total energy, highlighting the need for improved insulation materials
leading to contamination and driving the adoption of technologies to [15,16]. The use of polystyrene has declined due to environmental and
reduce their use [1–3]. Sustainable urban development emphasizes health concerns related to hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) a flame
improving energy efficiency and environmental standards in buildings retardant classified as a persistent organic pollutant under the Stock-
[4–8]. Rising energy demand, fueled by population growth, improved holm Convention [15]. This has increased interest in alternative mate-
living standards, and climate change, highlights the global need for rials like humidity control materials (HCMs), such as diatomite, which
innovative solutions [9]. With buildings accounting for about 40 % of regulate humidity and temperature through moisture absorption and
global energy consumption, optimizing HVAC systems has become a release without energy input [17–20]. HCMs enhance building

☆
This article is part of a special issue entitled: ‘Novel Building Envelope’ published in Energy & Buildings.
* Corresponding author at: Abou Bekr Belkaid University, B. P 230, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Hachemi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115322
Received 23 May 2024; Received in revised form 10 January 2025; Accepted 12 January 2025
Available online 15 January 2025
0378-7788/© 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

insulation, improve energy efficiency, reduce mold risk, and support demonstrating significant energy efficiency. Yilmaz et Degirmenci [36]
sustainability in construction [17,21]. examined the potential of diatomite to serve as a partial alternative to
Recent research on innovative insulation solutions has highlighted cement in the formulation of mortar. Their findings indicated the
the promise of phase change materials (PCMs) in managing indoor viability of replacing up to 5 % of Portland cement with diatomite, as
temperatures effectively [22,23]. Integrated into structural components, supported by thorough test outcomes. Additionally, Xu et Lu [37], along
PCMs enhance building energy efficiency by reducing overall energy with Costa et al. [38], utilized diatomite, aggregates, and paraffin to
consumption [24–28]. Their ability to transition between solid and create stable PCMs, showcasing improved thermal performance in
liquid states within specific temperature ranges enables efficient ther- cementitious mortars. Li et al. [39] delved into the characteristics of
mal energy absorption and release, stabilizing indoor temperatures and green concrete at its early stages, mechanical attributes, and environ-
reducing heating needs during cooler periods [29]. This integration mental ramifications when diatomite and limestone are introduced as
improves energy efficiency, occupant comfort, and environmental sus- substitutes for cement clinker. Their research unveiled advancements in
tainability by lowering reliance on energy-intensive systems and strength development and initial properties conducive to broad utility.
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with global climate goals Particularly noteworthy was the discovery that replacing 30% of the
[23]. material’s weight with diatomite led to a notable decline in global
Several research efforts have investigated incorporating various warming potential, energy consumption, and emissions of air pollutants.
powders as partial substitutes for sand in mortar and concrete mixtures. Liu et Xiao [40] conducted a thorough investigation into how diatomite,
For instance, Mona et al. [30] employed wollastonite powder to signif- when integrated as a component in cement, influences the thermal
icantly augment the flexural and compressive strengths, as well as the insulation properties of straw fiber cement-based composites. Their
initial setting time and resistance to drying shrinkage in mortar mixes. study revealed a correlation between increased diatomite content and a
This innovative approach not only enhanced the mechanical properties decrease in thermal conductivity, resulting in notable improvements in
of the mortar but also contributed to its durability and performance over thermal insulation performance. Saridemir et al. [41] provided evidence
time. In a similar vein, Hendramawat et al. [31] conducted a compre- demonstrating that the incorporation of calcined diatomite enhances not
hensive investigation into the efficacy of glass powder as an additive to only the mechanical strength but also the microstructural properties of
improve the compressive strength of concrete mixtures. Their findings high-strength mortars, both under normal ambient conditions and at
shed light on the potential of glass powder to enhance the structural elevated temperatures. Zhao et al. [42] explored the potential for
integrity and load-bearing capacity of concrete, thereby offering sus- enhancing the thermal properties of mortar blocks by incorporating
tainable solutions in construction materials. Furthermore, Grzegorz various types, sizes, and quantities of straw, alongside other pertinent
et al. [32] delved into the intricate effects of granite powder on various factors. Their research offers insights into optimizing the thermal per-
aspects of concrete mixes. Through meticulous analysis of microstruc- formance of mortar materials through strategic straw inclusion. Addi-
ture, porosity, water absorption, and mechanical strength, they uncov- tionally, Taoukil et al. [43] investigated the practicality of utilizing
ered valuable insights into the optimization of concrete formulations for Moroccan diatomite as a substitute for sand in mortar formulations.
enhanced performance and longevity in diverse construction Their findings showcased a significant enhancement in thermal insu-
applications. lation capabilities upon the incorporation of diatomite into mortar
Extensive research has been conducted on the integration of diato- mixtures, highlighting its potential for sustainable construction
mite and PCMs to investigate their potential applications in cement, practices.
concrete, and mortar. Biwan et al. [33] developed a thermal energy The current research focuses on developing a new construction ma-
storage cement-based composite (TESC) by incorporating a paraffin/ terial by substituting sand with diatomite in two forms gravel and
diatomite (DP) composite PCM. The paraffin/DP composite PCM, with a powder at varying proportions in mortar. This study evaluates the ma-
mix ratio of 0.9 : 1.0, showed good impregnation and compatibility, as terial’s thermal moisture properties through a series of experiments
confirmed by SEM and FT-IR analyses. It had a melting temperature of conducted in a controlled thermal chamber to ensure precision. Addi-
41.11 C and a latent heat of 70.51J • g− 1 , demonstrating good thermal tionally, the research was expanded using a Finite Element Method
◦

