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The Story of Black Military Officers,
1861–1948

Black members of the military served in every war, confl ict and military
engagement between 1861 and 1948. Beyond serving only as enlisted sol-
diers and non-commissioned officers, many also served as commissioned
officers in positions of leadership and authority. This book offers the fi rst
complete and conclusive work to specifically examine the history of black
commissioned officers.

Krewasky A. Salter I is a retired United States Army Colonel who commanded

a Patriot Missile Battalion and served as a senior staff officer in the Pentagon.
He holds a bachelors from the University of Florida, a masters from the
Air War College and a masters and doctorate from Florida State University.
Krewasky taught at West Point, the United States Army Command and
General Staff College and Howard University. At time of publication he is
President and CEO of 4K Enterprises, LLC, (www.4K-Enterprises.com).
Routledge Studies in African American History

1 The Economic Civil Rights

Movement
African Americans and the
Struggle for Economic Power
Edited by Michael Ezra

2 The Story of Black Military

Officers, 1861–1948
Krewasky A. Salter I
An AUSA Book
This page intentionally left blank
The Story of Black Military
Officers, 1861–1948

Krewasky A. Salter I

3
c
Routledge
I Taylor Si Francis Group
π
NEW YORK LONDON
LONDON
First published 2014
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
© 2014 Krewasky A. Salter I
The right of Krewasky A. Salter I to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Salter, Krewasky A., 1962–
The story of Black military officers, 1861–1948 / Krewasky A. Salter I. —
1st edition.
pages cm. — (Routledge studies in African American history ; 2)
1. United States—Armed Forces—African American officers—
History—19th century. 2. United States—Armed Forces—African
American officers—History—20th century. 3. African American
soldiers—History—19th century. 4. African American soldiers—
History—20th century. 5. United States—History, Military—Juvenile
literature. I. Title.
E185.63.S26 2014
355.00896'073—dc23
[B]
2013028323

ISBN13: 978-0-415-71631-4 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-1-315-87996-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by IBT Global.
Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xi
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix

1 The Native Guards 1

2 House Resolution 675 15

3 Limited Success, 1864–65 22

4 The West Point Years 1870–1889 26

5 The West and the Spanish-American War Years 46

6 A Campaign for Bars and a Brief Side Show 56

7 Fort Des Moines 68

8 Into the Fray, Success or Failure 75

9 Full Share 82

10 Attack and Counterattack: The Interwar Years 92

11 The Gate Opens 102

12 West Point and Annapolis Revisited 108

13 The United States Army 121

viii Contents
14 The Army Air Corps 144

15 The United States Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard 164

16 Women Go to War 175

17 Epilogue: War’s End to EO 9981 192

Appendix I: Black Commissioned Offi cers 1861–1865 199

Appendix II: Blacks Nominated to the USMA 1870–1887 203
Appendix III: Black Commissioned Officers During World War I 205
Notes 223
Bibliography 265
Index 275
Figures

1.1 (Top) Admiral Farragut’s bombardment of Port Hudson.

(Bottom) 27 May 1863 Native Guard Assault at Port Hudson. 13
4.1 Cadet Henry O. Flipper. 33
4.2 Cadet John Hanks Alexander. 41
5.1 Charles Young’s House in Wilberforce on Columbia Pike. 52
6.1 Colonel Charles Young, circa 1919. 65
12.1 Cadet Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. 110
12.2 Cadet H. Minton Francis. 116
12.3 Cadet Mark E. Rivers. 118
12.4 Cadet Ernest J. Davis, Jr. 119
13.1 First Lieutenant Joseph Hairston, circa World War II. 136
13.2 Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Fearing, circa 1965. 142
14.1 Charles A. “Chief” Anderson, Far Left, on the Visit of First
Lady Eleanor Roosevelt before the Famous Flight with him
and the First Lady. 146
14.2 Lieutenant Willa Beatrice Brown as a World War II C.A.P.
Officer. 147
15.1 Rear Admiral Samuel Gravely, circa 1971. 171
16.1 World War I Nurses. 177
16.2 World War II Nurses in Burma. 178
16.3 a–c. Irma Cayton to Mr. Truman Gibson, Jr., 17 May 1942;
Truman K. Gibson, Jr., to Mrs. Irma Cayton, 22 May 1942;
and Mr. Truman K. Gibson, Jr., to Lt. Colonel T. F. Keefe,
Asst. Adjutant General, 3 June 1942. 181
16.4 Colonel Ruth A. Lucas, circa 1968. 189
This page intentionally left blank
Tables

