CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a major food crop in Nigeria (Kim, 2009). It

supplies about 70% of the daily calorie of over 50 million people (Oluwole et al., 2004) and

about 500 million people in the world (Abu et al., 2006). Some cassava varieties show high

resistance to drought and mosaic disease, high yield, even in agroecological conditions where

other starch bearing crops do not thrive. The prevailing climate change, the threatening global

warming and the expected negative impact on the yield of less hardy crops highlights further

advantages of cassava as the crop of the century. Traditionally, cassava was cultivated by

farmers at subsistence levels as the ‘poor man’s food’. Currently, semi-commercial and

commercial farms are available due to increasing awareness and proof of functional versatility of

cassava flour especially in the food manufacturing sector (Ernesto et al., 1999; Cardoso et al.,

2000; FAOSTAT, 2002). Cassava is a staple crop in Nigeria, some other West African countries

and Brazil. It is produced into gari, lafun, tapioca kokote and achke.

Fresh cassava roots cannot be stored for long because deterioration begins upon harvest.

They rot within 3 – 4 days of harvest. The roots are bulky with about 70 % moisture content,

which makes transportation to the market difficult and expensive. More so, the roots contain

cyanide in the form of cyanogenic glycosides (Chow and Ho, 2002; Abu et al., 2006).

Consumption of cyanide-rich cassava or cassava-products could result in endermic goiter,

cretinism and tropical ataxic neuropathy (Abu et al., 2006; Wardlaw, 2004). Hence the need for

proper processing of the tubers before consumption. Cassava is processed into various forms in

order to increase the shelf life of the products, facilitate transportation and marketing, improve

1
palatability and ultimately reduce cyanide content for safety of consumers. Traditional

detoxification processes adopted with the intention of reducing the hydrocyanic acid (HCN) vary

from country to country (Chow and Ho, 2002; Asegbeloyin, and Onyimonyi, 2007).

One of the different traditional methods for processing the cassava tuber to reduce their

cyanogenic potential and toxicity before consumption is by processing it into garri, a grain-like

product that has been mashed, toasted and dried. The wide consumption of gari has been

attributed to affordability and relatively long shelf life compared to other cassava products as

well as its ease of preparation for eating (Makanjuola et al., 2012). There are reported cases of

poor quality garri with high residual cyanide which can have damaging effects on the body when

consumed (Odoemelam, 2005; Ojo and Akande, 2013). More so, the addition of palm oil, which

on its own has an appreciable concentration of saturated and unsaturated fats, vitamins and

antioxidants (Visakh, 2014; Ndife, 2016), during garri processing was reported to reduce or

eliminate the cyanide content in the product and improve the nutrient and sensory quality (Chow

and Ho, 2002; Abu et al., 2006).

Yellow gari is obtained either by mixing the mashed cassava pulp with crude palm oil

(rich in carortenoid) prior to fermentation or by adding few drops of palm oil during the

garifying (or roasting) stage. White gari is as a result of the absence of palm oil throughout the

processing stages. The presence of absence of palm oil depends on the dietary habit of each

community; likewise, the stage at which palm oil is added also varies from community to

community. In some rural communities, palm oil is added to cassava mash prior to fermentation

stage while in other, oil is added after fermentation, at the garifying stage. It is therefore

important to understand the nutritional and sensorial implications of this variation in the use of

palm oil. While there is plethora of information on the physicochemical properties of gari

2
brought about by fermentation time (James et al., 2012; Nwafor et al., 2015), there is lack of

information on the changes occurring in the chemical and nutritional properties of gari as a result

of the stage at which palm oil is added to cassava mash, hence, the need of this work.

1.0 Objective of the Study

The objective of this project study was to examine the effect of palm oil addition at

different stage of the manufacturing process on the quality characteristics of garri.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz)

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), also referred to as yucca in Spanish, mandioca in

Portuguese and tapioca in French, belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family (Opara, 1999; Burrell,

2003). It has been reported that the crop originated from South America and was domesticated

between 5,000 and 7,000 years B.C. (Olsen and Schaal, 2001). The first import of cassava to

Africa was by the Portuguese from Brazil in the 18th century, but now cassava is cultivated and

consumed in many countries across Africa, Asia and South America (Nhassico et al., 2008;

FAOSTAT, 2013). The crop has drought resistant root which offers low cost vegetative

propagation with flexibility in harvesting time and seasons (Haggblade et al., 2012). Cassava can

be cultivated throughout the year between latitude 30º N and 30º S, in different soil types except

hydromorphic soil with excess water (Iyer et al., 2010). The stem grows to about 5 m long with

each plant producing between 5 to 8 long tubers with firm, homogenous fibrous flesh covered

with rough and brownish outer layer of about 1 mm thick. The root can be stored in the ground

for over 2 years, and this serves as a means of food security to the farmer in West African

countries such as Nigeria (Nhassico et al., 2008; Falade and Akingbala, 2010)

Cassava is a subsistence crop in Africa, and supplies about 200 - 500 calories per day

(836.8 – 2092J) for households in the developing countries (Sánchez et al., 2006; Omodamiro et

al., 2007). In the early years, cassava was neglected as food crops because of its low protein

content (< 2%) and high cyanide content (120-1945 mg HCN equivalent/ kg) (Iglesias et al.,

2002; Charles et al., 2005), but it is considered the fourth most energy rich food source due to

4
the high (>70 %) carbohydrate content (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). The leaf of cassava plant

is higher in protein (3 - 5%) and some macro nutrients, and therefore consumed as vegetable in

some countries (Salcedo et al., 2010; Burns et al., 2012). However, the tuberous root is the major

edible part of the crop. The root serves as a source of food security against famine because of its

long storage ability in the ground prior to harvest (El-Sharkawy, 2004). The root can be

processed into different food forms for human consumption, animal feed and as industrial raw

material for paper, textiles and alcoholic drinks (Falade and Akingbala, 2010; Haggblade et al.,

2012). In Thailand, cassava dry chips and pellets are the major export commodity (Falade and

Akingbala, 2010), while in Nigeria, it is processed mainly into gari and fufu.

Utilization of cassava root in food is numerous, however, the potential in food and other

industrial applications is limited by the rapid postharvest physiological deterioration, which

reduces the shelf-life and degrades quality attributes (Sánchez et al., 2006). This physiological

deterioration is attributed to its high moisture level (60 to 75%), and respiration rate which

continues even after harvest (Salcedo et al., 2010), resulting in softening and decay of the root

and thus rendering it unwholesome for human consumption. Other factors that can cause

deterioration of cassava root include pests, disease, and mechanical damage such as cuts and

bruises which occur during postharvest handling and processing (Falade and Akingbala, 2010;

Iyer et al., 2010). The cut area exposes the root to vascular streaking and microbial attack,

thereby accelerating deterioration and decay (Opara, 1999; Opara, 2009; Buschmann et al.,

2000). Studies have shown that physiological changes start within 24 h after harvest with a blue

black discoloration commonly appearing on the root after 72 h (Iyer et al., 2010; Zidenga et al.,

2012). The colour change of the root is accompanied by fermentation and thereafter an offensive

odour indicating complete rotting (Reilly et al., 2004). This rapid degradation of quality in fresh

5
cassava roots is a major reason for the poor utilization, poor market quality, short root storage

life and low processing yield (Reilly et al., 2004; Sánchez et al., 2006).

Converting cassava root to other food forms creates products with longer shelf-life, adds

value to the root, and reduce postharvest loses (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). Furthermore, the

application of novel postharvest handling, processing, packaging and storage techniques is of

critical importance for successful large scale production and utilization of cassava roots and

products. Successful application of these postharvest technologies will contribute towards

maintaining product quality and safety as well as reducing incidence of postharvest losses, and

thereby, improve food security (Opara, 2013).

