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JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
SUPPLEMENT SERIES
387

Editors
David J.A. Clines
Philip R. Davies

Executive Editor
Andrew Mein

Editorial Board
Richard J. Coggins, Alan Cooper, J. Cheryl Exum,
John Goldingay, Robert P. Gordon, Norman K. Gottwald,
John Jarick, Andrew D.H. Mayes, Carol Meyers,
Patrick D. Miller
This page intentionally left blank
Circumscribing the Prostitute

The Rhetorics of Intertextuality, Metaphor

and Gender in Jeremiah 3.1-4.4

Mary E. Shields

T&.T CLARK INTERNATIONAL

A Continuum imprint
LONDON • NEW YORK
Copyright © 2004 T&T Clark International
A Continuum imprint

Published by T&T Clark International

The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX
15 East 26th Street, Suite 1703, New York, NY 10010
www.tandtclark.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Typeset and edited for Continuum by Forthcoming Publications Ltd

www.forthcomingpublications.com

Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain by The Bath Press, Bath

ISBN 0-8264-6999-X
 CONTENTS
Acknowledgments vii
Abbreviations ix

Introduction 1
1. The Limits and Unity of the Passage 3
2. The Context: Jeremiah 2 7
3. Structure 16
4. Plan 18

Chapter 1
INTERTEXTUALITY AS ALLUSION: A FIRST READING
OF JEREMIAH 3.1-5 21
1. Intertextuality and Mikhail Bakhtin 21
2. Deuteronomy 24.1-4 27
3. Jeremiah 3.1-5 35

Chapter 2
GENDER CONSTRUCTION AND INTERTEXTUALITY OF CULTURE:
A SECOND READING OF JEREMIAH 3.1-5 51
Chapter 3
JEREMIAH 3.6-11: A NARRATIVE INTERPRETATION
OF JEREMIAH 3.1-5 71
1. Metaphor as a Rhetorical Strategy in Jeremiah 3.1-4.4 71
2. Narrative Metaphor in Jeremiah 3.6-11 78
3. Analysis of Jeremiah 3.6-11 80

Chapter 4
JEREMIAH 3.12-13: THE IMPOSSIBLE MADE POSSIBLE 92
1. Intertextuality in Jeremiah 3.12-13 93
2. Metaphor and Gender in Jeremiah 3.12-13 97
3. The Application of the Rhetorical Strategies
to Israel's Political and Religious Situation 98
4. Summary 99
vi Circumscribing the Prostitute

Chapter 5
JEREMIAH 3.14-18: A MODEL FOR THE FUTURE 100
1. Intertextuality in Jeremiah 3.14-18 104
2. Jeremiah 3.14-18 as a New Voice 108
3. Metaphor and Gender in Jeremiah 3.14-18 109

Chapter 6
JEREMIAH 3.19-20: SET AMONG THE SONS—
ISRAEL AS FAITHLESS DAUGHTER 115

Chapter 7
JEREMIAH 3.21 -25: A LITURGY OF REPENTANCE 124
1. Intertextuality in Jeremiah 3.21 -25 126
2. Metaphor and Gender in Jeremiah 3.21-25 128

Chapter 8
JEREMIAH 4.1 -4: THE REQUIREMENTS FOR RETURN 136
1. Intertextuality in Jeremiah 4.1-4 137
2. Metaphor and Gender in Jeremiah 4.1-4 147
3. Circumcision: The Synoptic Metaphor
for Jeremiah 3.1-4.4 150
4. Powers of Persuasion: Issues of Identity 156
5. Seeds of Deconstruction 159

Chapter 9
NEW SIGHTS FROM AN OLD SEER:
RHETORICAL STRATEGIES AND JEREMIAH 3.1-4.4 161

Bibliography 168
Index of References 176
Index of Authors 182
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

