CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS

DIE CASTING t s
d e f e c 1

William G. Walkington

NORTH
NORTHAMERICAN
AMERICANDIE
DIECASTING
CASTINGASSOCIATION
ASSOCIATION

1 ITEM #: E-515
 Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s)
nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage
or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The material contained
herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation.
Any opinions expressed by the author(s) are not necessarily those of NADCA.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe nor endorse the product or corporation.

© 2007 by North American Die Casting Association, Arlington Heights, Illinois. All Rights Reserved.

Neither this book nor any parts may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Table ofTable
Contents
of Contents
CHAPTER PAGE #

INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1 - A Review 3
CHAPTER 2 - Surface Defects 13
CHAPTER 3 - Laminations 29
CHAPTER 4 - Gas Porosity 35
CHAPTER 5 - Blisters 47
CHAPTER 6 - Flow Porosity 51
CHAPTER 7 - Shrink Porosity 55
CHAPTER 8 - Sinks 67
CHAPTER 9 - Leakers 71
CHAPTER 10 - Cracks 77
CHAPTER 11 - Inclusions 81
CHAPTER 12 - Solder 89
CHAPTER 13 - Carbon 93
CHAPTER 14 - Erosion, Cavitation 95
CHAPTER 15 - Outgassing 99
CHAPTER 16 - Bending, Warping 103
CHAPTER 17 - Flash 107
CHAPTER 18 - Stained Castings 111
CHAPTER 19 - Waves and Lakes 113
CHAPTER 20 - Drags 117
CHAPTER 21 - Deformation from Ejector Pins (Pushed Pins) 119
CHAPTER 22 - Cold Flakes 121
CHAPTER 23 - Excessive Flux 125

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i
1

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ii
 INTRODUCTION

Die casting is one of many processes that can be done well with experience and work. However, today’s IN
1
quality requirements are forcing the producers to achieve a new level of quality and productivity.
Many times this means that the old methods do not meet the customer’s expectations.
In the past, it has not been unusual for a die caster to convince the customer that this is the best quality
you can get because “this is a die casting”. However, more and more customers are insisting that the
die caster find a way around past limitations and develop methods to produce better parts.
Certainly the process has some limitations, but many have shown that by applying good engineering
discipline to the process, that it will respond as well as most other processes. This has enabled them to
raise the quality level, and competition is now forcing everyone to raise the quality standards.
To do this, more engineering process procedures have to be applied, and the “black art” portion of
the process (if there is one) is reduced more and more.
This text is intended to fit into the NADCA series of courses that reduce the “black art”, and introduce
science and engineering to the process. It is intended to provide a reason for defects as much as
possible. When a cause can be assigned, then a correction can be defined. Not everything is an exact
science, of course, but the most likely explanations should always be explored first.
This book intends to provide these explanations, and provide the experienced engineer or the novice
die caster with a place to start; with the most common reasons for quality problems in die castings, and
with a list of actions that are most likely to solve the quality problems.
Just what is a defect has always been a subjective definition in die casting, since it always depends
on the use and the particular customer’s interpretation of the castings functions and performance. Thus
what would be a bad defect to on customer is not a flaw at all to another.
Defining what is a defect should be left to the customer and the particular needs of the casting in
question, so this book does not try to get into what would be “normal” or “reasonable” for a typical
die casting. Over 30 years of experience has convinced the author that this “normal” defect level does
not exist.
Ever higher quality levels can be attained by those willing to put training, experience, and good
engineering process discipline into the effort to improve quality. Certainly this effort does cost something,
but good management can reduce these costs a very surprising amount.
Thus this book is not intended to justify any certain quality level, or to provide a reference that defines
what is “normal” because this is changing, and will continue to change. A quality level that was
acceptable only a few years ago has become unacceptable now for quite a few casting projects.
Rather, this book is intended to provide some help for those who are willing to put the training and
other effort into a real defect reduction effort. This is the way the industry is gong to get better and
compete with other processes that are also constantly improving.
If there are any questions or comments on this book, they are welcome and they should be sent to:
Director of Research
NADCA
9701 West Higgins Road, Suite 880
Rosemont, IL 60018

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1
 INTRODUCTION

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 Chapter 1
Record Keeping and Management Concerns to
1
Control Defects - The First Step
This book is about solving defects, and it is impossible to be effective in solving defect problems if there
is no historical record about defect problems. In addition, it is impossible to keep track of costs without
good defect records; thus these records will be important enough to impact the growth and perhaps
the survival of the company.
In most plants keeping track of the scrap is not always the first priority, maintaining production is
always more important. Only when a customer calls or perhaps when scrap costs go sky-high does
something happen to trigger some extra effort on a particular defect problem. Then the first step is to
examine the scrap records. Hopefully, there are some worthwhile records to examine, BUT ALL TOO
OFTEN THERE AREN’T ANY REALLY GOOD RECORDS - and the net result is a wild trial and error
effort to find the solution.
This is an extremely expensive way to operate, and it cannot compete with the those who use technical
approaches and document them properly.