2.2 Economic Importance of Cassava

Annual global production of cassava is estimated to be over 238,000 tonnes, with Africa

contributing about 54 %, followed by Asia and South America. Cassava root produces excellent

flour quality and therefore has been promoted as composite flour for use in the food industries

(Shittu et al., 2008). Cassava flour is also highly recommended in the diet of celiac patients with

strict adherence to gluten-free food products (Briani et al., 2008; Niewinski, 2008). Celiac

disease is an autoimmune complex that affects the bowel after the ingestion of gluten containing

grains or cereals such as wheat and rye (Briani et al., 2008).

In view of enhancing cassava productivity to promote economic development, the global

mandate on cassava research was given to the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture

(CIAT) in Colombia while the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria

obtained the regional mandate on cassava research (El-Sharkawy, 2007). However, due to

widespread consumer preference for maize, cassava cultivation in South Africa is low compared

6
to other African countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Angola, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Cassava

production in South Africa is limited to small scale farmers close to Mozambican border, with

annual production between 8 and 15 t/ha (Mabasa, 2007) compared to 54,000 tonnes productions

in Nigeria (FAO, 2013).

Cassava is one of the major tropical staple foods alongside yam, plantain, and sweet

potato, and is considered as a good source of carbohydrate and the fourth most energy-giving

diet. Some cultivars are produced for human consumption while some are for animal feed

(Falade and Akingbala, 2010) however, studies have shown that cultivars such as TMS 94/0330,

91/02324, 92/0035, 001/0355, TME 1, UMUCASS 36, and 92/0057 are suitable for food as well

as feed (Aryee et al., 2006; Eleazu et al., 2011). The starch obtained from the root of most

cultivars is used for making traditional desserts, salad dressing, soup thickener, binding agent in

sausages, high fructose syrup, and in textile industries (Montagnac et al., 2009). In countries

such as Brazil, cassava is basically cultivated for local industrial purposes, while in Thailand it is

an export commodity. In parts of sub-Saharan Africa it is grown mainly by subsistence farmers

for consumption as staple food and as a source of income (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). Cassava

is being explored as a potential bio-fuel crop in countries like China and Thailand (Zidenga et

al., 2012). In Brazil, the bio-fuel from cassava is used by flex-fuel light vehicles while in the

United States it is used as gasoline (Adelekan, 2010; Adelekan, 2012).

Demand for cassava has increased most especially in developing countries where low

supplies of cereals are experienced. This is because of its significant uses in food and beverage

industries as composite flour (Eddy et al., 2012). Over the years, there have been cases of

geographical scarcity and low supply of wheat thus leading to high demand for wheat, high cost

of wheat flour, and wheat based food products (Olaoye et al., 2006; Olaoye et al., 2011). This

7
situation led to the production of different flour products such as plantain flour, cocoyam flour,

taro flour as well as cassava flour. These are substitutes to wheat flour in varying proportions

ranging from 5 to 30% (Giami et al., 2004; Eddy et al., 2007). Based on sensory evaluation

studies, 20% wheat/cassava composite flour was recommended for bread recipe because the

product quality attributes showed no distinct variation when compared with 100% wheat flour

(Eddy et al., 2007; Sanful and Darko, 2010).

In addition to the food uses of cassava root, it can also be used in the production of paper,

textiles, plywood, glue and alcohol (Raemakers et al., 2005; Adelekan, 2012). Cassava leaves are

rich in protein (3 - 5%) and some essential minerals such as calcium, nitrogen and potassium; as

a result of this, leaves serve as vegetable in soups to supplement the low protein content of the

root (Odii, 2012). The root, which is the major source of food, can be boiled or roasted and eaten

as fresh root with sauce or soup especially the low cyanide or sweet type of cassava roots (Lebot

et al., 2009). Cassava roots could also be minimally processed into various primary and

secondary products (Falade and Akingbala, 2010).

2.3 Classification of Cassava Root

Cassava roots may be classified into sweet and bitter based on the level of cyanogenic

glucoside in the tissue. The major cyanogenic glucosides found in cassava are linamarin and

lotaustralin, which can be hydrolyzed into hydrogen cyanide (HCN) (Iglesias et al., 2002).

Hydrogen cyanide is a toxic compound harmful to human health and could lead to death if

consumed in excess (Nhassico et al., 2008; Burns et al., 2012). Bitter cultivars of cassava root

have higher level of cyanide content (28 mg HCN/ kg) than the sweet type (8 mg HCN/ kg) dry

weight bases (Chiwona‐Karltun et al., 2004; Charles et al., 2005). Sweet cassava root cultivars

8
with lower cyanide content can be eaten fresh or boiled (Nhassico et al., 2008) while the bitter

type with higher cyanide concentration require further processing to eliminate the toxins before

consumption (McKey et al., 2010).

Symptoms of cyanide consumption include fast breathing, restlessness, dizziness,

headache, nausea and vomiting. In chronic cases, symptoms could result in convulsion, low

blood pressure, and loss of consciousness, lung injury and respiratory failure which could lead to

death (Burns et al., 2012). It has also been reported that consumption of these cyanogens causes

irreversible paralysis of the legs and stunted growth in children (Ernesto et al., 2002; Nhassico et

al., 2008). Greater quantity of these glucosides are biosynthesised in the leaves and are absorbed

in the root but predominantly on the peels (Siritunga and Sayre, 2004; Cumbana et al., 2007).

Total cyanide found in the fresh unpeeled root and the leaves range from 900 – 2000 ppm and 20

– 1860 ppm, respectively, depending on cultivar (Cardoso et al., 2005). However, during

processing about 90% of the HCN is lost due to the linamarin breakdown and the residual

cyanogen levels should be below the safe limit (10 ppm) recommended by the World Health

Organisation (WHO) for cassava flour (FAO/WHO, 2005). Removal of cyanogenic compound

from the root during processing for production of cassava-based foods is one major approach to

promoting safety in cassava consumption (Iglesias et al., 2002).

Processing techniques such as peeling, soaking/wetting, grating, dewatering, and sun

drying are employed as they enhance the detoxification of cassava roots for safe consumption

and prevent the occurrence of diseases (Chiwona‐Karltun et al., 2004; Cumbana et al., 2007).

Furthermore, the application of innovative/technologies such as modified processing techniques

and the use of breeding of cultivars with low cyanogenic compound have been recommended for

the reduction of the cyanide level in cassava root (Iglesias et al., 2002; Nhassico et al., 2008).

9
The level of hydrogen cyanide is also influenced by root age, varietal and environmental factors

(Charles et al., 2005). Another significant factor that influences cyanogenic level in the root is

seasonal variation as cyanide content in cassava flour was observed to be high when roots were

harvested during the period of low rainfall, which was attributed to root dehydration during dry

seasons (Cumbana et al., 2007).

Various cultivars of cassava are grown worldwide most of which have been bred by the

Centro International Agricultural Tropical (CIAT) in Colombia, International Institute for

Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Nigeria

(NRCRI) (Eleazu et al., 2011; Sayre et al., 2011). Presently, improved cultivars with desirable

character traits such as high carotenoid content have been released by researchers from these

institutes (Eleazu et al., 2012). Carotenoids are among the most valuable food constituents

because of the health benefit they offer in fighting against diseases such as cancer and

cardiovascular diseases and these health-promoting properties have been attributed to their

antioxidant activity (Rodriguez-Amaya et al., 2011). As vitamin A precursor, they also prevent

cataracts (Krinsky and Johnson, 2005). In addition, cassava with high beta carotene shows longer

shelf-life of the flour and can also reduce the onset of postharvest physiological deterioration of

root (Sánchez et al., 2006; Eleazu et al., 2011).