stability. When added to cement at various percentages (10% − 30% by (FEM)-based program, validated against preliminary experimental data.
weight), the TESC showed significant reductions in compressive and The investigation introduced PCMs into the mortar along with diatomite
flexural strength, drying shrinkage strain, and thermal conductivity. in its gravel form. Three hollow brick walls with different finishing
Tests indicated that the TESC had excellent thermal energy storage ca- layers were examined: the first wall had an OM finish, the second
pabilities. Miao et al. [34] developed a mortar by integrating fatty acids/ included MDG8, and the third featured MDG8PCM. This innovative
diatomite shape-stabilized phase change materials (SSPCMs). These approach enables a thorough assessment of the thermal moisture per-
SSPCMs, made with lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids, had a melting formance of diatomite-enhanced mortar with PCM integration. The
temperature of 29.82 C and latent heat of 65.84J • g− 1 . SEM and FT-IR
◦
primary goal of incorporating diatomite and PCMs into the mortar is to
analyses showed good PCM impregnation and compatibility within improve its hygrothermal properties. The anticipated results include
diatomite pores. When SSPCMs were added to cement-based materials enhanced hygrothermal insulation, positioning these materials as sus-
(at 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight of sand), the 28-day compressive tainable and eco-friendly options for future construction.
strength and thermal conductivity decreased by up to 53.3% and 37.9%
respectively due to changes in microporous structure and hydration. 2. Materials and methods
Nonetheless, the panels achieved a compressive strength of 24.5MPa
and good temperature regulation, making them suitable for structural- 2.1. Raw materials
thermal storage wall materials in buildings. Zijie et al. [35] developed
a phase change heat storage coating to regulate indoor temperatures 2.1.1. Cement
using a composite material (D/PCM) of modified diatomite and paraffin. In this experiment, the cement utilized was supplied from the Beni
SEM results showed enhanced adsorption capacity, and tests confirmed Saf Cement Plant, located in Aïn Temouchent, Algeria, and operated as
good thermal stability with no leakage after 500 cycles. Applied to part of the Algerian Cement Industry Group (GICA). The selection of
reinforced concrete walls, the coating with a phase change temperature cement from this specific plant was based on its widespread availability
of 26 − 28 C and 5mm thickness provided excellent heat storage, tem-
◦
in the region and its adherence to industry standards, ensuring consis-
perature regulation, and energy savings. It reduced temperature fluc- tency and reliability in experimental procedures.
tuations to 2.54 C and the wall’s cooling load by 18.67% in summer,
◦

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H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 1. Algerian diatomite from Sig plant.

The Algerian diatomite was characterized by its high porosity, with

Table 1
porosity levels reaching 80–90 %. This high porosity provided it with a
Types of mortar with diatomite.
significant absorption capacity [16]. For the experiments, diatomite
Type Description gravel with an approximate particle diameter ranging from 4 to 6 mm
OM Ordinary mortar with a (W/C) ratio of 0.5. was employed. Additionally, diatomite was utilized in its powdered
MDP4 Mortar containing 40% diatomite in powder form with a (W/C) ratio of form, which consists of very fine particles. Fig. 1 depicts Algerian diat-
0.54. omite sourced from the Sig plant.
MDP8 Mortar containing 80% diatomite in powder form with a (W/C) ratio of 0.6.
MDG4 Mortar containing 40% diatomite in gravel (4/6) form with a (W/C) ratio of
0.52. 2.1.4. Water
MDG8 Mortar containing 80% diatomite in gravel (4/6) form with a (W/C) ratio of The water utilized in mixing for the preparation of diverse samples
0.57. was fed from the laboratory’s potable water supply.

2.1.2. Sand 2.2. Mortar mix design

The sand utilized in this study is a commonly used type in Algerian
construction projects. This particular sand type was chosen based on its The reference mortar composition comprises 1 part cement (C) and 3
widespread use and availability in the local construction industry, parts sand (S), maintaining a water-cement ratio (W/C) of 0.5. In
ensuring compatibility with regional building practices and materials. alternative compositions, sand is substituted by diatomite (D) at mass
The sand used in this study was notable for its distinct physical prop- ratios of D/(S + D) of 40% and 80%. The (W/C) ratio is adjusted within
erties. It possessed a rounded shape and was characterized by a density the range of 0.5 to 0.6 to observe its impact on the properties of the
of 2600 kg • m− 3 . Additionally, the sand exhibited a porosity ranging mortar. To fabricate the mortar samples, molds measuring 25 • 25 •
from 42 % to 45 %. 2cm3 are employed. These samples are prepared by thoroughly blending
the mortar with diatomite in various forms and proportions. Table 1
2.1.3. Diatomite provides a detailed breakdown of the different types of mortar compo-
The diatomite aggregate employed in the experiments was specif- sitions incorporating diatomite, outlining their respective characteristics
ically obtained from a diatomite plant situated in Sig, a town nestled in and proportions.
the Mascara province, in the northwest region of Algeria. This plant is
renowned for producing high-quality diatomite aggregates, widely 2.3. Equipment
employed in various industrial applications, notably in construction.
The diatomite aggregate utilized in the study was chosen for its excep- The experimental setup was meticulously designed, featuring two
tional purity, precise particle size distribution, and remarkable thermal compartments constructed from a robust wooden casing with a thickness
insulation properties. These characteristics ensure its ability to signifi- of 2 cm. To ensure effective thermal insulation, each compartment was
cantly enhance the thermal performance of mortar mixes in which it is lined with a 4 cm thick layer of extruded polystyrene insulation. This
incorporated. Algerian diatomite stands out for its unique form, layer was crucial in preventing any thermal exchange between the
perfectly illustrating the richness of this national resource. It has a low compartments’ contents and the surrounding environment, as depicted
thermal conductivity of 0.097W • m− 1 • K− 1 and a high specific heat in Fig. 2.
capacity of 1436.5J • kg− 1 • K− 1 . Additionally, its density of 400kg •
m− 3 imparts ideal mechanical and thermal properties to this aggregate 2.3.1. Compartment 1
for efficient use in applications requiring optimal thermal insulation. Volume: 0.043 m3.

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H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 2. Experimental set-up.