SOME BASIC RECORD KEEPING

Good records require some simple basics. These should be incorporated in the plant scrap reporting
system and used at all times; it should not be used only during a crisis. Certainly the record keeping system
should contain the information that a die caster’s customer will request, and it is paramount that it contain
good information for tracking costs; but these requirements often don’t supply the information required by
the process manager or engineer; who, after all, are the ones who have to solve the problem.

Permanently solving the defect problems will absolutely require the inclusion of whoever is responsible
for the final solution of defect problems, and structuring the records so they can get the information
they need.

This information should include the following basics:

Description of the defect

Reason code, or assigned cause for the scrap.
Listing of the number of defects (scrap percentage) by:
• die,
• by cavity number,
• by machine,
• by shift,
• by operator
• and possibly by inspector, metal heat number, and set up sheet number.

Probably the description of the defect and the reason code is the most important. This will vary some from
plant to plant, and it should be tailored to the specialties and needs of a particular production operation.

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

For example, some operations are mostly concerned with the visual appearance and may have several
types of visual defects listed; while another plant may have several types of porosity listed with only
one type of visual defect.
REASON CODES (or description of defects)
A typical list of reason codes would be as follows; but each plant should make their own list to match
their special needs. Certainly others can and should be added as needed.

1. Visual appearance 3. Leakers

a. Nonfills 4. Blisters
1
b. Cold flow 5. Sinks
c. Discolored 6. Cracks
d. Laminations 7. Drags
2. Porosity 8. Solder
a. Shrink 9. Bending
b. Gas 10. Distortion
c. Flow 11. Trim damage
TYPICAL REPORTING FORM

A form that would include these items should be developed for each plant. A typical form is shown below.

Having a good form is important, but assigning the responsibility for filling out the form accurately and
completely is even more important. Just who maintains the form will vary from plant to plant; it can be
the operator, the inspector, the foreman, or someone else; but most important is the discipline to do it
correctly during the production shift when the best information is available.

Note that it is important that ALL scrap be reported, including start up or warm up shots. These can be
included in a special category if desired, but it must be reported. After all, these shots are not free. Every
shot on a $100,000 die that will live for 200,000 shots is worth $0.50, regardless of whether it is a start
up shot or not. There is probably another $.025 spent for expendables (mostly sleeves and tips) for every
shot. This amounts to a good deal of money, and managers should insist on having the data.

Table 1-1. Typical form to gather scrap information.

SHIFT REPORT FOR SCRAP
THIS REPORT PREPARED BY:
SHIFT NUMBER DATE
PART No. CAVITY No.
MACHINE No OPERATOR
LOT OR MARKINGS:
MACHINE SHUT DOWN BECAUSE OF SCRAP? HOW LONG?

COMMENTS:
Note: All scrap must be listed, including startup or other scrap thrown away at the machine by anyone.
No. GOOD PIECES No. BAD PIECES REASON CODE (SEE LIST)

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

Management must take the responsibility to see that the reporting gets done; and that whoever does
it has the training and the time and freedom to do it properly. The lack of management emphasis is
usually the biggest cause for failure of these systems, and it can be very costly.

For example, if the scrap is not defined and reported properly, then correcting the problem will usually
be based on the observations of the past 2 hours - and this will always result in a correction that isn’t
adequate and one that must be done over and over till it is finally done in a way that is about right.
This should not become way of life.

COMMUNICATING THE DEFINITIONS OF DEFECTS

In all the communicating that must occur between people in any given plant; between the plant and 1
the customer, between the plant and the vendors, and between the plant and other plants, there can
be many big problem defining and understanding defect problems.

There are many instances where an operator or quality person defines something as a defect when it
really is not; and once the communication is started, it may result in a series of actions that are always
expensive and frequently unnecessary. This can be avoided by making sure everyone understands the
proper nomenclature and description of casting defects.

Often the most serious problems are between the customer and the die caster. The customer may change
their minds, or the definition of a particular defect may vary when new people become involved, or
when something brings focused attention on a casting problem. Frequently it is mostly a problem of
being able to define the defect, and these problems can often be avoided if the die caster establishes
good definitions of defects early in the relationship.

For all these reasons (and more), it is very advantageous for the die caster to have good definitions of
defects available to everyone. A simple but critical factor is just having the people in the die cast plant
talk the same language and understand each other. Thus when a night shift foreman says “we had a
real problem with sinks and cold flow last night”, then everyone knows what he means.