Cassava cultivars with novel starch content, also known as waxy cassava (Sanchez et al.,

2010), with amylose-free or low amylose starch, have been developed using genetic mutation

techniques (Zhao et al., 2011). High amylose starch is associated with paste retrogradation,

which is undesirable for many applications of starch paste as well as composite flour for baking

purposes (Koehorst-van Putten et al., 2012). In addition, paste from high amylose starch shows

low viscosity and low gel clarity unlike the waxy starch (Raemakers et al., 2005). The gels from

10
waxy cassava cultivar show little or no syneresis (liquid separation in gel) during storage even as

low as -20 °C and this justifies the use of flour from waxy cassava cultivars in the formulation of

refrigerated or frozen foods (Sanchez et al., 2010). Similarly, waxy cultivars need no

modification with chemicals such as alkenyl succinic anhydride and phenylisocyanate because

they form stable gels (Shimelis et al., 2006). The chemicals could contribute in degrading the

essential nutrients in the starch, they are unfavourable to the environment and are expensive to

use (Raemakers et al., 2005; Sánchez et al., 2010).

2.4 Nutritional Composition of Cassava Root and Products

Cassava root (and products) is a major staple food in many African countries, especially

in West Africa. Nutritional composition could be influenced by the type of cultivar as well as the

geographical location, age of the plant, environmental conditions, processing and cooking

methods (Tewe and Lutaladio, 2004).

2.4.1 Macro and Micro Nutrient Content

Cassava is a starchy fibrous root crop, with low contents of protein, fat and fibre.

However, it is rich in carbohydrate contents, ranging from 32 to 35% in fresh weight and about

80 to 90% in dry matter making it a good source of energy (Montagnac et al., 2009).

Carbohydrate content of the fresh root is more than that of potatoes but less when compared with

rice and wheat from the table above (Montagnac et al., 2009). The starch formed has about 80%

amylopectin and 17 to 20% as amylose and this ratio gives cassava a functional quality for use in

making confectioneries (Rawel and Kroll, 2003). It contains monosaccharide level of about 17%

sucrose and little amount of fructose and dextrose and therefore could serve as a valuable raw

material in high fructose syrup, beverages and pastries (Charles et al., 2005). Fibre content

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ranges from1.5% to 4% in processed products such as flour; however the content varies in

different cultivars (Gil and Buitrago, 2002). The lipid content is relatively low (0.3) when

compared with other staple foods with the exception of potato and rice.

Protein content in cassava root is very low (1 to 2%), therefore, excessive consumption of

cassava for a prolonged period of time could lead to protein energy malnutrition. About 50% of

the protein in cassava is whole protein while the remaining 50% is of the amino acids such as

glutamic and aspartic acids and some non-proteins component (Montagnac et al., 2009). Most of

the macronutrients such as fat, protein and carbohydrates are higher in the un-peeled root than in

peeled as shown in Table 1.

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Table 2.1: Composition of cassava peeled and unpeeled root

Constituent Peeled root Unpeeled root

Water (%) 71.50 68.06

Carbohydrate (%) 26.82 29.06
Crude fibre (%) 0.12 0.99
Crude protein (%) 0.74 0.87
Fat (%) 0.13 0.17
Ash (%) 0.69 0.85

Source: Gil and Buitrago, (2002)

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 Micronutrients are required by the body in smaller quantities. Most of these

micronutrients are found in the cassava leaves and they include iron, zinc, manganese,

magnesium, and calcium while the root contains minimal amount of the following

micronutrients: iron, potassium, magnesium; copper; zinc; and manganese (Charles et al., 2005).

However, the calcium content is relatively high (16 mg/ 100 g) compared to maize (2 mg/ 100 g)

(Montagnac et al., 2009). The lipid content of cassava roots in fresh wet bases have been

reported lower compared to maize and rice but higher than yam and potato, it ranges from 0.1%

to 0.3% and the glycolipids are mainly galactose-diglyceride (Gil and Buitrago, 2002). The high

water content of the root (> 65%) spurs the early postharvest physiological deterioration and thus

limiting its utilization and production yield. Therefore further processing will help to expand the

utilization of the root, improve the yield, stabilize shelf-life and increase palatability.

2.4.2 Proximate Composition

Protein, fat, and carbohydrate contents contribute to the total energy content of cassava

root and products while water and ash only contribute the total mass of the product and

influences shelf-life stability (Etudaiye et al., 2009). Ash also indicates the availability of

inorganic minerals in the product (Eleazu et al., 2011).

Table 2 shows the proximate composition of fresh cassava root and some processed

cassava products. While moisture content is higher in fresh cassava root, studies have shown that

the composition of protein, fat, ash and carbohydrates are higher in the products formed from

cassava root (Charles et al., 2005; Falade and Akingbala, 2010; Falade et al., 2014). This

suggests that the products will have a longer shelf-life than the fresh roots, because low moisture

level inhibits microbial growth while moisture level above 12% results in poor shelf stability

14
(Aryee et al., 2006). Therefore, processing is a key factor to reduce loss and maintain the quality

of products and promotes adequate supply of the crop in all seasons (Akingbala et al., 2005;

Falade and Akingbala, 2010).

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Table 2.2: Proximate composition of roots and some cassava products (% dry weight base)

Constituent (%) Root Flour Fufu Garri

Moisture 68.1 9.9 11.9 5.8

Protein 1.1 4.4 10.9 1.0
Crude fat 0.4 3.6 4.5 0.2
Crude fibre 1.1 3.8 3.2 1.9
Ash 0.5 2.1 3.5 1.0
Carbohydrate 29.1 9.9 77.9 90.9

Source: Aryee et al. (2006)

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2.5 Processing of Cassava Roots

Processing cassava roots into different food forms helps to stabilise shelf-life, improve

quality and detoxify the roots (Inyang et al., 2006; Kolawole et al., 2009). Additionally,

processing can also increase or decrease the quality attributes of the processed products. Studies

have shown that during traditional processing over 40% of the produce is lost on drying. This is

because the products are usually dried on bare floor where they are exposed to various

contaminants such as dust and birds (Inyang et al., 2006). However, these contaminations can be

avoided by modifying the production and drying process, adherence to food sanitary and

hygienic practices (Tsav-Wua et al., 2004).

The products from cassava root are either processed into unfermented or fermented foods

and drinks, but their processing methods such as boiling, steaming, roasting as well as the form

(solid, semi-solid or liquid) in which they are consumed differ (Falade and Akingbala, 2010).

The processed products from the root can be used for industrial purposes or for consumer foods.

Some of the unfermented products are common in some African countries while others are

available in several regions of the world and they include the following.

 Unfermented Cassava Products

Tapioca: Tapioca grit is a partially gelatinised flake commonly consumed in many countries in

West Africa as a convenience food (Adebowale et al., 2007). Tapioca processing is varietal

sensitive and can be processed using rotary dryer or traditionally by roasting method but the

former is widely used as it is applicable for all varieties (Adebowale et al., 2007). Moreover,

with the rotary drying method, it has been found that the time of drying, the changes in moisture

17
content, as well as shelf-life stability of tapioca and other products can be predicted (Falade and

Akingbala, 2010).