Equipment: This compartment was equipped with a high-precision

± 0.05 ◦ C. The images were taken through a small, specially designed
silicone heater, designed to maintain the required temperature with
inspection window integrated into the compartment wall. This window
continuous and accurate control. The system also included an advanced
was constructed with high-performance insulating materials to mini-
ultrasonic humidifier, which generated steam to precisely regulate hu-
mize thermal bridging and was equipped with a precise sealing mech-
midity levels.
anism to prevent air or moisture infiltration. During the experiment, the
Control System: Both the heater and humidifier were connected to a
window was opened only for a brief moment to allow the infrared
ZL-7918A control device. Sensitive sensors were strategically placed in
camera to capture the necessary images and was immediately resealed
front of the panel’s second side to enable precise control and monitoring
afterward to maintain the compartment’s integrity. To further ensure
of temperature and humidity throughout the experiment. The ZL-7918A
that the opening and closing of the window did not introduce any sig-
control device ensured accurate regulation by continuously adjusting
nificant thermal or hygrometric disturbances, a ZL-7918A monitoring
the heater and humidifier based on real-time data from the sensors. The
device was employed to continuously measure temperature and hu-
sensors used had a measurement accuracy of ± 0.7 ◦ C for temperature
midity levels inside the compartment. This monitoring was conducted
and ± 1.3 % for relative humidity, which were considered when
both before and after each image capture to confirm that no detectable
analyzing the experimental results to account for potential uncertainties
heat or moisture leakage occurred as a result of the window’s operation.
in the recorded data. This setup allowed for maintaining consistent
These precautions were critical in maintaining the reliability and ac-
experimental conditions while addressing the limitations imposed by
curacy of the experimental results. These periodic recordings provided
the measurement errors of the equipment.
detailed data on the thermal and moisture distribution across the panel,
enabling precise monitoring of changes over time during the experi-
2.3.2. Compartment 2
ment. Furthermore, the camera played a crucial role in detecting any
Volume: 0.064 m3.
potential issues in the experiment, such as thermal or moisture leaks,
Sensors: This compartment featured another ZL-7918A device,
whether internal or external. The thermal images captured using the
equipped with sensors specifically designed to measure temperature and
Testo 890 camera were processed with specialized software on a com-
humidity. The sensors were positioned 30 cm from the panel’s second
puter for accurate result analysis. Initially, the captured image under-
side to ensure accurate measurements reflective of the central
went a grid segmentation process using the Data Agglomeration feature,
conditions.
followed by the Three feature. This step aimed to divide the image into
The infrared Camera: The Testo 890 infrared camera was strategi-
smaller regions for individual analysis. After segmentation, the focus
cally positioned on the exit side of compartment 2. This advanced
was placed on the central grid square, where the average temperature
camera captured high-resolution thermal images and moisture readings
and humidity were calculated across all experiments. The selection of
of side 2 of the panel every 10 min. The camera’s thermal sensitivity was

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H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 3. Devices used in the experiment.

Fig. 4. The profiles of moisture content and relative humidity at the interface of various materials [15].

the central square was based on its representation of the most stable and maintained at a constant 43 ◦ C (±1◦ C), with the relative humidity sta-
centrally significant area of the thermal image, ensuring the accuracy of bilized at 40 % (±3%). These specific conditions were chosen to repli-
the results. Furthermore, great care was taken to measure the temper- cate typical controlled testing environments, ensuring the reliability of
ature in the same location and square across all experiments. This pro- the data. After the mortar board reached thermal equilibrium within this
cess enhanced the reliability of the analysis and facilitated precise environment, the experiment was repeated, this time increasing the
comparisons between the data extracted from each experiment. humidity level to 67 % (±3%) to simulate more challenging hygro-
Fig. 3 illustrates all the devices utilized in this experiment. This thermal conditions. This step was critical to evaluating the material’s
detailed setup ensured meticulous control and accurate data collection, thermal properties under different moisture levels. Simultaneously, the
essential for the reliable assessment of experimental conditions. environmental conditions in the room where the experiment was con-
Each type of mortar board was subjected to rigorous testing within a ducted were also closely monitored. The room temperature was kept
controlled thermal chamber to assess its hygrothermal properties. Two stable at 24 ◦ C (±2◦ C), and the relative humidity was maintained at 40
independent experiments were conducted for each mortar formulation, % (±5%) to ensure that any variations in the testing environment were
ensuring that the results were reliable. The relative errors for humidity minimized. This control of the ambient conditions throughout the
measurements were maintained below 2 %, while temperature mea- testing process was essential in maintaining the integrity of the results
surements exhibited a relative error of less than 1 %. These stringent and ensuring that the observed properties of the mortar boards were
error margins helped ensure the precision of the experimental data. For solely due to the experimental variations rather than external environ-
each formulation, the results from these two trials were averaged, mental factors.
providing a more robust and accurate representation of the material’s The thermal properties of all mortar types were meticulously gath-
performance. In compartment 1, the temperature was precisely ered from a renowned construction factory situated in Tlemcen, Algeria.

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H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

This factory is well-known for its expertise in producing high-quality optimal thermal characteristics. In this study, paraffin was used as a
construction materials. The properties were determined through PCM due to its widespread application in thermal energy storage and its
rigorous testing procedures conducted under controlled humidity con- favorable properties, such as high latent heat of fusion, chemical sta-
ditions, aiming for an approximate humidity level of 40%, with a tight bility, and relatively low cost. Paraffin was preferred over other phase
tolerance of ±5% to ensure accuracy and reliability in the measure- change materials because it provided reliable and consistent perfor-
ments. mance when combined with diatomite, which served as a supporting
matrix. The hydrophobic nature of paraffin ensured that it did not react
with or degrade the diatomite, making it an ideal candidate for
2.4. Mathematical model and numerical solution enhancing the thermal properties of building materials. Additionally,
numerous studies published in reputable journals have utilized paraffin
2.4.1. Equations describing the simultaneous transfer of heat and moisture as one of the most commonly used materials, which influenced its se-
The current model integrates both temperature and relative humid- lection in this study [15,16]. The paraffin used had a melting point of
ity as primary factors governing heat and moisture transfer. To ensure 28.1 ◦ C, aligning with the average annual temperature in the regions
consistency across layer interfaces, the model accounts for the influence where the study was conducted. Assuming a parallel configuration, the
of these variables. Nonetheless, it is important to highlight that moisture effective thermal properties of the composite are expressed as follows
content, depicted in Fig. 4, is not uniformly continuous. [15]:
Utilizing insights from the research conducted by Kunzel [44],
several assumptions have been considered: (ρ Cp)eff = ρMDG8 CpMDG8 θMDG8 + ρPCM CpPCM (1 − θMDG8 ) (3)

