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 River Publishers Series in Automation, Control and Robotics

A First Course in

A First Course in Control System Design

Control System Design A First Course in
2nd Edition Control System Design
Kamran Iqbal 2nd Edition
Control systems are pervasive in our lives. Our homes have

2nd Edition
environmental controls. The appliances we use, such as the washing
machine, microwave, etc. carry embedded controllers in them. We
Kamran Iqbal
fly in airplanes and drive automobiles that extensively use control
systems. The industrial plants that produce consumer goods run on
process control systems. The recent drive toward automation has
increased our reliance on control systems technology.
This book discusses control systems design from a model-based
perspective for dynamic system models of single-input single-output Kp
type. The emphasis in this book is on understanding and applying
the techniques that enable the design of effective control systems
in multiple engineering disciplines. The book covers both time- e u(t) u
e(t)
domain and the frequency-domain design methods, as well as 1 Kd 1
controller design for both continuous-time and discrete-time
systems. MATLAB© and its Control Systems Toolbox are extensively
used for design. Technical topics discussed in the book include:
∙ Mathematical models of physical systems ∫udt Ki

Kamran Iqbal
∙ Analysis of transfer function and state variable models
∙ Control systems design objectives
dθ r θr − θa
∙ Control system design with root locus Cr
dt
+
Rw
= qi .
∙ Control system design in the state-space
∙ Control system design of sampled-data systems ℎ
∙ Compensator design with frequency response methods

d∆ θ
Rw Cr + ∆ θ = Rw qi .
dt

Foreword by
Professor Emeritus Hooshang Hemami,
River Publishers River Ohio State University River Publishers
 A First Course in
Control System Design
2nd Edition
RIVER PUBLISHERS SERIES IN AUTOMATION,
CONTROL AND ROBOTICS

Series Editors:

ISHWAR K. SETHI
Oakland University
USA

TAREK SOBH
University of Bridgeport
USA

QUAN MIN ZHU

University of the West of England
UK

Indexing: All books published in this series are submitted to the Web of Science
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The “River Publishers Series in Automation, Control and Robotics” is a series of

comprehensive academic and professional books which focus on the theory and
applications of automation, control and robotics. The series focuses on topics ranging
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Books published in the series include research monographs, edited volumes,
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and developments.
Topics covered in the series include, but are by no means restricted to the
following:

• Robots and Intelligent Machines

• Robotics
• Control Systems
• Control Theory
• Automation Engineering

For a list of other books in this series, visit www.riverpublishers.com

 A First Course in
Control System Design
2nd Edition

Kamran Iqbal
University of Arkansas
Little Rock, USA

River Publishers
Published, sold and distributed by:
River Publishers
Alsbjergvej 10
9260 Gistrup
Denmark

www.riverpublishers.com

ISBN: 978-87-7022-152-8 (Hardback)

978-87-7022-151-1 (Ebook)

©2020 River Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of
the publishers.
 Contents

Foreword xi

Preface xiii

Acknowledgement xxi

List of Figures xxiii

List of Tables xxix

List of Abbreviations xxxi

1 Mathematical Models of Physical Systems 1

1.1 Modeling of Physical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Model Variables and Element Types . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 First-Order ODE Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Solving First-Order ODE Models with Step Input . . 8
1.1.4 Second-Order ODE Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.5 Solving Second-Order ODE Models . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Transfer Function Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 DC Motor Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2 Industrial Process Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 State Variable Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Linearization of Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.1 Linearization About an Operating Point . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2 Linearization of a General Nonlinear Model . . . . . 27
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2 Analysis of Transfer Function Models 31

2.1 Characterization of Transfer Function Models . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1 System Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.2 System Natural Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

v
vi Contents

2.2 System Response to Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.2.1 The Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.2 The Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.3 Characterizing the System Transient Response . . . 44
2.2.4 System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Sinusoidal Response of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.1 Sinusoidal Response of Low-Order Systems . . . . . 50
2.3.2 Visualizing the Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . 52
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3 Analysis of State Variable Models 63