Cassava starch: Cassava starch is a very good raw material in the food industry. It can be

processed by peeling and washing of the roots, grating, and sieving to remove the fibre (Inyang

et al., 2006). The mash is allowed to sediment then followed by decanting to collect the starch

(Raji et al., 2008). The starch has a low gelatinization temperature, high water binding capacity

(thus a good stabilizer of food) and it has high viscosity and does not retrograde easily. The lipid,

protein ash and phosphorus contents are generally low, but its carbohydrate content ranges

between 73.5 to 84.9 %. However, the quality of cassava starch can be altered during drying and

therefore renders it unacceptable (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007). Both the modified and

unmodified starch are used as raw materials in food industries, either directly as starch food in

form of custard, or as a thickener in baby foods and gravies and as a binder for products during

cooking to prevent drying out (Taiwo, 2006).

Cassava chips and pellet: Exporting of cassava products in a portable form is becoming a

common practice and cassava chips and pellets are very efficient means for this purpose. They

readily satisfy the market demand (Adamade and Azogu, 2013). They are simply dried slices of

cassava roots of varying sizes between 2 cm to 5 cm usually packed in a jute bag or paper bag for

exporting (Adebowale et al., 2007). Chips can be used for animal feed but its use is being

constrained by many factors such as growth of mould as a result of environmental conditions in

the package during longer distance of shipping. In addition, chips production and demand is

inconsistent and there is also the problem of market competition in supply (Westby, 2002).

However, chips and pellet have reduced moisture content and therefore prevent both quality and

quantity postharvest loss (Adamade and Azogu, 2013).

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 Pellet is similar to chips but has lower moisture content of about 9% compared to chips.

Hence, pellets have a longer storage life compared to chips (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). It is

cylindrical in shape, dry and hard with length of about 2 - 3 cm and diameter about 0.4 - 0.8 cm

(Adebowale et al., 2007). Pellets can be processed either from the root and leaves. It can also be

processed from the peels of the root and it involves milling and extrusion, resulting in gelatinised

products which become hardened on cooling. Pellet is recommended for shipment purposes

because it has less storage weight and the ability to retain the quality after long distance of travel

due to the low moisture content (Raji et al., 2008).

Unfermented cassava flour: Unfermented cassava flour is generally referred to as high quality

cassava flour (HQCF). It is white, smooth and odourless flour and can be used as composite

flour. The introduction of HQCF to the developing countries will encourage the use of cassava-

based products and thereby reduce the dependency on imported cereals and grains (Taiwo,

2006). Traditionally, cassava flour was processed by sorting and peeling, washing and grating.

The grated pulp is then dewatered (using rock to compress the sack bags) and pounded with

pestle and mortar; this process contributes to soften the tuber. The mash is then sun-dried and

pounded again and then sieved (sieving the flour gives a good quality product) and finally

packaged for further use in the food industries (Eddy et al., 2007; Fadeyibi, 2012). This method

however could lead to fermentation as the dewatering and drying may take longer time thereby

making the flour lose the functionality for composite flour (Falade and Akingbala, 2010).

As a result, a new technique of processing was developed which is widely used to

improve the system of agriculture and encourage the local farmers (Olaoye et al., 2011). It is a

fast method which involves: harvesting and sorting of good roots, peeling and washing manually,

grating (usually done with a motorized cassava grater), dewatering (with screw or hydraulics

19
press), pulverize, drying (solar or oven drying), fine milling, sifting the milled flour with a

motorized flour sifter 250 µm and then packaging (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007). Products from

unfermented cassava include: cassava macaroni and wafer (India), cassava puddings (Indonesia),

and cassava cakes or wayano (India, Thailand and Malaysia) (Falade and Akingbala, 2010).

 Fermented Cassava Products

Fermentation is one method of processing cassava into another food form which not only

improve the flavor and taste of the product but extends the shelf-life (Falade and Akingbala,

2010). Fermentation is one major method employed during processing, which enhances the

reduction of the cyanide level and detoxification of the root (Kostinek et al., 2005). Some

notable products from fermented cassava include:

Cassava bread: Cassava bread is a fermented product prepared from the combination of wheat

flour and cassava flour in the ratio of 5:1 (Shittu et al., 2008). This proportion has been observed

to give acceptable fresh loaf. Cassava flour is processed into dry flour by drying at temperature

of about 50 ºC to ensure that flour retains its creamy colour after drying. This process has the

ability of improving the use of cassava flour as composite flour in baking industries.

Fermented cassava starch: This is a modified starch from fermentation of cassava root. It can

be used for frying and baking of cheese bread in some countries such as Brazil (Srinivas, 2007).

The process involves steeping already peeled and grated cassava roots in a tank of water for a

period of 20 to 70 days to allow fermentation. This steeping process in adequate water helps in

separating the starch granules from the fibre and other soluble compound. After fermentation, the

obtained starch is dried to produce a powdered product. Although, soaking process is essential, it

could cause deterioration of starch and thus reduce its usefulness in the food and pharmaceutical

20
industries (Taiwo, 2006). The quality and the physicochemical properties of the fermented starch

obtained are greatly affected by the varietal and environmental factors such as the temperature

during fermentation.

Cassava fufu: Fufu is an acid-fermented cassava product that is processed through the

submerged fermentation of peeled roots in water. Fufu is a common traditional food for the West

African countries (Oyewole and Sanni, 2005). The softened root is then pounded into wet fufu

and the following processes are adopted: steeping the root in water for 2 – 3 days to soften the

pulp and there after it is screened, allowed to sediment, dewatered with cloth bags, cooked and

finally pounded into fufu. The quality of fufu is determined by the texture, aroma and colour

(creamy white or yellowish) depending on the variety used. The quality of fufu is greatly

affected by season, the processors and also most especially the variety.

Deterioration rate is high because it is processed as a wet paste with moisture content of

about 50%, therefore the shelf-life is short and will not be useful or be suitable for large-scale

and commercial purposes. However, a modern technology has been developed to extend the

shelflife and market quality of fufu. This is obtained by drying in high temperature for about 60

ºC to produce flour which can be further reconstituted with hot water (Dipeolu et al., 2001).

Garri: Garri is the most commercial and useful product from cassava processing. It is creamy-

white, pre-gelatinized granular and high calorie food with a slightly sour taste (Falade and

Akingbala, 2010). It is processed from fresh cassava roots following very tedious operation of

peeling and grating into mash (Fadeyibi, 2012). The grated pulp is put in sacks (Jute or

polypropylene) and the sacks are placed under heavy stones or pressed with a hydraulic lack

between wooden platforms for 3 - 4 days to dewater the pulp and allow fermentation to take

21
place (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). This traditional way of processing cassava root into garri is

monotonous, time consuming, requires more labour and hazardous to health because processors

are usually exposed to smoke and heat during frying (Taiwo, 2006).

Thereafter the pulp is sieved with traditional woven splinters of cane and finally fried

over a heated metallic surface (garrification) to dextrinise and dry the grits (Akingbala et al.,

2005). During this time constant stirring with a wooden paddle is required until low moisture

content usually between 8 - 10% is achieved (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). Garri is regarded as

precooked convenient food which can be eaten as a snack and the long period of frying

contributes greatly to its longer shelf-life (Fadeyibi, 2012).

Lafun and Agbelima: Lafun, is fermented cassava flour common in southwest Nigeria, it is

prepared like porridge and eaten with soup (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). The process involves

manual peeling and chipping to enhance fermentation and detoxification of the root, the tubers

are soaked in large quantity of water for 2 to 3 days for fermentation to take place and the mash

is dewatered and dried for maximum of 3 days before packaging for house hold consumption or

marketing (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). Agbelima is a traditional food of the West African

especially in Ghana, Togoand Benin. It involves grating and fermentation of the cassava tuber

with inocula, although these inocula enhance the fermentation to about 2 days, it also degrades

the taste and texture. Fermentation process in agbelima promotes detoxification of cassava root

and gives a peculiar organoleptic quality such as a souring taste and a softened texture (Obilie et

al., 2003).