As with any large undertaking, this book would not have been possible
without many people's support along the way. In particular, I wish to
thank the following. First, I am grateful to Carol A. Newsom, my original
dissertation adviser, who was a wonderful mentor and who pushed me to
strive for excellence. And I am also grateful to the wise counsel of the
other readers of my dissertation, on which this book is based: David M.
Gunn, John H. Hayes and Gail R. O'Day. Next, I would like to thank
Philip Davies, editor of the JSOT Supplement series, for his patience, per-
severance and unfailing good cheer. J. Cheryl Exum provided critical
insights for the revision process. Duncan Burns, the copy-editor of this
book, shepherded me through the final editing process. I am ever grateful
to him for his painstaking work.
I am grateful to the members of our weekly research group from Capital
University, Erica Brownstein and Suzanne Marilley for their support,
accountability and friendship.
There are three people in particular from Trinity Lutheran Seminary
who have been of immense help and support as I have worked on this
manuscript. First, I wish to thank Joy A. Schroeder, Assistant Professor of
Church History, who read and commented on drafts, pushing me to greater
clarity. Her gifts of time, keen perception, friendship and sense of humor
are invaluable resources. In addition, I wish to thank two Bible division
research assistants: Brian Miller, for his computer wizardry, for putting in
many hours tracking down footnotes, and for doing the countless little jobs
that needed to be done in order to tie up the loose ends before the initial
submission of the manuscript; and Steve Bond, for his close editing, for
his great suggestions and for his work in tracking down the final bits and
pieces needed at the end of the editing process. Finally, I thank my col-
leagues at Trinity, particularly those in the Bible Division, for their support
and encouragement, and for making Trinity the kind of environment where
research can flourish.
viii Circumscribing the Prostitute

I wish also to thank the publishers at E. J. Brill for granting permission

to use material from my article, 'Circumcision of the Prostitute: Gender,
Sexuality, and the Call to Repentance in Jeremiah 3.1^4.4' (Biblnt 3
[1995], pp. 61-74), which contained a much earlier reading of this text.

I dedicate this book to my parents, Ed and Grace Shields.

 ABBREVIATIONS

ATANT Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments

AID Das Alte Testament Deutsch
BOB Francis Brown, S.R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs,
A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1907)
BHS Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia
Bib Biblica
Biblnt Biblical Interpretation: A Journal of Contemporary Approaches
BKAT Biblischer Kommentar: Altes Testament
BWANT Beitrage zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament
BZAW Beihefte zur ZW
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
G Greek Septuagint (LXX)
HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
Int Interpretation
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JFSR Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JLA The Jewish Law Annual
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series
KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament
MT Masoretic text
NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament
OTL Old Testament Library
RSV Revised Standard Version
S Syriac
SBL Society of Biblical Literature
SBLDS SBL Dissertation Series
THAT Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann (eds.), Theologisches
Handworterbuch zum Alten Testament (2 vols.; Munich: Chr.
Kaiser, 1971-76)
TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung
VT Vetus Testamentum
WBC Word Biblical Commentary
ZAW Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction

The matrix of any idea is reality—people cannot conceive of something they

have not themselves experienced or at least that others have before them
experienced. Thus, images, metaphors, myths all find expression in forms
which are 'prefigured' through past experience. In periods of change people
reinterpret these symbols in new ways, which then lead to new combina-
tions and new insights.
—Gerda Lerner

This book is a study of the rhetoric of Jer. 3.1^.4. Intertextuality, meta-

phor and gender are the primary threads from which the prophet weaves a
rich and complex rhetorical tapestry designed to convince the people that
their political and religious actions have been wrong and that they must
change their ways before it is too late. On first reading, the most noticeable
thread is metaphor. The move from accusation to promise in Jer. 3.1-4.4 is
mirrored by a move from female metaphors to male metaphors. The pas-
sage begins with marriage imagery: God as the husband, and Israel as the
wife who acts like a whore (3.1-5). Sister imagery is used next to portray
the 'rivalry' in prostitution between Judah and the Northern Kingdom
(vv. 6-11). When the text moves to the possibility of repentance, however,
the portrait changes to father-son imagery: God as the father and Israel as
the repentant and obedient son (vv. 14-18; 3.21^1.4). The last shift, to cir-
cumcision as a sign both of human repentance and of God's promise,
occurs in 4.1-4.
In addition to shifts in metaphor, there are also shifts in mode of address,
from feminine direct address to masculine direct address. Like the shifts in
imagery, the direct address is used rhetorically to pressure the audience
into identifying in one way as opposed to another (e.g. to identify as the
proper sons to God as father rather than as unfaithful wife to God as hus-
band).
The shifts in imagery and direct address in Jer. 3.1^.4 correspond to
equally significant shifts in intertexts. For the purposes of this study, inter-
textuality will be defined broadly: (1) as an examination of the interaction
and/or play among texts; (2) the reinterpretation of old symbols in new
2 Circumscribing the Prostitute