• Thermal equilibrium is presumed to be present between the different The PCM was represented in the model by adjusting its specific heat
phases. capacity, as detailed in previous studies [15].
• Hysteresis and chemical reactions are not taken into consideration. ⎧
⎪ Cs ifTm < T
• The impact of gravity on fluid flow is considered insignificant. ⎪
⎪
⎪( )
• Water vapor and dry air are both modeled as ideal gases, preserving
⎨ Cs + Cl Lhv
CPCM + ifTm ≤ T ≤ (Tm + 1) (4)
their non-compressible characteristics. ⎪
⎪ 2 ∇T
⎪
⎪
⎩
• The material is assumed to be homogeneous and resistant to Cl if(Tm +1) < T
deformation.
1
Cl [J • kg− • K− 1 ] denotes the specific heat capacity of the PCM in its
The intricate process of crafting a system comprising two partial liquid state, and Cs [J • kg− 1 • K− 1 ] represents the specific heat capacity
differential equations delves deeply into the nuanced mechanisms gov- of the PCM in its solid state.
erning the transfer of heat and moisture within porous materials. This Eqs. (3) and (4) allow for accurate modeling of the composite’s
endeavor requires a meticulous examination of the principles of mass thermal performance under various conditions, providing valuable in-
and energy balance, meticulously applied to delineate the intricate sights for applications such as energy storage and advanced thermal
interplay of variables within infinitesimally small volume elements [44]. insulation.
Through this rigorous approach, a comprehensive mathematical repre- The moisture boundary conditions for compartment 1 are deter-
sentation emerges, shedding light on the complex phenomena under- mined by applying Eq. (5), which accounts for specific factors related to
lying heat and moisture transfer in porous materials, as encapsulated by this compartment’s characteristics. Similarly, the conditions for
Equations (1) and (2), respectively [44]. compartment 2 are derived from Eq. (6), tailored to the distinct prop-
( ) [ erties of this compartment. This method ensures that each compart-
1 ∂T ∂Ps
ρm • C s + • C w • w = ∇ (λeff + hv • δ • φ )∇T+hv • δ • Ps ment’s moisture dynamics are accurately represented and accounted for
ρs ∂t ∂T
] within the panel’s overall behavior [15].
• ∇φ (1) ( ) ∂Pv,s (T)
D • e + δ • Pv,s (T) ∇φ + δ • φ • • ∇T
∂T
[ ] ( )
∂φ ∂Ps = hm1 φ1 • Pv,s (T1 ) − φ • Pv,s (T) (5)
e = ∇ (D • e + δ • Ps )∇φ + δ • φ • • ∇T (2)
∂t ∂T
( ) ∂Pv,s (T)
where, D the moisture diffusion coefficient [m2 • s− 1 ]; Cw the specific D • e + δ • Pv,s (T) ∇φ + δ • φ • • ∇T
∂T
1 ( )
heat capacity of water [J • kg− • K− 1 )]; Cs the specific heat capacity of = hm2 φ2 • Pv,s (T2 ) − φ • Pv,s (T) (6)
− 1
dry building material [J • kg • K− 1 ]; T the temperature [K]; w the water
content in [kg • m− 3 ]; λeff the thermal conductivity [W • (m− 1 • K− 1 ]; δ Here, Pv,s (T) is the water vapor saturation pressure in relation to tem-
the water vapor permeability of the building material perature; hm1 and hm2 are the vapor transfer coefficient at the panel
surface, φ is the relative humidity, φ1 and φ2 are the relative humidity
[kg • Pa− 1 • m− 1 • s− 1 )];Ps the water vapor saturation pressure [Pa]; φ
levels within compartments 1 and 2, respectively.
the relative humidity; hv the evaporation enthalpy of water [J • kg− 1 ]; e
The experimental boundary heat flux conditions for the plate sur-
the moisture storage capacity in [kg • m− 3 ]; ρm is the bulk density of the faces of compartments 1 are determined by applying Eq. (7), which
dry building material [kg • m− 3 ]. accounts for specific factors related to the characteristics of compart-
The MDG8PCM composite has been meticulously crafted leveraging ment 1. Similarly, the conditions for compartment 2 are obtained from
a coupled heat and moisture transfer model as previously delineated. Eq. (8), tailored to the distinct properties of this compartment [15].
Within this framework, the PCM was intricately embedded into the
porosity of MDG8. This integration was executed with precision to ∂Ps
(λeff + hv • δ • φ )∇T+hv • δ • Ps • ∇φ
enhance the thermal performance of the resultant composite. The vol- ∂T
ume fraction of MDG8, denoted as θMDG8, played a pivotal role in = h1 • (T1 − T)+hm1 hv (φ1 • Pv,s (T1 ) − φ • Pv,s (T)) (7)
determining the capacity for PCM incorporation within the composite.
Consequently, the volume fraction of PCM is inherently determined as
(1-θMDG8). This approach facilitates a homogeneous dispersion of PCM
throughout the composite structure, which is paramount for achieving

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H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Table 2
λOM
Hygrothermal characteristics of the materials. ja = (TS1 − TS2 ) = h1 (T1 − TS1 ) = h2 (TS2 − T2 ) (9)
e
Material λ[W • m − 1 − 1
•K ] ρs [kg • m ]
− 3
Cp [J • kg − 1 − 1
•K ] DS [m • s
2 − 1
]