22
2.6 Palm Oil

Palm oil is now the most widely consumed vegetable oil worldwide (Mba et al., 2015).

For one, its cost is low compared to other oils. The main consumers of palm oil are China, India,

Indonesia and the European Union; their demand is entirely met by imports since they do not

produce palm oil. Additionally, the nearly solid state of palm oil at room temperature makes it a

good substitute for hydrogenated oils widely used until recently in the food industry and which

contain undesirable trans-fatty acids. The ban on trans-fat in several countries including Canada

and the United States, because of adverse cardiovascular effects similar to saturated fat, drives

the rapid global shift in consumption from soybean oil to palm oil (Global Industry Analysts,

2015).

There is a great deal of confusion regarding the nutritional value and health effects of

palm oil. The controversy and conflicting views still continue on whether or not palm oil is

atherogenic. Based on current evidence, it would appear that palm oil has both favourable and

unfavourable effects. The nutritional and health properties of palm oil depend not only on the

amounts consumed and the other components of the diet, but also on the extent of processing and

on the fractions considered. The crude (red) palm oil (RPO) is very distinct from the refined

product and its high content of antioxidants including vitamin E and provitamin A may be

responsible for health benefits that are no longer present in the refined oil as more than half its

antioxidants have been destroyed. The health aspects of palm oil were discussed in previous

chapters. It is suspected that several publications may have tended to be positively biased due to

the fact that the palm oil industry has been very active at sponsoring research, as reported in two

large systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Fattore et al., 2014; Sun et al., 2015). The primary

23
focus of the present chapter is on the nutritional value of crude RPO, primarily as a source of

vitamin A.

2.6.1 Processing and production of red palm oil

The processing of oil palm fruit into edible oils involves many different and complex

steps. Besides using traditional ways of processing, there is also application of small, medium

and large scall mills (Poku, 2002). The processing steps of oil palm fruit can be broken into a

few steps: bunch reception, fruit sterilization, fruit digestion, pulp extraction, and oil. Bunch

reception involves grading the oil palm fruit and the threshing process, removing fruit from the

bunches (Obibuzor et al., 2002). After the fruits have been graded, the sterilization process will

take place in the sterilizer. Sterilization is a crucial step that inactivates and destroys the enzymes

to prevent free fatty acids (FFA) by using high-temperature steam. This process also softens and

loosens the fruit structure for easier fruit digestion and extraction of oil. The mesocarp (flesh)

and the kernel (seed) are separated in the digester. The steam-heated vessels with attached

rotating shafts, and a few stirring arms that help destroy the exocarp of the fruit and reduce the

oil’s viscosity.

Palm oil extraction has two common methods: the “dry” method and the “wet” method.

“Dry” method uses mechanical presses such as hydraulic press and screw press to extract the oil

from the digested material. The hydraulic presses are usually used in the batch system, while the

screw press is used in a continuous system more often (Poku, 2002). The “wet” method, on the

other hand, uses water to draw out the oil from the fruit. The hot water introduced to the fruit

will break down gums and resins that cause foaming of the oil during high-temperature frying.

24
The gums and resins will soon remove through the oil clarification process. The mesocarp fiber

will retain about 5-6％ of oil after the pressing (Obibuzor et al., 2012).

Oil clarification is to separate the impurities from the oil. A mixture of oil, water and

solids from the bunch fibers is transferred to the tank, and the separation of the oil is based on the

density of the materials. Hot water is added to provide a barrier to the lighter oil droplets and the

heavy solids. The oil droplets will stay at the top of the tank, and the solids will sink to the

bottom. The crude palm oil (CPO) is decanted into a reception tank and the moisture content

reduced to 0.15% to 0.25% to prevent FFA increase through the autocatalytic hydrolysis of the

oil. CPO is subjected to centrifugation for purification, followed by drying step. The purified and

dried oil is then transferred to the oil storage tank (Hameed et al., 2003).

Red palm oil can be obtained from the mild processing of crude palm oil while the

refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD) palm oil is obtained by physical refining or chemical

refining of the crude palm oil (Nagendran et al., 2000). There are two stages of processing for

the refining of red palm oil from crude palm oil. The first stage involves the CPO’s pre-

treatment, which uses phosphoric acid for degumming of the oil and treatment with bleaching

clay. The main purpose of the pretreatment is to remove the impurities in the CPO while

retaining the carotenes. The bleaching clay is removed by filtration. The next stage of the process

is de-acidification and deodorization. The pre-treated oil is passed through the short-path

distillation unit at about 150℃ to 170℃ under vacuum to remove the free fatty acids (FFA)

without destroying the carotenes (Ooi et al., 2006).

For the RBD palm oil, physical refining involves a few degumming steps, bleaching, and

deodorization. In the degumming process, the phospholipids are reduced, and gums are removed

25
from the oil (Gupta, 2011). The next step is the bleaching process that uses bleaching clay to

remove the color pigments and residual soaps from the oil (Silva et al., 2013). Physical refining

is usually carried out at high temperatures and pressures in the deodorization step to remove the

odor and impurities such as the FFA, volatile oxidation products and phospholipids. However,

high temperatures may also destroy the carotenes and tocopherols; hence, a lower deodorization

temperature is highly recommended to reduce carotenes’ losses. The oil becomes bland and light

yellow (Aparicio and Harwood, 2013; Čmolík and Pokorný, 2000).

On the other hand, chemical refining is similar to physical refining but involves the alkali

neutralization process. The alkaline neutralization process removes FFA and phospholipids from

the crude palm oil and forms a byproduct named soap stock, a mixture of fatty acids, impurities

and phospholipids (De Greyt, 2013). Besides, chemical refining is carried out at a low

temperature and uses a shorter time than the physical refining process. The losses of tocotrienols

and tocopherol usually higher in the physical refining process, and physically refined oil have a

lower shelf life compared to chemically refined oil (Chong, 2012; Dunford, 2012).

The processing steps refining red palm oil are shorter and consume less time compared to

the refining process of RBD palm oil. The mild processing steps of refining red palm oil allow it

to retain most of the carotenes, tocotrienols, and the oil color. However, all the refining steps for

red palm oil could not remove the volatile compounds hence red palm oil will have a slightly

distinctive taste and odour. The consumers may find the taste and smell of the red palm oil

unique and different from other vegetable oils (Riyadi et al., 2016). In contrast, RBD palm oil

can only retain some carotenes and lost most of the tocotrienols contents during the refining,

bleaching and deodorization process (Ooi et al., 2006).

26
2.6.2 Nutritional composition of palm oil

First, palm mesocarp oil has to be distinguished from palm kernel oil, the latter being

much more saturated than the former, 80% versus 40%–50%, respectively. We will only refer to

palm fruit oil in this chapter. Palm (fruit) oil consists of 94%–98% triglycerides. Myristic acid

(1%), stearic acid (4–5%) and palmitic acid (42–47%) make up the saturated fatty acid

component in addition to monounsaturated oleic acid (37–41%) and polyunsaturated linoleic

acid (9–11%). Although it is not as saturated as coconut oil, palm oil is still at the top of the list

when it comes to saturation.