10.1 World War Intelligence Tests Percentages and Classes 95

11.1 Negro National Guard Officers, September 1940 106
11.2 Negro Reserve Officers Eligible for Active Duty, 30 June 1940 106
This page intentionally left blank
Foreword

Dr. Krewasky A. Salter, as a retired senior military officer and trained his-
torian, writes with unique authority and perspective about an important
and sometimes controversial subject—the black military experience. The
Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 not only makes a significant
contribution to American military history; it also makes an important con-
tribution to American social and political history. Black military service
was inexorably connected to participation in public life and the long, ongo-
ing struggle for equality. Long before the Civil War in the 1860s removed
the blight of slavery from our Nation and long before the struggle for civil
rights secured key victories in the 1960s, blacks fought for their Nation in
every war, knowing that the great American experiment in democracy and
freedom based in our belief in unalienable rights—especially that all men
are created equal—was still a work in progress. Salter focuses on a specific
segment of the black military experience during a very racially sensitive
period in our American history. In doing so, he shows the conventional
wisdom that black military service, especially in wartime, inspired linear
progress toward equality is far from accurate. The U.S. military reflected
inequalities in American society while also playing a vital role in dispelling
the myths and eroding the racism that underpinned those inequalities.
While some readers may be familiar with the bold outlines of this his-
tory, Salter brings the black military experience to life through the lives
of Soldiers who endured hardships while serving their Nation honorably.
As blacks earned commissions in the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine
Corps, Salter describes their service and their leadership as well as their
tribulations. Salter’s perspective as a historian is evident as he connects
the black military experience to broader social and political developments
such as the end of slavery, Reconstruction through separate but equal, and
the early stages of the Civil Rights movement. If there is a pattern that
emerges from the stories in this book, it is one of rising expectations fol-
lowed by disappointment and retrenchment of racial prejudice. The many
heroes in this story remained determined, despite hardship and insult,
to serve their Nation and secure equality. Despite the many disappoint-
ments across two centuries, the story is positive as the American military
xiv Foreword
transformed slowly into an institution where blacks could fully belong and
enjoy equal treatment.
The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 has important impli-
cations for our military and our society today. While there has been tre-
mendous progress toward equality across the past one hundred fi fty years,
we must not be satisfied or complacent, especially in our military. That
is because the stakes are high in combat and the strength of our military
forces, and indeed our Nation, is our cohesion and teamwork. Nothing
is more destructive to teams than racism or any form of prejudice. Our
Army’s and Marine Corps’ squads, platoons and companies take on the
quality of a family as they fight together, endure hardships together, mourn
together and celebrate victories together. The same holds true for our Air-
men, Sailors and Coast Guardsmen. Our military forces are teams in which
men and women are willing to give everything, including their lives, for
one another. Military men and women are bound together by a common
sense of duty, loyalty to our Constitution, trust in each other, and respect
for each other and for their fellow man. So, in addition to contributing to
our broad historical understanding of the black experience in our military,
Salter reminds us that we must preserve and expand the commitment to
equality inherited from those who have gone before us.
While expanding the commitment to equality, our military must both
meet the expectations of and set the example for those in whose name we
fight. On training grounds and battlegrounds, Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen,
Marines and Coast Guardsmen from diverse backgrounds are introduced
to and internalize our values—loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honor,
integrity and personal courage. As our servicemen and women share hard-
ships and confront dangers, prejudices and myths wash away. A strength
of our society is that many military men and women carry their experi-
ence and commitment to equality with them when they leave service. In a
democracy, the military must stay connected to the people in whose name
it fights. As our military force gets smaller, it is even more important that
we attract the best into service at all levels regardless of race or ethnicity. It
is for these reasons that today’s all-volunteer force must remain representa-
tive of our society, especially as such a small percentage of today’s youth
serve. The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 reminds us that
when equal opportunity is extended, the very best come from all walks of
American life.