3.1 State Variable Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.1 Solution to the State Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.2 Laplace Transform Solution and Transfer Function . 66
3.1.3 The State-Transition Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.1.4 Homogenous State Equation and Asymptotic
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.5 System Response for State Variable Models . . . . . 74
3.2 State Variable Realization of Transfer Function Models . . . 77
3.2.1 Simulation Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.2 Controller Form Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.2.3 Dual (Observer Form) Realization . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.4 Modal Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.5 Diagonalization and Decoupling . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Linear Transformation of State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1 Transformation into Controller Form . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.2 Transformation into Modal Form . . . . . . . . . . 88
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4 Feedback Control Systems 93

4.1 Static Gain Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2 Dynamic Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.1 First-Order Phase-Lead and Phase-Lag
Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.2 The PID Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.3 Rate Feedback Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
 Contents vii

5 Control System Design Objectives 111

5.1 Stability of the Closed-Loop System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.1.1 Closed-Loop Characteristic Polynomial . . . . . . . 112
5.1.2 Stability Determination by Algebraic Methods . . . 114
5.1.3 Stability Determination from the Bode Plot . . . . . 116
5.2 Transient Response Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.1 System Design Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.2.2 The Desired Characteristic Polynomial . . . . . . . 121
5.2.3 Optimal Performance Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3 Steady-State Error Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.1 The Steady-State Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.2 System Error Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.3 Steady-State Error to Ramp Input . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Disturbance Rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.5 Sensitivity and Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

6 Control System Design with Root Locus 133

6.1 The Root Locus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.1.1 Roots of the Characteristic Polynomial . . . . . . . 135
6.1.2 Root Locus Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.1.3 Obtaining Root Locus Plot in MATLAB . . . . . . . 138
6.1.4 Stability from the Root Locus Plot . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.1.5 Analytic Root Locus Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2 Static Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Dynamic Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.3.1 Transient Response Improvement . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.3.2 Steady-State Error Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.3 Lead–Lag and PID Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.3.4 Rate Feedback Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3.5 Controller Designs Compared . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.4 Controller Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.4.1 Phase-Lead/Phase-Lag Controllers . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.4.2 PD, PI, PID Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

7 Design of Sampled-Data Systems 167

7.1 Models of Sampled-Data Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.1.1 Z-transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
viii Contents

7.1.2 Zero-Order Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

7.1.3 Pulse Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.2 Sampled-Data System Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2.1 Difference Equation Solution by Iteration . . . . . . 175
7.2.2 Unit-Pulse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.2.3 Unit-Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.2.4 Response to Arbitrary Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.3 Stability in the Case of Sampled-Data Systems . . . . . . . 184
7.3.1 Jury’s Stability Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.3.2 Stability Through Bilinear Transform . . . . . . . . 185
7.4 Closed-Loop Sampled-Data Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.4.1 Closed-Loop System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.4.2 Unit-Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.4.3 Steady-State Tracking Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.5 Controllers for Sampled-Data Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.5.1 Root Locus Design of Digital Controllers . . . . . . 193
7.5.2 Analog and Digital Controller Design Compared . . 196
7.5.3 Digital Controller Design by Emulation . . . . . . . 200
7.5.4 Emulation of Analog PID Controller . . . . . . . . . 203
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

8 Controller Design for State Variable Models 211

8.1 State Feedback Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.1.1 Pole Placement with State Feedback . . . . . . . . . 213
8.1.2 Pole Placement in the Controller Form . . . . . . . . 215
8.1.3 Pole Placement using Bass–Gura Formula . . . . . . 217
8.1.4 Pole Placement using Ackermann’s Formula . . . . 218
8.1.5 Pole Placement using Sylvester’s Equation . . . . . 220
8.2 Tracking System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.2.1 Tracking System Design with Feedforward
Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.2.2 Tracking PI Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.3 State Variable Models of Sampled-Data Systems . . . . . . 230
8.3.1 Discretizing the State Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.3.2 Solution to the Discrete State Equations . . . . . . . 232
8.3.3 Pulse Transfer Function from State Equations . . . . 234
8.4 Controllers for Discrete State Variable Models . . . . . . . . 235
8.4.1 Emulating an Analog Controller . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.4.2 Pole Placement Design of Digital Controller . . . . . 236
 Contents ix