Although palm oil and animal fat have similar saturated fat content, the positional

distribution of fatty acids in triglycerides is different: 70% of the palmitic acid in palm oil is in

the sn-1 and sn-3 positions, whereas the majority of palmitic acid in animal fat is in the sn-2

position (Zhao et al., 2005). Fatty acids in the sn-2 position might have an enhanced absorption

(Hunter, 2001), and thus some researchers have suggested that the palmitic acid in palm oil may

be less hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic than that in animal fat (Ebong et al., 2009). A more

recent study found that palmitic acid in the sn-2 position could decrease postprandial lipaemia in

humans (Sanders et al., 2011).

The resulting two components of the palm oil fractionation is palm olein (liquid) and

palm stearin (solid). The fatty acid composition of palm olein is approximately 45% saturated fat

and 54% unsaturated fat. The main saturated fatty acids are 40–44% palmitic acid and 4–5%

stearic acid. The unsaturated fatty acids are 43% oleic acid and 12% linoleic acid. Technological

advances in palm oil fractionation have allowed to further separate olein fractions (Boon et al.,

2013).

27
 Palm oil tends to be perceived negatively because it is highly saturated (and because of

the environmental impact of the large plantations). However, this is somewhat balanced by its

high content of provitamin A carotenoids, vitamin E and other antioxidants as well as

phytosterols, at least in the crude RPO. The antioxidants contribute to the oil stability, as well as

to its nutritional and health benefits, alleged or real (Oyewole and Amosu, 2010).

One characteristic of crude palm oil is its high content in vitamin E (tocopherols and

tocotrienols), with a total content ranging from 600 to 1000 ppm. It is actually the highest food

source of tocotrienols. The tocopherol/tocotrienol ratio is usually around 20%, whereas it is

roughly reversed in palm oil. Compared to other oils, palm oil also has a high proportion of

tocopherols and tocotrienols in relation to its unsaturation. The ratio of total vitamin E

(tocopherols and tocotrienols in ppm) to polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA expressed in %) is

about 50, while it is only 19 for soybean and 12 for sunflower oils. The combined effects of high

tocopherols and tocotrienols, and low polyunsaturated fatty acids, could explain why palm oil

would present a greater oxidative stability, for instance, in frying (Gibon et al., 2007).

Crude RPO also represents the highest natural source of carotenoids (500–2000 ppm). β-

carotene predominates and represents with α-carotene about 90% of the total carotenoids.

Additionally, these provitamin A carotenoids of RPO are highly bioavailable because of the

absence of a vegetable matrix and the presence of fat (Cottrell, 2001). In terms of vitamin A

activity (expressed in retinol activity equivalents [RAE]), RPO provides 15 800µg and carrots

1000 µg per 100 g (Cottrell, 2001). Unfortunately most of the carotenoids in palm oil are

destroyed during the refining process, giving rise to colorless products (Gibon et al., 2007).

Crude oils are refined to remove all impurities and undesirable odour, flavour and colour, but at

the same time the process destroys more than half its natural antioxidants. One of the modified

28
refining processes developed by the Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia procures a refined

RPO (Carotino) with a light pink colour but which has retained 80% of the carotenoids, 85% of

the tocols and 65% of the phytosterols (Mayamol et al., 2007). It is unfortunate that this

technology is not more widely applied, particularly in areas where vitamin A deficiency is a

problem while palm oil is produced, notably in West Africa and in India. The cost of the

technology is possibly among main deterrents.

Elaeis guineensis is the principal variety of oil palm. It is originally from tropical Africa

and it is the most widely cultivated, not only in Africa but also in Asia and Indonesia. E. oleifera

is native of South America. Hybrids could have increased oil unsaturation, carotene, tocopherol

and sterol content (O’Brien, 2004), but they are little produced.

2.6.3 Food uses of palm oil

Characteristics of palm oil and its fractions: Palm oil processes several characteristics that are

important in determining its incorporation into food products (Kheiri, 2007).

1) It has high solid-glyceride content, giving the required consistency without

hydrogenation.

2) It is very resistant to oxidation and therefore has a long shelf life.

3) Its level of high melting point triglycerides together with its relatively low solid content

at 10oC helps in formulation of products with wide plastic ranges, which are suitable for

hot climates and some industrial applications.

4) It has the tendency to crystallize in the small beta prime crystals, a property desirable for

some applications, e.g for margarine and cakes.

5) Its prices are often competitive.

29
 6) Because of its linoleic acid content (10-11%) it can only be used in limited quantities in

margarines specifying a high polyunsaturated fatty acids level.

7) It has relatively slow melting properties because of the wide plastic range.

8) Its slow crystallization properties can lead to structural hardness in the finished product

and a tendency for recrystallization.

Margarines: One of the major uses of palm oil and its products is in margarine. Palm olein is

suitable as the liquid component of margarine blends, particularly in the firmer grades of

products. Palm stearin is of some value as a hard stock but at higher levels it tends to cause post

hardening. It can be interesterfied with olein and then used in plastic shortenings (Traitler, 2005).

Shortening: These are semisolid fats very similar in function and formulation to cake

margarines, but moisture free. They impart an easily broken, crumbly texture, which melts in the

mouth, to biscuits and short pastry. Consistency and spreadability of the fat are important with a

soft, smooth consistency needed. Blends based on palm oil, hydrogenated palm oil, or blends of

palm oil and palm stearin are widely used (Berger, 2007).

Vanaspati: This is a semisolid granular product, similar in formulation to the bakery

shortenings, mainly used as a general purpose cooking fat. It may be regarded as a vegetable

ghee, having the same relationship to ghee that margarine has to butter. Vanaspati is usually

formulated from partly hydrogenated soya, cottonseed or rapeseed oils together with up to 80%

palm oil (Berger, 2007).

Frying fats: Palm oil and olein have good oxidative stability due to the presence of natural

antioxidants (tocopherol and tocotrienols) and the absence of linoleic acid. They are

comparatively cheap to use and produce fried food products with good flavor and long shelf life

30
(Berger, 2007). Palm olein was found to compare well with groundnut oil and deteriorates less

rapidly than many other vegetable oils such as sunflower oil and hardened soybean oil (Bracco,

2005). However, on repeated frying, a brown colour is formed from phenolic minor components

in palm oil products and this colouration is unrelated to the deterioration of the fat.

Confectionery fats: Palm mid-fraction is used as a coco-butter extender or as the main

component (50- 70%) of coco-butter equivalent. This fraction should exhibit properties similar to

those of cocoa butter (Deffense, 2005). Two product based on hydrogenated palm olein have also

been used as cocoa butter extenders (Berger, 2006).

Other uses: Hard palm stearin is used as a dough improver, as a crystallization starter in the

confectionary industry and after glycerolysis, in food emulsifier preparations (Traitler, 2005).

Stearin and hydrogenated palm oil are also used in dried soups and powder mixes (Kheiri, 2007).

Olein when mixed with other fats and oils, gives a suitable fat mix for baby-food formulations

(Traitler, 2005). Together with palm oil, it is also used in filled milk and liquid coffee whiteners.

Palm oil, on its own or blended with palm kernel oil refined, can also be used in nondairy ice

cream, chocolate coatings, and sandwich cream (Kheiri, 2007).

2.6.4 Effects of palm oil on health

Beneficial substance can be detrimental in excessive quality. Malignant cells, on the other

hand, are very sensitive to tocotrienols. In fact, the more cancerous the cell, the more susceptible

it is to the destructive effects of tocotrienol, so very little is required to accomplish its favorable

role of cancer cell annihilation (Mann, 2003).