contexts; and (3) the interaction between a text and cultural conventions
and ideals. As the use of the term 'interaction' indicates, intertextuality is
a two-way bridge; there is play between the texts, or, to put it another way,
dialogue back and forth. Thus, rather than looking at issues of influence
alone, study of intertextuality incorporates the role of the reader and the
ways in which the historical, political and social contexts of both author
and reader (including the implied reader and the present-day reader) enter
into dialogue and thus produce different interpretations.
When dealing with the intertextual relationships between Jer. 3.1-4.4
and other biblical texts, the following terms will be used: 'host text', which
is the focus of study (in this case, 3.1-4.4), and 'intertext', which is the
text alluded to or quoted by the host text.1 While the term 'intertext' will
not be used with regard to intertextuality of culture, cultural conventions
and ideals are nevertheless 'intertexts' with which the 'host text' of 3.1-4.4
interacts. Jeremiah 3.1 begins with a citation of a divorce law (also found
in Deut. 24.1-4) and ends with allusions to the patriarchal covenant with
Abraham and its attendant sign, circumcision, in Jer. 4.1-4. In addition,
there are interplays with other texts (e.g. Isa. 2.2-4; Hos. 10 and 14), as
well as play with cultural and religious conventions and ideals, particularly
those revolving around gender relationships.
Gender is the third rhetorical thread running through the text of Jer. 3.1-
4.4. As I will show, using material from traditions familiar to his audience
and interweaving it in new ways with metaphors which play upon well-
accepted cultural conventions of gender and sexuality, allows the prophet
to place pressure on a male audience to choose one behavior over another.
One of the aims of this book is to show that the gender construction, that
is, the ways in which gender both constructs and is constructed by the text,
is primarily responsible for the effectiveness of the rhetoric on both the
affective and cognitive levels. I argue that the gender rhetoric itself (that
is, the rhetoric which uses imagery pertaining to gender and/or sexual
roles) places strong pressure on a male audience to identify themselves
along the lines the prophet is advocating.
The gender rhetoric is not without problems, however. The switch from
female to male imagery and direct address relies on a construction of
gender and sexuality which I will argue is harmful for both genders. More-
over, the deity is implicated in the prophet's construction of gender and

1. These terms are taken from the work of Mary Orr, Claude Simon: The Inter-
textual Dimension (University of Glasgow French and German Publications; Somerset:
Castle Gary Press, 1993), p. 25.
 Introduction 3

sexuality, often in problematic ways. In my reading of Jer. 3.1-4.4,1 aim

not only to highlight the rhetorical strategies and their effectiveness, but
also to expose the problems which the gender construction specifically
poses for prophet, deity and audience alike.
In this book, an extensive revision and update of my doctoral disserta-
tion, I will combine discussion of literary and rhetorical theory which
illumines this text with detailed analysis of the text itself. The guiding
questions for the study as a whole will be: What conventions about gender
(both male and female) are brought into play in both the metaphorical and
the intertextual aspects of the passage? What is the significance of the shift
from husband-wife metaphors to father-son metaphors? How do these
shifts reflect the cultural conventions associated with gender? How do the
intertexts function rhetorically? What is their power? What gender con-
ventions do the intertexts bring into play?
Before beginning to address these questions, however, it is necessary to
deal with three introductory matters which will provide the necessary
background to the following analysis: the limits of the passage; the larger
context, which sets up the first instance of intertextuality in Jer. 3.1 and
introduces the primary metaphors which construct 3.1^.4; and the overall
structure of the unit.