8.4.3 Deadbeat Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

8.4.4 Tracking PI Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

9 Frequency Response Design of Compensators 247

9.1 Frequency Response Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.1.1 The Bode Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.1.2 The Nyquist Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.2 Measures of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.2.1 Relative Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.2.2 Phase Margin and the Transient Response . . . . . . 256
9.2.3 Error Constants and System Type . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.2.4 System Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.3 Frequency Response Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.3.1 Gain Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.3.2 Phase-Lag Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.3.3 Phase-Lead Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.3.4 Lead-Lag Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
9.3.5 PI Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.3.6 PD Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.3.7 PID Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
9.3.8 Compensator Designs Compared . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.4 Closed-Loop Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Skill Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Appendix 281

Index 285

About the Author 289

 Foreword

Dr. Kamran Iqbal has assembled a very valuable and comprehensive book on
introductory and applied control. The book contains many tools and much
knowledge about the details of mankind’s and engineers’ everyday imple-
ments, and their control. The concepts, issues, challenges and alternatives are
lucidly and precisely presented.
The material is very well motivated and compactly and pragmatically
presented. Matlab programs and computer tools supplant the discussions and
analytical tools in order to ease the derivations and the conclusions.
A curious and motivated engineer or student of control will have no diffi-
culty following the material, the mathematical developments and derivations,
models of physical systems and interdisciplinary issues. Many examples and
exercises are added to enrich the imagination and creativity of the reader.
Subjects of Transfer Function, State Variables, Root Locus apparatus, Sample
Date systems, Pole Assignment are precisely described. A variety of assigned
problems and questions help the reader to become completely aware of
alternatives and be able to envision different solutions in his or her mind.
The book is equipped with ample explanations, guidance, tools and
encouragement. It will be a valuable tool in all countries of the world with
different educational, industrial and technical facilities and where engineers
are called upon to provide.

Hooshang Hemami
Professor emeritus of electrical and computer engineering
at Ohio State University
April 2020

xi
 Preface

The aim of the second edition of A First Course in Control System Design,
similar to the first edition is to present model-based control system design
in a lucid, understandable and approachable manner. The book has been
written with the needs of undergraduates and beginning graduate students
in multiple engineering disciplines and practicing engineers in mind. The
second edition is organized into nine chapters; the first half of the book is
devoted to analysis and the second half to the design of control systems. The
book covers the design of controllers for analog and sampled-data systems
described by transfer function and state variable models. The coverage is
restricted to models of single-input single-output (SISO) systems. Examples
from diverse engineering disciplines are introduced in the first chapter and
carried forward in the later chapters. MATLAB and Control Systems Toolbox
are extensively used for design; occasionally, Symbolic Math Toolbox is also
used. MATLAB scripts for solutions to all book examples are provided.
Control systems, both natural and man made, are pervasive in our lives.
Our homes have environmental controls. The appliances we use at home, such
as the washing machine, microwave, etc. have embedded controllers. We fly
in airplanes and drive automobiles, which make extensive use of control sys-
tems. Our body regulates essential functions like blood pressure, heart-beat,
breathing, and insulin levels in blood, manifesting biological control systems.
The cells in the body regulate our metabolism and energy production using
nutrient levels and electrolytes. The postural stability of the body depends on
regulating body’s center of mass (CoM) over the base of support. Fine motor
control enables the manipulation and locomotion tasks we undertake as part
of daily living. We essentially perform the control function as we walk or
drive a car, the control objective in both cases being to follow a desired course
at a preferred speed.
The industrial revolution in the eighteenth century ushered in the age of
machines that needed automatic controls. As a result, ingenious solutions to
the control problems were developed. An early example involved the use of
centrifugal flyball governor for throttle adjustment to regulate the speed of

xiii
xiv Preface

Figure 1 A generic control system block diagram that includes the controller, process to be
controlled, the actuator and the sensor. The output is fed back and compared with the reference
signal in the comparator.