In developing countries, vegetable oils are replacing animal fats because of the cost and

health concerns and Palm Oil has become one of the major edible oils in the world. It is

31
reassuring to know that the consumption of Palm Oil as a source of dietary fat does not pose any

additional risks for coronary artery disease when consumed in realistic amounts as part of a

healthy diet. Increasingly, over the past 40 years, the conception of diet has undergone major

changes. Many of these changes involve changes of fats and oils. There has been an increasing

supply of the partially hydrogenated trans-containing vegetable oils and a decreasing amount of

the lauric acidcontaining oils (Enig, 2006).

As a result, there has been an increased consumption of tran’s fatty acids and linoleic acid

and a decrease in the consumption of lauric acid. This type of change in diet has an effect on the

fatty acids the body has available for metabolic activities. Although popular literature of

epidemiological studies usually attribute an increased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) to

elevated levels of serum cholesterol, which in turn are thought to derive from a dietary intake of

saturated fats and cholesterol (Mann, 2003).

Saturated fatty acids: A considerable body of experimental has shown that blood cholesterol

concentration can be modulated in individuals by alteration in the fatty acids content of the fat in

their diet (Keys, 2005; Reiser, 2003). An increase in saturated fatty acid in the diet in the

experiment generally leads to blood cholesterol content (LDL cholesterol). An average response

of group of individuals is predictable to a reasonable approximation by the equations of Keys,

(2005) or Hegsted et al. (2005).

Some saturated fatty acid are more effective than other (Bonanome, 2008), however,

there is marked variation among individuals in the response observed. Because all naturally

occurring fats and oil contains a range of fatty acids, experiment in this area can be interpreted.

But it can be generally thought that the saturated fatty acid, stearic acid (18.0), when ingested as

32
parts of a fat it does not tend to rise blood cholesterol concentration, whereas, palmitic acid

(16.0) does. Stearic acid is a component of many fats, especially cocoa-butter, which is used in

the chocolate production as palmitic acid is the most common fatty acid naturally found in fruits.

Saturated fatty acids other then this two do not occur as commonly, it is thought that there is a

generally effect of carbon chain length on the ability of a fatty acid to influence blood cholesterol

concentration (Hegsted et al., 2005). Thus, the longer chain length fatty acid, with not less than

or equal to 18 carbon atoms in the chain, seem to have little effect, whereas those medium

length, with 10-16 carbon atoms, have a hyper cholesterolemic effect. However, a recent careful

study in monkeys suggested that palmitic acid have little effect when compared with the shorter

chain length acid 12.0 (lauric acid), particularly, 14.0 (myrestic acid) (Hayes et al., 2001).

33
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials Source

The cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz) tubers used for this study were obtained from a

local farm in Emure-ile, Owo while crude palm oil was purchased from a local store in Owo,

Ondo State. The processing of garri was done in the Processing Laboratory of Food Science and

Technology, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo.

3.2 Preparation of Garri Samples

Freshly harvested cassava roots were processed into garri following the procedure

reported by James et al. (2012), with modification. The tubers were peeled using stainless steel

knife to expose the fleshy white part which was washed with clean water and further grated into

a mash using local cassava grating machine. The mash was weighed and divided into 3 equal

portions. The first portion was thoroughly mixed with 35cl crude palm oil, placed in a hessian

and allowed to ferment for 72 hours. This was followed by dewatering using hydraulic press and

later garified (toasted) into yellow garri, this portion was coded PBF (Palm oil Before

Fermenting).

The second portion was placed in a hessian bag with no palm oil was added, fermented

for 72 hours after which it was dewatered using hydraulic press. It was sieved and garified with

the addition of palm oil, into yellow garri, this portion coded FWNP (Fermented With No Palm

oil Addition).

34
 The third portion was placed in a hessian bag, fermented for 72 hours, dewatered, sifted

and toasted with palm oil addition inside the cast iron garifrying pot and was coded STP (Sifted

and Toasted Palmoil). The flow chart for the production of the three gari samples is as shown in

figure 3.1.

35
 CASSAVA ROOT

Peeling

Washing

Grating

Weighing of mash

Mash

Addition of palm oil Mash Mash

Bagging Bagging Bagging

Fermenting (48 hours) Fermenting (48 hours)

Fermenting (48 hours)

Pressing Pressing Pressing

Sieving Sieving Sieving

Garifrying Garifrying (Additional of palm oil) Garifrying

YELLOW GARRI YELLOW GARRI WHITE GARRI

36
Figure 3.1: Preparation of Yellow/white Garri
Source: James et al. (2012)
3.3 Determination of Proximate Analysis of Garri Samples

The procedures for the proximate analysis are as outlined by the Association of

Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC, 2000) for fat, Ash, crude protein, moisture, crude fibre

and carbohydrate.

3.3.1 Moisture Content Determination

The oven method was used. 5kg of the samples was weighed into a dried crucible. The

samples were dried in a moisture extraction oven at 105 oC for 3hours. The dried samples were

cooled in a desiccator and weighed. They were dried again, cooled, and reweighed. This process

was repeated until a constant weight was obtained. The difference in weight before and after

drying was recorded as moisture content.

W 2– W 3
% Moisture = ×100
W 2– W 1

Where W1 = initial weight of the empty dish

W2 = weight of the dish + undried sample

W3= weight of the dish + dried sample

3.3.2 Ash Content Determination

Two grams of the samples were weighed into a crucible and heated in a moisture

extraction oven for 3hours at 100oC before being transferred into a muffle furnace at 550 oC

until it turned white and free of carbon. The sample was then removed from the furnace,

37
cooled in desiccators and reweighed. The weight of the residue was then calculated as ash

content.

Weight of ash
Ash% = ×100
Weight of samples

3.3.3 Crude Protein Determination

Kjeldahl method described by AOAC (2000) was used. Two grams of the samples was

weighed into the Kjeldahl flask followed by 0.1gm of copper sulphate and 2.5g anhydrous

sodium sulphate granules as catalyst. 25ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was measured into

each flask and 10 anti-bumping glass beads were added to each flask. The samples in the flask

were digested on the Kjeldahl apparatus. A light green colour was obtained after 2 hours. The

heating was stopped and the content (digest) in the flask changed from green to colorless. The

flasks were placed in the fume cup board, covered with cotton wool, the digest was

transferred into a 100ml volumetric flask and made up with distilled water. Ten millimeter

(10ml) portion of the digest was mixed with equal volume of 45% NaOH solution and poured

into Kjeldahl distillation apparatus. The mixture was distilled and the distillate collected into 4%

boric acid solution containing 3 drops of methyleneblue indicator. A total of 50ml distillate was

collected and titrated as well. The sample was duplicated and the average value taken. The

nitrogen content was calculated and multiplied with 6.25 to obtain the crude protein content.

100 x N x 14 x Vf x T
% Nitrogen =
100 x Va

Where

38
W = weight of the sample, N = normally of the titrate (0.1N), Vf = total volume of the digest =

100ml, T = titre volume, Va = Aliquot volume distilled.

3.3.4 Fat Determination

Two grams of the samples was loosely wrapped with a filter paper and put into the

thimble, fitted to a flask which had been cleaned, dried and weighed. The flask contained 120ml

of petroleum spirit. The round bottom flask in the soxhlet extraction unit was slowly heated for

5hours. The heating was then stopped and the thimbles with the spent samples were cooled in the

desiccators and later weighed. The difference in mass was calculation as fat.