1. The Limits and Unity of the Passage

Jeremiah 3.1^.4 falls within two larger sections: chs. 2-6 and 2.1^.2/4.
Since the time of Bernhard Duhm, most scholars identify Jeremiah 2-6 as
a collection of the earliest, genuinely jeremianic material.2 In terms of

2. See, for example, Bernhard Duhm, Das Buck Jeremia (Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr
[Paul Siebeck], 1901), p. 15; Sigmund Mowinckel, Zur Komposition des Buches
Jeremia (Norske Videnskapsakademie, Oslo. Hist.-Filos. Klasse, Skrifter 1913, No. 5;
Oslo: J. Dybwad, 1914), p. 20—for the earliest scholars to propose this idea. Other
early scholars in this line are F. Hitzig, Der Prophet Jeremiah (Leipzig: Weidmannsche
Buchhandlung, 1841), pp. x, 8, 25; Heinrich Ewald, Die Propheten des Alien Bundes
(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2nd edn, 1868 [ 1841 ]), II, p. 69; Karl Heinrich
Graf, Der Prophet Jeremia (Leipzig: T.O. Weigel, 1862), p. 54; and C.F. Keil, The
Prophecies of Jeremiah (2 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1873), I, p. 21. Accepting
uncritically the historicity of the so-called biographical sections of Jeremiah, and on
the basis of the content of those sections, scholars since the time of Duhm have tried to
reconstruct the original words of Jeremiah which appeared on the Urrolle destroyed by
King Jehoiakim as well as the second scroll, both mentioned in Jer. 36. W. Rudolph, in
his classic commentary (Jeremia [HAT, 12; Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck),
4 Circumscribing the Prostitute

content, however, chs. 2-6 are usually divided into two units: (1) 2.1-4.2/4;
and (2) 4.3/5-6.30, the latter of which William L. Holladay classifies as
the 'foe from the north' cycle.3 Jeremiah 3.1^4.4 falls within the former
division: 2.1-4.2/4. The introductory formula of 2.1 clearly indicates the
beginning of a new section, as does the change of content and direct
address to Israel. Jeremiah 2 sets the reader up for the legal citation and
rhetorical questions of 3.1.
Although 3.1^1.4 is a sub-unit of the larger rhetorical unit of 2.1^4.4,
there are several reasons to treat ch. 3 separately from ch. 2. The first is
formal: Jer. 3.1 begins with "1QK7, which a majority of scholars sees as a
truncated introductory formula.4 On the basis of the formal similarities
between Jer. 3.1 and Hag. 2.11,51 prefer to read "IEN7 as it stands, as an
indicator of a citation. Nevertheless, the word itself indicates a division
between what precedes and what follows. An even more convincing
reason for seeing 3.1-4.4 as separate from ch. 2 is the way in which 3.1-5,
rather than ch. 2, functions in governing the whole of 3.1-4.4. Jeremiah 3
contains the actual quotation and the metaphorical basis for the follow-
ing appeals. Moreover, the chapter revolves around the question raised by
vv. 1-5—namely: Can YHWH take Israel back?—as well as the related
question, if YHWH can take Israel back, what are the conditions for such a
return? In short, the rhetorical argument of 3.1—4.4 is determined by the
rhetorical question and metaphors of 3.1 rather than the rhetoric of ch. 2.

3rd edn, 1968], pp. xvii, 1), is one of those who has cemented this view. Following
Mowinckel, he categorizes 3.1-5 + 3.19—4.4 as part of die Spriiche Jeremias' (p. xiv)
and places it in the Urrolle along with 1.4-6.30 (excluding 3.14-18 and 5.18-20, dating
the poem itself to the time of Josiah). An exhaustive study of this problem through the
early 1960's is that of C. Rietzschl, Das Problem der Urrolle: Ein Beitrag zur Redak-
tionsgeschichte des Jeremiabuches (Giitersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1966). Finally, the recent
commentary by William L. Holladay (Jeremiah 1 [Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1986]) is an example of this ongoing search. Holladay presents quite a sophisti-
cated view of the development of Jer. 3. According to him, Jeremiah himself reworked
the material in this chapter several times: Jer. 3.1-2,4-5,12,18b(3,19,21a, 22-23 was
originally addressed to the North; it was subsequently expanded by 3.2ab and 4.3-4 for
the Urrolle and finally, 3.3 and 20 were added for the second scroll (pp. 63-73). I think
that the search for the Urrolle is doomed to failure, simply because it is impossible
ever to get back to an original author's work and/or intent. Any attempts to do so are
inevitably highly speculative.
3. William J. Holladay, The Architecture of Jeremiah 1-20 (London: Associated
University Press, 1976), pp. 30-34.
4. See, for example, Rudolph, Jeremia, p. 22.
5. See the discussion in Chapter 1.
 Introduction 5