the steam engine that was essential to industrial progress. Though control
technology quickly developed to solve practical problems, the theoretical
understanding of the control systems and its underlying design process was
developed later in mid-twentieth century. The post WWII era launched the
space age that focused on the optimal design of control systems, and their
implementation via the computing machines. The quest for boosting the
industrial output through factory automation has enabled advancement in the
industrial process control, and in the industrial robots that makes extensive
use of feedback control systems. The growing automation in the past few
decades has increased our reliance on control systems.
A control system aims at realizing a desired behavior at the output of a
device or system (the plant) by manipulating its input through a controller.
Feedback based on observation of the process output via sensing elements
plays and important role in automatic control systems (Figure 1). In the
feedback control systems, the controller monitors the difference between the
desired and actual values of output variables, and adjusts the system inputs
accordingly by employing various control schemes. The control objective,
often, is to reduce the error to zero at a sufficiently fast rate and maintain it
there. The desired output may be expressed as a set point, that is, a constant
value that the controller will try to maintain at the output. Alternatively, in
tracking systems, the objective is to track a time-varying reference input. An
example of the latter is the control system used to make a drone-mounted
camera follow a moving object of interest.
The control system design is invariably undertaken to achieve multiple
objectives. The first and the foremost among them is the stability of the
closed-loop system, as the system outputs affect the inputs in real-time.
The next objective is the dynamic stability or the ability of the controller
to damp out the output oscillations, characterized by the damping ratio of
the dominant response modes. Further, the controller aims to improve the
speed of response, that is reflected by the system bandwidth. The steady-state
response of the closed-loop system, ideally, has a unity transfer function,
 Preface xv

i.e., the system operates with no steady-state errors. Next, the controller is
required to curtail the effect of disturbance and noise inputs on system output.
A final objective in the control design is to impart robustness, which implies
an ability to maintain performance levels in the presence of disturbance
inputs, as well as its ability to withstand parameter variations and certain
unmodeled dynamics.
The controller designed for stability and performance may be of static
or dynamic type. In certain cases, a static gain controller may be adequate
to achieve a desired level of performance. An example is the automobile in
cruise control, where the gas intake is adjusted to affect the selected speed.
As the performance demands increase, a simple gain control is no longer ade-
quate and a dynamic controller becomes necessary. A dynamic controller is
a dynamic system in its own right, which generates a time varying controller
output that translates into the plant input. For example, the variation in the gas
pedal while driving an automobile in cruise control in response to the climb
or descent condition represents a time-varying controller output. An alternate
understanding of the dynamic controller is a frequency-selective filter that
emphasizes certain frequency bands in preference to others.
The dynamic controllers are traditionally distinguished as of phase-lead
or phase-lag type. These provide, respectively, improvements to the transient
or the steady-state response of the system. The two designs can be combined
when needed. In the contemporary design methods, the controller combines
one or more of the three basic control modes: a proportional (P), an integral
(I), and a derivative (D) mode. The resulting proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) controller is a general-purpose controller that has the ability to meet
many of the control objectives as defined above. The PID controller is
robust against variations in plant parameters, and is popular in industrial
control systems. In the traditional design, the controller is implemented using
analog circuits build with operational amplifiers and resistive-capacitive (RC)
networks. In contemporary control systems, the controller is implemented
as a software routine on a computer, a microcontroller, a DSP chip, or a
programmable logic controller (PLC).
A digital controller appropriate for computer implementation may be
obtained via emulation of an existing analog controller design. At high
enough sampling rates, digital approximation of the analog controller pro-
vides comparable performance to the original analog controller. Alternatively,
the design of the digital controller can be based on the pulse transfer function
of the plant, i.e., a transfer function obtained via z-transform that is valid at
the sampling intervals. Computer implementation of a controller invariably
xvi Preface