The best way to solve this problem is to build a defect board with example castings and with a name
of a particular defect tagged to each casting. Along with this display should be a book of pictures that
show each defect. These should be 8 X 10 and in color (if possible), and placed in a three ring binder
with the pictures in clear plastic holders. Several of these books should be made up; a minimum would
be one book for each shift.

When these books are first made up, the common reaction will be “we don’t need that, everyone here
knows what we are talking about”; but typically within 6 months there will be several examples of how
this system saved much more than it cost.

The intent of the board and book of pictures is to define the names of defects for this plant. This will not
change with different customer’s level of acceptance. These acceptance levels certainly may change,
but the first step MUST be to be sure everyone uses the same name in defining defects, and that
everyone understands what each type of defect looks like. A separate effort should be made to define
the different levels of acceptability for each customer or product as needed; and this may change, but
the defect definition board should not change.

As an example, one big factor will be to define porosity defects as either gas or shrink (this will be
addressed later in this book). The two types of porosity require entirely different corrective action, so
defining the type of porosity is very important if quality improvements are expected.

Certainly there are instances where even metallurgists will not agree on the appearance of the two
kinds of porosity; but for most practical situations, a system will be beneficial if it defines the porosity
can be separated visually into either gas or shrinkage; or into a category that would include both gas

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5
Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

and shrinkage. Even if it is not 100% accurate, it is critical that this separation be made and reported
if corrective action is to be effective. To do this, a definition of the two types of porosity must be
established so people can communicate accurately.
ADDITIONAL DEFECT REPORTING FACTORS
An absolute essential for any defect reporting system is that it be available at the beginning of the
day shift for all activity for the previous day. This should always be the case, and the report should be
provided for everyone who could possibly want one (and even to those who don’t think they need one)
because defect correction is one of the most important activities in any die casting plant. It should be
important enough that it is on everyone’s desk every morning. Operators or anyone else who needs it
1 should get it, or know exactly where they can get a copy.

The report should include, perhaps as a separate page, the information managers need for decisions.
Probably the most important would be a daily Pareto chart showing the scrap dollars associated with
defects by part number and by reason code. This will allow the managers to focus on the few problems
that cost the most money. This particular chart can pay huge dividends for good managers, and is
worth the cost to prepare.

Another important portion of a good reporting system is an estimate of the production time or dollars
wasted because of defects that were run the previous day. This would include machine time devoted
to making scrap, down time for die casting machines caused defect problems, repair time for dies,
approximate time and costs for engineering, process technicians, and production labor, etc. This is
intended to bring out costs associated with defective castings.

Routine repair items should not be included, of course; but this daily estimate of the cost of scrap is extremely
valuable in managing the scrap reduction effort. Among other things, this helps make better management
decisions about the effectiveness of the engineering effort and the effectiveness of new equipment.

A real problem with most reporting systems is how to handle those defects that are discovered
downstream in the process. Defects uncovered in machining are often not included in the daily scrap
reporting system.

It is almost always worth the cost to develop a system that will provide immediate feedback to the
operator or process technician; not only of those defects detected in the production area, but those
uncovered downstream. If the costs of running a half shift of poor quality is reported correctly, the cost
of developing a method of getting immediate feedback will be quickly apparent.

A system to machine current production samples during the production machining operation so as to
provide quick feedback for porosity would be the best and usual procedure, but if this cannot be done;
then some kind of special set up must be developed. Using X-ray or flouriscope or density measurements
are the type of solution that provides the best chance for good statistical data, but even using an old
lathe or milling machine that has lost it’s accuracy can be a good and inexpensive solution.

PRE-ENGINEERING

Some mention must be made of the requirement for pre-engineering; this is the first step in preventing
defects. Unlike other casting processes, most die casting defects are process dependent, which means
that the pre-engineering absolutely must include process engineering.

The process decisions should not be based entirely on experience or guesses. The proper methods for
this engineering design effort are taught in the NADCA courses on gating, PQ^2, thermal analysis,
and process control. Defect solution is not longer a “black art”, and proper engineering will go a long
way to eliminating what used to be big defect problems.

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

This pre-operational engineering work, if properly done, will put the process into the known optimum
operating windows; and will give the most robust design possible. This should all be done prior to
sampling and production. Trial and error is fun for some, but it is too expensive and slow for what is
needed today.

This engineering effort must include a formal metal flow prediction and gating design, PQ2 calculations,
thermal analysis, and a review and a report on the process conditions required to meet the quality
requirements for this particular part. All of this must be documented and available for others to use in later
improvements. The days when verbal directions and estimates were good enough are long gone.