While the designation of Jer. 3.1 as the starting place of the larger unit is
relatively straightforward, there is some disagreement over the ending,
whether at 4.2 or 4.4. There is universal agreement, however, that with 4.5
the theme changes dramatically. Those who maintain that the material
begun in 3.1 ends with 4.2 usually claim that 4.3-4 serve as the opening to
the so-called 'foe cycle' in4.5-6.30.6 Others see continuity between 4.1-2
and 4.3-4.7 Formally, there is a division between w. 2 and 3: an intro-
ductory formula. Yet there are some important reasons for maintaining
that 4.3-4 should be included as the conclusion to the material begun in
3.1. First, 4.3-4 elaborates and radicalizes the conditions for return given
in 4.1-2. Moreover, the circumcision imagery of 4.3-4 fits most closely
with the citation of the promise to Abraham from Genesis in 4.1-2, since
circumcision is the sign of that promise. Finally, v. 4b emphasizes once
again what has been emphasized throughout the passage, namely, the con-
ditional nature of God's promise to take Israel back. In its context, v. 4b
also serves as a transition to the threatening oracles of 4.5-6.30.
In terms of the text's unity, redactional approaches have to this point
dominated scholarship, the most recent example being that of Mark Biddle,
A Redaction History of Jeremiah 2.1—4.2? While the central questions
governing my study necessitate a different approach, that is, one which
treats the larger unit as a whole, these studies have nevertheless been im-
portant for showing how Jer. 3.1 —4.4 is actually a multi-layered text. Such
studies correctly indicate that there are 'voices' from several historical
periods contributing to the final form of the text. Yet, contra Duhm et al.,
those voices are not simply strung together.9 Rather, taking into considera-
tion the insights of those such as Paul Volz, who look for meaning and

6. See, e.g., Hitzig, Der Prophet Jeremia, p. 25; Keil, The Prophecies of Jeremiah,
I, p. 21; and Jeremiah Unterman, From Repentance to Redemption: Jeremiah's
Thought in Transition (JSOTSup, 54; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987).
7. Cf. Rudolph, Jeremia, p. xiv; and J.G. McConville, Judgment and Promise:
An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1993),
pp. 27-41. Carl Heinrich Cornill also sees an integral connection between 4.3-4 and
3.19-25. He argues that YHWH'S answer to 3.19-25 is only found in 4.3-4 (Das Buch
Jeremia [Leipzig: Chr. Herm. Tauchnitz, 1905], p. 45).
8. Mark Biddle, A Redaction History of Jeremiah 2.1-4.2 (AT ANT, 77; Zurich:
Theologischer Verlag, 1990).
9. Assuming that the original oracles were very short, Duhm characterizes Jer.
2.1^1.4, with the exception of 2.4-13, 3.6-12a, 14-18, and a few smaller additions, as
'ein Serie von eng mit einander verbundenen kleinen Dichtungen Jeremias...die
samtlich in demselben Metrum geschrieben sind und in vortrefflicher Disposition Ein
Thema behandeln' (Das Buch Jeremia, p. 15).
6 Circumscribing the Prostitute

coherence in longer sections of the text,10 this study will presuppose such a
coherence between sections.
In terms of contextualizing Jer. 3.1^4.4, the work of Rudolph Smend is
also particularly helpful. Smend's summary of Jeremiah's prophecy and
his discussion of the book is structured primarily around the content of
chs. 2 and 3, where he also makes the initial connection (which has often
been noticed since Smend's time) between chs. 3 and chs. 30 and 31 .u He
suggests different viewpoints for this similar material, with ch. 3 looking
forward and chs. 30-31 responding to the past. According to Smend, ch. 3
(with the exception of 3.14-18) addresses future events and portrays the
fate of Judah as conditional. In contrast, the entire argument of chs. 30-31
presupposes the exile and discusses YHWH'S re-establishment of Judah and
Jerusalem through conquering Judah's enemies.12 Although he does not go