OM 1.17 2150 938 0.602⋅10-6

where e[m] represents the thickness of the tested wall, λ[W • m− 1 • K− 1 ]
MDP4 0.87 1930 1034.3 0.379⋅10-6 stands for the thermal conductivity, and ja [W•m− 2 ] expresses the heat
MDG4 0.68 2020 1092.2 0.302⋅10-6 flux density, T1 and T2 [◦ C] representing the temperatures in the two
MDP8 0.61 1790 1104.4 0.291⋅10-6 compartments while TS1 and TS2 [◦ C] stand for the temperatures at the
MDG8 0.42 1890 1150.8 0.201⋅10-6
two surfaces of the panel.
According to the experimental results, the average temperatures of
∂Ps T1 = 43 C and T2 = 29◦ C were recorded in compartments I and II,
◦

(λeff + hv • δ • φ )∇T+hv • δ • Ps • ∇φ
∂T respectively. The surface temperatures TS1 and TS2 were 40.7 C and
◦

= h2 • (T2 − T)+hm2 • hv (φ2 • Pv,s (T2 ) − φ • Pv,s (T)) (8) 39.7 C, respectively.
◦

Eqs. (10) and (11) were utilized to specify the numerical heat flow
The heat transfer coefficients in compartments 1 and 2 are represented boundary conditions for the interior and exterior surfaces of the building
as h1 and h2, respectively. To calculate the convective heat transfer wall, respectively [15].
coefficients, a standard mortar is exposed to the boundary conditions
∂Ps
shown in Fig. 9 until it reaches a stable state. Assuming a flat panel (λeff + hv • δ • φ )∇T+hv • δ • Ps • ∇φ
∂T
without any heat dissipation, the heat flux density remains constant
= hint • (Tint − T)+hm,int •hv (φint • (Tint ) − φ • Pv,s (T)) (10)
along the panel and at the panel/ambient interface during this steady
state. In such conditions, the heat flux density can be expressed in
Equation (9) [45] as follows:

Table 3
Hygrothermal characteristics examined in the numerical studies:
Material Air Brick PCM [15] MDG8PCM
(16% PCM)
[15,49] [15,44]
liquid solid liquid solid

λ[W • m− 1 • K− 1 ] 0.026 0.682 0.149 0.35 0.377 0.409

ρs [kg • m− 3 ] 1.26 1600 775 814 1711.6 1717.84
Cp [J • kg− 1 ⋅K− 1 ] 1006 840 2660 2140 1392.3 1309.1
DS [m2 • s− 1 ] 2.15⋅10-8 0.5⋅10-8 − − 0.2⋅10-6 0.2⋅10-6
Melting Temp [◦ C] − − 28.1 − 28.1 −
Latent heat [kJ • kg− 1 ] − − 145.9 − 23.34 −

Fig. 5. Boundary conditions utilized in the validation study.

7
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 6. Showcases the fluctuations in temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity utilized in simulations conducted for Tlemcen province (July 15–22,
2023) [50].

8
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 7. Showcases the fluctuations in temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity utilized in simulations conducted for Adrar province (July 15–22,
2023) [50].

∂Ps
(λeff + hv • δ • φ )∇T+hv • δ • Ps • ∇φ hext = 2.8 + 3 • Vw (12)
∂T
( )
= hext • (Text − T)+ ε • σ • Ta4 − Text
4
+ hm,ext • hv •(φext • Pv,s (Text ) − φ hint = 2.8 + 3 • Vi (13)
• Pv,s (T))
(11) Ta = 0.0552 • (Text )1.5 (14)

The equation involves various parameters essential for calculating heat where Vi signifies the average velocity of the interior wind speed, which
flow. Specifically, σ = 5.67 • 10− 8 denotes the Stefan-Boltzmann con- was determined to be 0.15 [m/s] according to the findings reported in
stant in [W • m− 2 • K− 4 ], ε represents the long-wave emissivity and ab- reference [15].
sorptivity of the material, Ta signifies the sky temperature, hext and hint The determination of the convective mass transfer coefficient relies
indicate the exterior and interior heat transfer coefficients for air wind, on the convective heat transfer coefficient, employing the analogy
respectively. initially proposed by Illig [47]. This conceptual framework, which
Detailed values for these coefficients and the sky temperature can be equates heat and mass transfer processes, was experimentally corrobo-
found in Ref. [15,46], providing comprehensive context for under- rated by Schwarz [48]. Schwarz’s validation study offered empirical
standing their significance in the equation. evidence that supported Illig’s theoretical framework, thereby

9
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 7. (continued).

Fig. 8. Depicts a standard hollow brick wall with boundary conditions applied to illustrate the modeling approach.

bolstering the analogy’s applicability and reliability in practical engi- thermal insulation. The specific heat capacity increased in the modified
neering applications, as demonstrated in Equation (15) [48]. materials, enhancing their ability to store heat. Thermal diffusivity fol-
lowed an opposite trend, with the modified materials exhibiting slower
βs = 7.10− 9 hc (15)
heat propagation, further strengthening their insulating properties. In
summary, the addition of diatomite powder and diatomite gravel
According to the calculations, the values are obtained as follows:
improved thermal insulation, with the MDG material delivering the best
[ ] [ ]
h1 = 25.43 W • m− 2 • K− 1 , h2 = 5.47 W • m− 2 • K− 1 , hm1 overall performance.
[ ]
= 178 × 10− 9 s • m− 1 , hm2 = 38.29⋅10− 9 [s • m− 1 ]. The MDG8PCM finishing layer was formed by combining an MDG8
finishing layer with paraffin, with the aim of extending the numerical
The materials used in this experimental investigation exhibit unique study and investigating a superior new material. Its thermal properties
hygrothermal characteristics, which are essential for comprehending were assessed using Equations (3) and (4), and these findings were then
their response to diverse environmental conditions. These properties incorporated into the numerical analysis. The pertinent characteristics
encompass thermal conductivity, moisture diffusivity, vapor perme- were subsequently summarized in Table 3.
ability, and specific heat capacity, all meticulously outlined in Table 2.
This comprehensive overview enables a meticulous analysis of their 2.4.2. Inceptive criteria and boundary constraints
performance. The thermal and physical properties of the materials
showed significant differences. The reference material exhibited high a) Boundary conditions for benchmark analysis
thermal conductivity and density, which promoted heat conduction and
storage. In contrast, the modified materials (MDP and MDG) demon- The boundary conditions depicted in Fig. 5 were utilized for
strated reduced thermal conductivity and density, providing better comparing experimental parameters with numerical simulations. To