H. R. McMaster, PhD
Major General, U.S. Army
Fort Benning, Georgia
April 2013
Preface

The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 tells the complete story of
black men and women who served as commissioned officers in the United
States armed forces when “separate but equal” was law in America. The
discourse addresses sensitive portions of America’s history because of the
period covered and speaks to all aspects of our great American past whether
positive, negative, joyful or painful.
The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 offers a detailed look
into the service of black commissioned military officers. The year 1861
signifies the start of the American Civil War and 1948 is the year President
Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981 providing for equal oppor-
tunity in the armed forces regardless “of race, color, religion, or national
origin.” In every war between 1861 and 1948, blacks served not only as
enlisted Soldiers and noncommissioned officers but thousands served as
commissioned officers in leadership positions. Roughly 111 served during
the Civil War, three black West Point graduates served with the Buffalo
Soldiers on the Western frontier, and nearly 1,400 served during World
War I. More than 900 served as Tuskegee Airmen (pilots) during World
War II. Roughly 658 women earned commissions in the Women’s Army
Corps and Army Nurse Corps, and four women earned commissions in the
Navy Nurse Corps and two as Navy WAVES. Scores of other men served
in the Army and a select few in the Navy and Coast Guard. The fi rst black
Marine Corps officer was commissioned on 10 November 1945. This book
is the story of those black American men and women who by merit, gain,
and hard work became commissioned military officers.
I am aware that readers will view the same conclusions and come away
with completely diverse views. Some will feel my assessments too forgiving;
others will feel the same assessment too harsh, while others will grasp my
intent, which has been to tell a balanced historical account. In a few cases,
both sides of a story have been conveyed without presenting a defi nitive
conclusion because one did not seem appropriate from my viewpoint. In
those cases it is my hope that some readers or scholars will be prompted
to conduct further research and add to this understudied area of Ameri-
can history by producing an article, study or book. Readers should also
xvi Preface
understand that no matter what they conclude, The Story of Black Military
Officers, 1861–1948 is told mainly through the lens of those black men
and women who experienced discrimination and inequality of opportunity,
overtly and covertly, simply because of the hue of their skin.
The overarching premise of The Story of Black Military Officers,
1861–1948 is that opportunity, equality and fairness were indeed denied to
many simply because they were black. The secondary premise is that while
self-help among black Americans has been a significant source of progress
throughout history, progress was not always attained in a vacuum. While
the main obstacle standing in the way of progress for black Americans
during this period was racial discrimination by white Americans, one of
the main support mechanisms helping to eliminate barriers thus enabling
blacks to achieve during that same period was provided by segments of
white America. Both sides of this coin are evident in The Story of Black
Military Officers, 1861–1948. Therefore, an intended lesson hopefully con-
veyed is that prejudicial generalizations of any kind directed at a group of
people because they are different is misplaced energy while inclusivity is
more times than not a force multiplier and enabler.
It will be evident that racism and prejudices were prevalent in America
throughout the era in which this book covers. However, I believe in the end
most will fi nd that this story is one of American victory. For every painful
story of struggle, injustice and withheld opportunities, there are at least
two stories of Americans pulling together to ensure opportunity and equal-
ity. Barriers that stood in the way of black military officer progress during
the Civil War through World War I and into the interwar years gradually
begin to disappear during World War II and shortly thereafter. The result
has been an increasingly diverse military, which remains the superpower of
the world.
The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 might help disentangle
the current dilemma of the declining percentage of black officers, and indeed
enlisted men and women, in the military; and the low numbers of blacks in
special operations and other technical military arenas. Hopefully a story
or two of strength and determination among the black men and women
within this book will inspire a young black man or woman to strive for
excellence in one of our services. Perhaps a story or two of changed percep-
tions or fair-mindedness by a white man or woman within this book will
touch someone, regardless of race, creed or color, who has yet to embrace
the concept that equality, fairness and opportunity make for a stronger
America. In order for any democratic nation’s military to effectively sup-
port and defend its constitution, it must reflect as much as possible at all
levels the populace it is charged to defend. Perhaps there are answers hid-
den between the covers of The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948
to help address this current military dilemma of the declining percentage
of black officers and cause some in various other arenas to continue their
quest for diversity and inclusivity. For America to continue to strengthen
 Preface xvii
itself as a nation militarily and civilly, equality, fairness and opportunity
for all are necessary in every aspect of the American landscape. Without
it, civil and revolutionary stress fractures begin to form, which will only
weaken the foundation of the landscape.
It is my hope that the strength of all men and women between the pages
of The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948 will invigorate posi-
tive debate in many professional circles—public and private—in corporate
America and small businesses, and among military, government and civil-
ian readers. It is my hope The Story of Black Military Officers, 1861–1948
will rouse a zeal for hard work, determination and achievement among
some young Americans. It is my hope The Story of Black Military Officers,
1861–1948 will spark those in a position to impact progress to have a sense
of fair-mindedness and a quest for greater diversity in all arenas within
America, because, as America’s fi rst black general officer, Brigadier General
Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., wrote to his wife in a letter on 22 September 1945,
“Discrimination makes us all poorer.”1

Krewasky A. Salter I
June 2013
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