10. Paul Volz, Der ProphetJeremia (KAT, 10; Leipzig: A. Deichertsche Verlags-
buchhandlung, 2nd edn, 1928 [1920]), p. xxxiv. His notion that the prophets were
writing prophets and not simply oral communicators has been taken up in recent
scholarship, most notably in Swallowing the Scroll: Textuality and the Dynamics of
Discourse in Ezekiel's Prophecy (JSOTSup, 78; Bible and Literature Series, 21;
Sheffield: Almond Press, 1989], pp. 29-45, in which Ellen Davis raises the issue of the
relationship between oral and written material in the prophets. In her second chapter,
Davis deals with the development of prophetic speech from oral to written forms.
Specifically, she maintains that Ezekiel was the first prophet to use primarily written
forms of communication (p. 39). However, she suggests that prophets began to use a
combination of written and oral speech as early as Isaiah (p. 38). On this basis, and for
several other reasons as well, much of what Davis says could be applied to Jeremiah
(see especially her discussion of van der Ploeg, p. 39). For instance, she cites several
anthropological and archaeological studies which suggest that the Israelite and
Mesopotamian societies of the seventh and sixth centuries BCE were essentially literate
societies, which would lend credence to the application of her thesis to Jeremiah.
Within the book of Jeremiah itself there are also some indications that written
communication was used alongside verbal communication (cf. ch. 36, his letters to the
exiles in chs. 27-29, etc.). Thus, I agree with Davis that writing could have begun
early, and therefore propose that we need to rethink the long-held presupposition of the
prophets as producers of very short, undeveloped oracles.
11. Rudolf Smend, Lehrbuch der Alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (Freiburg:
J.C.B. Mohr, 2nd edn, 1899), pp. 244-53.
12. Debate has long raged over the respective dates of Jer. 3 and 30-31, with
scholars dividing into two general groups: (1) those dating the 'original' portions of
both to Jeremiah and positing a pre-exilic time frame (exactly which verses of each are
'original' differs from scholar to scholar); and (2) and those dating the majority of
ch. 3 to pre-exilic times, while dating chs. 30-31 to the exile and positing a different
author.
 Introduction 1

so far as to say that chs. 30-31 are a reinterpretation of ch. 3, his discus-
sion foreshadows such a view.
Smend's astute literary characterization is also helpful in thinking about
the structure of the book as a whole. I agree with Smend that there is likely
both early and later material in chs. 3 and 30-31, and that their final forms
took shape in the exilic period. Yet his insight raises questions as to
whether two similar collections of oracles were placed in different literary
and rhetorical contexts as a structuring mechanism for the book. If so,
their use in two such disparate contexts also reveals the equal applicability
of a similar message to two different historical/political situations.13
Smend's work thus raises the issue of intertextualiry (or intratextuality)
within the book of Jeremiah itself. Additionally, it emphasizes ways in
which the voices in the book as a whole are in dialogue with each other.
While relying on the insight that there are various voices from different
dates incorporated into Jer. 3.1-4.4, my main concern, however, is not
redactional; that is, my focus is not on the separation and dating of those
voices. Rather, my concern lies with investigating how the various voices
contained in the 3.1-4.4 are in dialogue with each other—how, for instance,
the exilic voice in 3.14-18 engages the earlier verses, builds on previous
interpretation and provides a reinterpretation for a different historical
situation. Thus, developing a line of thought hinted at in Smend's work, I
will be reading 3.1-4.4 as a coherent multi-layered unit.

2. The Context: Jeremiah 2

If Jer. 3.1^.4 is a complex unit, its integral relationship to ch. 2 never-
theless needs to be addressed, since it sets the stage for 3.1^4.4 in several
ways. An outline of ch. 2 will help to provide a framework for the dis-
cussion of each of these context-setting features. The chapter can be
divided into five parts: (1) vv. 1-3 (Israel's faithfulness in the wilderness);
(2) vv. 4-13 (Israel's religious disloyalty); (3) vv. 14-19 (Israel's political
disloyalty); (4) vv. 20-28 (a return to Israel's religious disloyalty); and
(5) vv. 29-37, (a return to Israel's political disloyalty). As can be seen
from this outline, vv. 4-37 contrast the people's present behavior with their
original loyalty OOP!) at the time YHWH established his14 covenant
relationship with them.

13. I will deal with this idea in greater detail in my analysis of Jer. 3.14-18.
14. As will be shown below, YHWH is consistently pictured in male terms and as a
male deity in the text of Jeremiah. Hence the term, 'his'.
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