10
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 9. The experimental findings under the conditions of T1 = 43 ◦ C, φ1 =40 % in Compartment 1.

thoroughly validate the numerical model, three distinct types of mortar Tlemcen Province in the northwest and Adrar Province in the
were selected. The heat transfer in the model was assumed to occur southwest of Algeria were strategically selected for a numerical study
under two-dimensional conditions. In Compartment 1, precise control due to their markedly contrasting climates. Tlemcen experiences hot
was implemented to maintain a constant heat flux at a temperature of summers with elevated humidity levels, whereas Adrar is known for its
T1 = 43 C, alongside consistent management of relative humidity, extreme heat and arid conditions with notably low humidity. These
◦

maintained at a level of φ1 = 40%. This controlled setup allowed for a distinct climatic profiles offer an ideal foundation for investigating how
detailed examination of heat and moisture dynamics. For Compartment materials and structures respond to diverse environmental conditions. In
2, data on humidity and temperature were collected using a Zl-7918A Algerian buildings, maintaining internal thermal comfort typically in-
controller, strategically positioned 30cm from side 2 of the mortar. volves achieving temperatures between 23 ◦ C to 28 ◦ C with humidity
This ensured accurate monitoring of environmental conditions within levels ranging from 40 % to 60 %, parameters that are crucial for
the compartment. Incorporating these real-time data points enhances ensuring human comfort across the country’s varied climates. In Case 1,
the fidelity of the simulation to real-world conditions. Furthermore, to representing Tlemcen Province, the study focused on hot and humid
ensure accuracy in the comparative study, previously calculated heat days occurring from July 15th to 22nd, 2023, as depicted in Fig. 6. This
and mass transfer coefficients were applied, assuming heat transfer period allows for a detailed examination of how materials perform under
conditions under the transient regime. These coefficients play a critical such climatic stressors, which is crucial for understanding their behavior
role in capturing the complex thermal and moisture interactions within in real-world scenarios. In Case 2, representing Adrar Province, atten-
the mortar system. tion was directed towards hot days characterized by low humidity
levels, spanning from July 15th to 22nd, 2023, as illustrated in Fig. 7.
b) Boundary conditions for extension analysis This specific timeframe offers insights into how materials respond to the

11
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 9. (continued).

extreme heat and dryness typical of Adrar Province, providing valuable environmental conditions affecting the wall.
data for designing resilient structures in such challenging environments. On the interior surface of the wall, the following conditions were
By considering these distinct climatic conditions and temporal param- imposed:
eters, the study aims to provide comprehensive insights into the per-
formance of materials and structures across different regions of Algeria, • Relative humidity φint : Set at a constant 50%.
contributing to informed decision-making in construction and infra- • Air temperature Tint : Maintained at 25 C.
◦

structure development. • Heat transfer coefficient hint : A constant value of 3.25[W • m− 2 • K− 1 ]

The exterior surface of the wall experienced fluctuations in time- was used, indicating the rate of heat transfer per unit area per unit
dependent environmental factors: temperature difference.

• Temperature Text (t): The time-varying temperature of the external Initially, both the temperature and relative humidity inside the wall
environment. were set to:
• Relative humidity φext (t): The time-dependent relative humidity of
the air outside. • Initial temperature Tini : 25 C.
◦

• Wind speed Vw (t): The speed of the wind, which varies over time. • Initial relative humidity φini : 50%.
• Solar radiation: The wall is exposed to solar radiation with a mortar
absorptivity coefficient of ε = 0.87 [15]. This initial setup provides a baseline for the wall’s internal condi-
tions before exposure to the external environment’s variable factors, as
The mass transfer coefficient was determined using Equation (12) shown in Fig. 8.
and (13), although the exact formula is not provided here. External
parameters such as relative humidity, temperature and wind speed were
sourced from typical daily meteorological data specific to Tlemcen and
Adrar, Algeria. This dataset offers a practical representation of the

12
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 10. The experimental findings under the conditions of T1 = 43 ◦ C, φ1 =67 % in Compartment 1.

3. Results and discussion gravel contributing to a 3 C reduction in temperature compared to

◦

traditional mortar, while diatomite powder led to a 2 C reduction. The

◦

3.1. Experimental analysis use of diatomite gravel showed significantly superior results compared
to diatomite powder, thanks to the distinctive properties inherent in
In this section, the examination focused on the impact of humidity each form. Diatomite gravel, characterized by larger particle size and a
and temperature on several types of mortar as previously outlined. Two wide interconnected pore network, acted as highly effective channels for
cases were conducted to investigate these effects. The case 1 maintained heat transfer. These properties facilitated enhanced thermal conduc-
compartment 1 at a temperature of 43 ◦ C (∓1) and a humidity of 40 % tivity and heat dissipation within the mortar mix, creating a network of
(∓3), while the case 2 kept compartment 1 at a temperature of 43 ◦ C pathways for heat to easily traverse, thus mitigating temperature dif-
(∓1) and a humidity of 67 % (∓3). Humidity and temperature in ferentials and promoting more uniform heat distribution across the
compartment 2 were measured using the two modes depicted in Fig. 2 in surface. This phenomenon is crucial, particularly within confined spaces
both experiments. like the wall and Compartment 2, for maintaining ideal thermal condi-
tions. Moreover, the porous nature of diatomite gravel not only facili-
3.1.1. Case 01: Effects of low humidity (40 %) on insulation material tated heat transfer but also increased its moisture absorption capacity.
The experimental results provided valuable insights into how Diatomite gravel reduced moisture by 10 % at a distance of 30 cm from
incorporating diatomite into mortar mixes affects the regulation of the panel compared to traditional mortar, whereas diatomite powder
temperature and moisture levels for Side 2 of the panel and Compart- only reduced moisture by 7%. The increased surface area and inter-
ment 2. he results were extracted from Fig. 9. Both diatomite in gravel connected pores enabled gravel particles to efficiently absorb sur-
and powder forms exhibited significant improvements, with diatomite rounding moisture, thus alleviating moisture-related issues and