Figure 2 Block diagram of a digital control system that additionally includes an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

adds phase lag to the feedback loop that compromises the stability margins.
Hence, a more conservative controller design may be necessary if digital
implementation of the controller is intended. This book addresses the con-
troller design and their implementation for the analog systems as well as the
sampled-data systems (Figure 2).
This book covers the control system design as applicable to single-input
single-output (SISO) systems. The emphasis in this book is on understanding
and applying the techniques that enable the design of effective control sys-
tems. The controller design is based on the mathematical model of the plant
(the device or process to be controlled). System models are described in the
frequency-domain using the transfer functions, or in the time domain using
ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The state variable models describe
the system in terms of time derivatives of a set of state variables. Control
system design can be performed in either time or frequency-domain; essential
design techniques for both are covered in this book. A limited number of skill
assessment exercises are provided at the end of each chapter. Additional exer-
cises can be found in standard control systems textbooks (listed as references
at the end of the book).
The control systems concepts covered in this book are applicable to
the various engineering disciplines. These concepts are typically covered at
junior or senior level in the engineering curriculum. State variable models
are covered in more depth in a beginning graduate course. Students in
the scientific disciplines can also benefit from the control systems design
concepts. A typical audience of this book includes inquisitive readers with
interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.
The mathematical background required for understanding, and hence bene-
fitting from the material in this book, includes knowledge of linear algebra,
complex numbers, and elementary differential equations. Additionally, some
familiarity with Laplace and z-transforms is desired; the transform methods
are reviewed in the Appendix.
 Preface xvii

The organization of this monograph is as follows: Chapter 1 discusses

the modeling of physical systems. The dynamic character of such a system is
typically captured using ODE models. Application of the Laplace transform
converts the ODEs to algebraic equations in the Laplace transform variable
‘s’, that are manipulated to obtain the input-output system description in
the form of a transfer function (TF). The examples in this chapter include
electrical, mechanical, electromechanical, thermal, and fluid systems. The
chapter culminates with a discussion about linearizing the nonlinear dynamic
system models.
Chapter 2 addresses the methods used to analyze the transfer function
models. These models are characterized in terms of their poles and zeros.
The poles effectively determine the modes of system natural response. The
stability characterization requires the poles to be located in the open left
half of the complex plane (OLHP). The system response to arbitrary inputs
comprises natural and forced response components. The natural response of
passive systems is of transitory nature and generally dies out with time. The
forced response signifies the presence of a persistent input and is observable
in the steady-state. System frequency response characterizes its response to
sinusoidal inputs, that manifests as a sinusoid at the input frequency.
Chapter 3 addresses the methods of analysis for the state-variable models.
State variables are often the natural variables, like inductor current and capac-
itor voltage in the electrical systems, or position and velocity of the inertial
mass in the mechanical systems. The state variable description typically
includes a set of matrices, that is, the system, the input, and the output
matrices. A solution to the first-order state equations includes a convolution
integral involving the state-transition matrix of the system. The choice of
the state-variables for a given system is not unique, giving rise to several
equivalent system descriptions, some of which may be preferred over others.
The popular descriptions are the controller form, the observer form, and the
modal form descriptions.
Chapter 4 introduces controller structures used with transfer function
models. The static controller includes a scalar gain that multiplies the error
signal generated by a comparator. The dynamic controllers include phase-
lead, phase-lag and lead-lag types. Alternate description of the dynamic
controllers includes the PD, PI, and PID controllers. Rate feedback con-
trollers additionally make use of the rate signal and are similar to PD and
PID controllers.
Chapter 5 discusses the control system design objectives. These include
closed-loop stability, transient response improvement, steady-state error
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