W 2– W 3
% Fat = ×100
W3

Where,

W1= Weight of the empty extraction flask

W2=Weight of the flask and oil extracted

W3 = weight of the sample

3.3.5 Crude Fibre Determination

Two grams of the treatments were digested in a conical flask with 200ml of 1.25%

H2S04 solution and boiled for 30minutes. The solution and content was poured into a Buchner

funnel equipped with muslin cloth secured with an elastic band. This was allowed to filter out,

and then the residue was washed with hot water to free the acid. The residue was scooped into a

conical flask and digested with 200ml of 1.25% NaOH solution. It was boiled for 30minutes then

39
transferred to the Buchner funnel and filtered. It was then washed twice with hot water. The

residue obtained was put in a clean, dried crucible and dried in the moisture extraction oven

to a constant weight. The dried residue was placed in a muffle furnace until it turned into ash. It

was then cooled in the desiccator and weighed to enable calculation of the percentage crude

fibre.

W 2– W 3
% Crude Fibre = ×100
Wt

Where,
W1 = weight of sample before incineration
W2 = weight of sample after incineration
Wt = weight of original sample

3.3.6 Carbohydrate Determination

The carbohydrate was calculated by difference between 100 and the summation of other

proximate parameters as nitrogen free extract.

%CHO = 100- (M + P + F + A + CF)

Where, M = Moisture; P = Protein; F =Fat; A = Ash; C = Crude fibre

3.3.7 Determination of Caloric Value (Energy Content)

The energy value was calculated using the Atwater factor method [(9 x fat) + (4 x

carbohydrate) + (4 x protein)] as described by Eneche (1991), Chimma and Igyor (2007) and

Nwabueze (2007). The proportion of protein, fat and carbohydrate were multiplied by their

physiological fuel values of 4, 9 and 4 kcal, respectively and the sum of the product was taken.

40
3.4 Organoleptic Evaluation of Garri Samples

Sensory evaluation was carried out in the gari samples using a 10 member semi trained

taste panel, where evaluation was done based on ratings on the basis of colour, taste, odour and

overall acceptability. The ratings of samples was done using a 9- point hedonic scale (9 = like

extremely, 8 = like very much, 7 = like moderately, 6 = like slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike,

4 = dislike slightly, 3 = dislike moderately, 2 = dislike very much, 1 = dislike, respectively).

3.5 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis of data generated was performed by subjecting the data to analysis of

variance (ANOVA) to calculate significant difference in treatment means and Duncan was used

to separate the means.

41
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

Table 4.1: Chemical Composition of White and Yellow Garri Samples.

Parameters (%) White Garri Yellow Garri 1 Yellow Garri 2

Moisture 13.45±0.23 11.80±0.20 11.60±0.18

Protein 1.04±0.15 1.25±0.20 1.40±0.35

Ash 1.10±0.07 1.13±0.04 1.25±0.04

Fat 0.04±0.02 1.10±0.10 1.32±0.02

Crude Fibre 1.65±0.34 1.80±0.42 2.00±0.37

Carbohydrate 82.36±0.81 82.92±0.77 82.43±0.58

Energy (kcal/100g) 337.2±0.01 346.58±0.00 347.2±0.00

Total titratable acidity (TTA) 0.54±0.01 0.65±0.03 0.80±0.03

Values of mean ± Standard deviation of triplilate determination

Yellow Garri 1 = Yellow garri obtained by mixing palm oil with cassava mash before ferment
and dewatering.

Yellow Garri 2 = Yellow garri obtained by adding palm oil to the sifted pulp obtained from the
fermented, dewatered mash prior to garification.

42
Table 4.2: Mean Sensory scores of White and Yellow Garri samples

Sensory Attributes White Garri Yellow Garri 1 Yellow Garri 2

Colour 7.90a 7.30a 7.20a

Taste 8.10a 7.20b 6.10c

Flavour 7.60a 6.70ab 6.20b

Texture 7.60a 7.60a 6.60b

Aroma 7.40a 7.30a 6.20b

General Acceptability 7.80a 7.60a 6.30b

Mean for each attribute followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each
other at 5% level (P > 0.05) higher values indicate greater preference.

43
4.2 Discussion

Chemical Composition of White and Yellow Garri Samples

The proximate composition of the processed white and yellow garri samples is shown in

table 4.1. The moisture content of the samples ranged from 11.60% to 13.45%. The yellow garri

had the least moisture content of 11.60% while the white garri had the highest value of 13.45%.

The palm oil added to the cassava pulp at the point of garification may possible account for the

lowest value recorded. The low moisture content is indicative of the level of processing

(toasting) and will probably confer longer shelf life on the garri in storage. The protein content

ranged from 1.04 to 1.40% for the white garri and yellow garri 2 respectively. According to

Obatolu and Osho (2002), garri should contain 0.7% to 1.2% protein. The difference in protein

content observed in the garri samples could be attributed to processing methods used i.e the

addition of palm oil at different stages of the garri production.

The ash content ranged from 1.10% to 1.25% for white garri and yellow garri 2

respectively. Ash content is an indicating of the mineral content the increment in the ash content

of both yellow garri 1 and yellow garri 2 could be the result palm oil addition. The fat content of

the garri samples ranged from 0.40% to 1.32%, a value similar to those reported by Olakunle et

al. (2012). The near zero fat content of the white garri sample is very important for longer

storage life since there is less chance for hydrolysis of fat and its oxidation.

44
 The crude fibre of the garri samples ranged from 1.65% (white garri) to 2.0% (yellow

garri 2) and is within the nutritionally maximum level of 3.0% (Ibe, 2001). The carbohydrate

content varied from 82.36% to 82.92%. The high carbohydrate content of the garri samples make

it a good source of energy in places where it is consumed as a safe food. The energy value

ranged from 337.2kcal/100g (white garri) to 347.2kcal/100g (yellow garri) indicating that garri is

an energy giving food of importance. The total titratable acidity (TTA) expressed as percentage

lactic acid of garri samples were 0.54, 0.65 and 0.80 for white garri and yellow garri 1 and

yellow garri 2 respectively. These values were in agreement with NIS recommendation of less

than 10g/100ml TTA for garri samples. This shows that the period of fermentation of the white

and yellow garri samples was adequate as a staple food. The variation in the proximate

composition may be attributed to factors such as types of cultivar, method of cultivation, length

and types of fermentation, cultural practices, processing methods, climate and soil factors

(Jackson et al., 2002).

Table 4.2 showed the statistical analysis of the sensory characteristics of the garri

samples. The garri samples analyzed differs significantly in terms of taste, flavour and general

acceptability. Market white garri was most preferred, closely followed by the laboratory white

garri while market yellow garri and laboratory yellow garri were the least preferred of all the

samples. The significant difference observed in terms of taste, flavour and general acceptability

might to be due probably to the rate heating during frying operation.

45
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The study revealed the proximate, energy value, functional and chemical properties of

white and yellow garri. Yellow garri 2 has the best nutritional properties, it was has the highest

protein, ash, fat and fibre content, yellow garri 1 was recorded to have the best outcome next to

yellow garri 2. This is due to addition of palm oil which increases their nutritional qualities. Both

samples (yellow garri 1 and 2) were also recorded to have the same least moisture content

indicating prolong storage stability of the samples. There was no significant difference in the

carbohydrate content of the garri samples. White garri have the least energy value while yellow

garri 2 have the highest value followed by yellow garri 1. The TTA of the garri samples were

below 1%, however yellow garri 2 have the highest TTA followed by yellow garri 1 and white

garri. White garri sample sensory was evaluated to have the best outcomes in all sensory

parameters.

5.2 Recommendations

46
 Further studies on the effect of palm oil on the microbial qualities of yellow garri at

different stages is recommended, also I recommend the consumption of yellow garri due to its

nutritional qualities compared to white garri.

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