13
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 10. (continued).

moisture accumulation within the mortar. Furthermore, the porous 3.1.2. Case 02: Effects of high humidity (67 %) on insulation material
structure acted as a reservoir, effectively regulating moisture levels and In this case, the behavior of diatomite under high humidity condi-
preventing excessive moisture accumulation, which could lead to mortar tions was examined, with humidity levels set at 67% while maintaining
deterioration over time. In contrast, diatomite powder, despite pos- a temperature of 43 C. The results were extracted from Fig. 10. The
◦

sessing a larger specific surface area due to its fine particle size, study consistently demonstrated the superior performance of diatomite-
exhibited diminished effectiveness in thermal enhancement. The finer infused mortar, especially in its gravel form. Diatomite gravel contrib-
particles resulted in fewer interconnected pores, limiting the material’s uted to a 4 C reduction in temperature compared to traditional mortar,
◦

ability to facilitate heat transfer efficiently compared to gravel. How- whereas diatomite powder led to a reduction of 2.6 C. This superiority
◦

ever, diatomite powder still contributed to heat enhancement, albeit to a can be attributed to several key factors. Firstly, the larger particle size
lesser degree than gravel. Overall, the choice between diatomite gravel and interconnected pores within diatomite gravel played a crucial role
and powder forms has significant implications for the thermal and in facilitating heat transfer. These characteristics enabled efficient
moisture management properties of mortar mixes. While both forms movement of heat within the mortar, resulting in a notable reduction in
offer advantages, the unique properties of diatomite gravel, including temperature on Side 2 and in Compartment 2. By contrast, the smaller
larger particle size and a wide interconnected pore network, provide particle size of diatomite powder may have limited its ability to effec-
superior performance in terms of thermal conductivity and moisture tively transfer heat, leading to a comparatively lesser temperature
absorption. Thus, careful consideration of diatomite form is necessary to reduction. Additionally, the porous structure of diatomite gravel
enhance the performance and longevity of mortar mixes, especially in exhibited highly effective moisture absorption and regulation capabil-
applications where temperature and moisture regulation are critical ities. This is significant because moisture management is crucial for
factors. maintaining the structural integrity and performance of mortar, espe-
cially in environments with fluctuating humidity levels. The gravel’s

14
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 11. Comparison of experimental and numerical results.

ability to absorb moisture not only helped prevent potential damage software. Of particular significance is the network sensitivity study
caused by excess moisture but also contributed to maintaining optimal conducted, which unveiled that the most accurate networks consist of a
conditions for mortar application and performance. In contrast, diato- comprehensive assembly comprising 189 domain elements and 68
mite powder, while still offering some moisture regulation properties, boundary elements. Furthermore, in terms of numerical validation,
may not have been as effective as gravel due to its finer texture and three distinct experiments were selected for scrutiny: OM, MDP8, and
lower porosity. This suggests that the physical characteristics of diato- MDG8, ensuring a comprehensive assessment of the simulation’s
mite, especially in its gravel form, play a vital role in determining its efficacy.
performance as an additive in mortar. Overall, these robust and cohesive After a thorough examination of Fig. 11, it is evident that there is a
findings shed light on the significant potential of diatomite, particularly strong alignment between the experimental and simulated results. The
in gravel form, as a versatile enhancer and efficient performer for mortar comparison underscores a remarkable consistency in temperature and
under diverse moisture conditions. The combination of superior heat relative humidity values across all types of mortar investigated, with
transfer facilitation and effective moisture management makes diato- differences typically below 5%. This close correspondence between the
mite gravel a promising candidate for improving the overall quality and two datasets attests to the accuracy and reliability of the numerical
durability of mortar in various construction applications. model employed in this study. The findings instill confidence in the
validity of the simulation approach for predicting temperature and hu-
midity profiles within various mortar compositions. The robust agree-
3.2. Comparison of experimental and numerical results ment between experimental observations and computational predictions
significantly enhances the understanding of mortar behavior under
This section delves into a thorough examination, juxtaposing the different conditions, reinforcing the utility of numerical simulations in
experimental efforts unfolding over a duration of 7 h with a meticulous construction and materials science research.
numerical simulation meticulously crafted using finite element-based

15
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 11. (continued).

3.3. Expanded numerical analysis properties, reducing temperature fluctuations within buildings. These
reductions enhance indoor comfort and stability for occupants. Addi-
In this section, the study was extended following the successful tionally, the unique composition of MDG8 (diatomite forms gravel) can
completion of the validation process. Three types of walls with different help regulate heat transfer through walls, reducing heat loss during cold
finishing layers were investigated: firstly, a wall containing two layers of periods and heat absorption during hot periods. Furthermore, the results
OM finish; secondly, a wall featuring two layers of MDG8; and finally, a still demonstrate that the addition of PCM to MDG8 to form MDG8PCM
wall incorporating MDG8PCM. This simulation focused on studying two further improved the results. PCM materials have the capability to
distinct Algerian regions characterized by varying climatic conditions. absorb heat when the wall surface temperature exceeds their specific
melting point (28.1 ◦ C) during the day, and release it at night when the
3.3.1. Impact of ambient conditions in Tlemcen’s climate on various wall temperature decreases. This ability to regulate heat contributes to
finishing layers reducing the thermal load on cooling systems, leading to energy savings
The province of Tlemcen in Algeria experiences a hot and humid and improved thermal comfort for occupants.
climate, with summer temperatures generally ranging between 21 C and Regarding humidity, the results also indicate that MDG8PCM pro-
◦

46 C, and external relative humidity varying between 15% and 98%. vides increased stability compared to MDG8 and OM. PCM and diato-
◦

This climate significantly impacts the comfort of building occupants and mite gravel can also aid in humidity regulation by absorbing excess
the efficiency of energy use. moisture when it is high and releasing it when it is low, contributing to
The results obtained in Fig. 12 demonstrated significant benefits of maintaining an optimal humidity level inside buildings. This regulation
using MDG8 finishing layer compared to OM in terms of thermal sta- can reduce mold and structural deterioration associated with high hu-
bility. These benefits can be explained by several factors. Firstly, the midity levels.
diatomite used in MDG8 possesses exceptional thermal insulation

16
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 11. (continued).

3.3.2. Impact of ambient conditions in Adrar’s climate on various wall maintaining a consistent indoor environment despite external varia-
finishing layers tions. Importantly, the insulation provided by MDG8PCM not only
The Adrar province in Algeria is known for its hot and arid climate, minimizes moisture removal from the exterior but also ensures the sta-
characterized by summer temperatures typically ranging from 27 C to bilization of relative humidity levels on the interior surface. This dual
◦

48 C, and external relative humidity levels varying between 1% and functionality highlights the comprehensive approach of the MDG8PCM
◦

15%. This climate has a notable effect on the comfort levels of building system in optimizing hygrothermal comfort in building environments
occupants of the region. subjected to varying climatic conditions.
The findings from Fig. 13 underscore the significant role played by
the MDG8PCM finishing layer in mitigating temperature fluctuations 4. Conclusion
within hot, low-humidity regions. This effect is attributed to the phase-
change materials integrated within the MDG8PCM layer, which effec- The study addressed the growing need for energy-efficient buildings
tively stabilize internal temperature variations. Particularly noteworthy by exploring the use of fine-grained Algerian diatomite as a substitute
is the observation that external temperatures often surpassed the for sand in cement mortar. It highlighted diatomite’s potential to
melting point (Text > Tf = 28.1 C), emphasizing the efficacy of the enhance thermal insulation properties, providing valuable insights into
◦

MDG8PCM in moderating these fluctuations. Moreover, concerning its applications and benefits in improving the thermal performance of
humidity, the results indicate a notable enhancement in stability with building materials. Key findings and conclusions derived from this
the MDG8PCM finish compared to both MDG8 and OM, even in sce- extensive investigation include:
narios characterized by extremely low external humidity levels. This
underscores the versatility and effectiveness of the MDG8PCM system in

17
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 12. Variation of Temperature and Relative Humidity at the Interior Surface (July 15–22, 2023) in Tlemcen.

• The results indicate that mortar containing 80% diatomite in gravel The study highlighted the environmental benefits of adopting
form can reduce heat flow by 31% compared to regular mortar, while diatomite-based mortar, emphasizing its alignment with sustainable
mortar containing the same quantity of diatomite in powder form construction practices due to diatomite’s natural abundance and eco-
can reduce heat flow by 17%. friendliness. It recommended future research into the mechanical
• The results demonstrate that diatomite enhances its insulation ca- properties of mortar/diatomite and mortar/diatomite/PCM composites,
pabilities particularly in high humidity conditions. At 40% humidity, focusing on tensile, compressive, and flexural strength. Further in-
mortar containing 80% diatomite in gravel form exhibited a decrease vestigations into durability, sustainability, economic feasibility, and
in temperature by 3 C compared to regular mortar, while at 67% scalability were suggested to support practical implementation.
◦

humidity, it decreased by 4 C.
◦
Collaborative efforts were encouraged to translate the findings into real-
• Experimentally obtained results strongly position the composite world applications, advancing modern construction practices.
material of diatomite gravel as a formidable contender among
traditional insulation materials. By showcasing superior thermal CRediT authorship contribution statement
insulation properties, it underscores its potential to revolutionize the
approach to energy-efficient building design and construction. Houssem Hachemi: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
• A notable outcome of this research is the significant variation in draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Chakib
performance between diatomite in gravel form and diatomite in Seladji: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervi-
powder form when used as a sand substitute in mortar. The complex sion, Data curation. M. Reda Haddouche: Writing – original draft,
interplay of particle size, shape, and distribution greatly influences Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Müslüm Arıcı: Writing –
the material’s thermal conductivity and overall effectiveness as an review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Data
insulator. curation. Smain Melouka: Methodology, Investigation, Data curation.
• The numerical results revealed that the wall with the MDG8PCM Omar Taleb: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology. Bra-
finishing layer contributed to a 10 % reduction in thermal flux him Farid Houti: Writing – original draft, Software, Data curation.
compared to a wall with the MDG8 finishing layer. Djahida Mahmoudi: Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology,
Data curation. Mohammed Abdelbassit Kherrafi: Software,

18
H. Hachemi et al. Energy & Buildings 330 (2025) 115322

Fig. 13. Variation of Temperature and Relative Humidity at the Interior Surface (July 15–22, 2023) in Adrar.

Methodology, Data curation. Sabrina Taieb Bouderbal: Writing – [3] Z. Chen, M. Qin, Preparation and hygrothermal properties of composite phase
change humidity control materials, Appl. Therm. Eng. 98 (2016) 1150–1157,
original draft, Software, Methodology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.096.
[4] M.J. Abden, Z. Tao, M.A. Alim, Z. Pan, L. George, R. Wuhrer, Combined use of
Declaration of competing interest phase change material and thermal insulation to improve energy efficiency of
residential buildings, J. Storage Mater. 56 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
est.2022.105880.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial [5] K. Hur, H.J. Lee, S. Wi, S.J. Chang, S. Kim, Barrier effect of insulation against
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence harmful chemical substances according to the wall surface construction of layered
the work reported in this paper. building materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 368 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2023.130430.
[6] P.J. Ong, Y.Y. Lum, X.Y.D. Soo, S. Wang, P. Wang, D. Chi, H. Liu, D. Kai, C.-L.-
Data availability K. Lee, Q. Yan, J. Xu, X.J. Loh, Q. Zhu, Integration of phase change material and
thermal insulation material as a passive strategy for building cooling in the tropics,
Constr. Build. Mater. 386 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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