Still, a great many (perhaps even the majority) of plants will attribute defect solution to a “required”
trial and error program, usually emphasizing metal flow and gating changes. In fact, in some plants, 1
the gate changes never stop till the die is worn out.

Doing the proper engineering up front (it does take extra time and effort) should give a robust process
and usually means putting the die on and having it run easily and well from the first shot.

The next step in reducing defects (once the process is running and stable) is to identify, analyze, and
reduce any variation in the process. In fact, a consistent effort in this area is the only possible way to
achieve the ppm defect levels now being required.

STATISTICAL AND OTHER ANALYSIS METHODS FOR REDUCING

VARIATION AND FOR DEFECT CORRECTION

There are well proven statistical techniques available to determine which are the main influences for
process variations. SPC charting is valuable and should used where appropriate as a monitoring tool
for the process after using analysis tools.

Analysis tools that can be used to define the important variables and forecast the areas where effort
should be focused include the FEMA and various Design of Experiments methodologies (Shanin,
Taguchi, etc.),

FEMA will try to predict the problems in the end use of the casting or in the downstream processes
from different casting defects. This then indicates the relative importance of various defects, which is
especially valuable for products that have large production volumes, and for those that have a safety
impact. This information is then used to modify the part design and/or the process procedures and
equipment so the more critical types of defects will be less common.

A FEMA should be done as early as possible in the design process so the information will be available
to the part designers, the process engineers and die designers, who should use it to minimize the
impact from different types of defects. Training is essential for those involved; also the effort (and cost)
involved makes this technique more appropriate for very high volume work or for products that have a
potential for safety related failure.

The design of experiments techniques (DOE) will tell the process engineer which variable(s) are the
most important for the defect of concern. They are required if the process is to develop into one that
will reduce scrap to the parts per million (ppm) level.

For example, this book will describe a sink defect as one that is normally reduced by temperature control
or by pressure adjustment. For any given part and machine configuration, however, it may be difficult to
determine just which pressure or temperature adjustment would be the most critical, especially to reduce
the scrap from say 1% to .5%. A properly run DOE would provide this kind of answer.

The most common DOE techniques are Shanin, Taguchi, and the classical factorial experimental
methods. Each of these requires an understanding of statistics, and some training in how to apply these

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7
Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

methods in an industrial environment; but the training is well worth the effort because these techniques
are the only way to determine the exact cause and effect relationship for some defect situations.

Some of the most useful and basic data needed for correcting defects comes from the more simple
procedures.

The usual method of determining the quality standards for those castings that require judgmental standards
is to ask the customer to define some bad pieces. The customer may or may not respond with a good
standard. If this is the case, it is imperative for good defect control to establish in plant standards purely
for the purpose of internal process management, and not to depend on the customers response.
1 Good process management requires setting rating standards, and this must be done; even if it has to
be done independently of the customer. Adjustments can then be made if the customer changes, but
the internal standards can stay constant.

Setting standards on judgmental defects should be done by establishing a rating system. It takes time
and effort, but it will pay dividends. It is invaluable for avoiding disputes with the customer; but even
more importantly, it will allow the use of DOE and other statistical techniques that ensure the best
quality for the least cost. Also, it will make available process control techniques that are essential if the
die caster is to approach the ppm defect levels.

Without a rating system, the operator or process engineer only has attribute data. This is somewhat
like asking a machinist to machine a shaft to a 1” diameter, but the machinist is not told what the actual
output diameter really is; the only information provided is whether the output is good or bad. As in die
casting, this guarantees a lot of very expensive trial and error work.

Without feedback or a rating system, the operator is forced to make process adjustments by judgments
based on some indicator of the output quality. Usually the surface appearance is used because nothing
else is available. However, surface appearance is not a good indication of many quality characteristics
(gas porosity, for example). This makes it impossible to make improvements in the process. Much better
is prompt feedback from a system with a good rating procedure.

A rating system is based on establishing quality levels. These are usually set to be from 1 to 10, with 10
being the best, but it can be from 1 to 5 if necessary; although this scale is rather course and does not
define the process as well. The dividing line between good and bad pieces could be at a rating of 4 on
a scale of 1 to 10, with 4 being just barely good enough to pass, and a rating of 3 being just barely a
reject. If the 1 to 5 scale is used, then the dividing line could be at 2. Other methods can be developed.

This can then be used to determine where the process is running; trends can be determined, and
process corrections made before the first bad piece is made. Determining how much variation is in the
process can be done with a short capability study. This gives a quick picture of process conditions, and
is a required portion of the process development if the scrap is to be reduced to the ppm levels.
AN EXAMPLE OF A DEFECT CORRECTION PROCESS FOR VERY LOW SCRAP RATES
The following steps illustrate one way to approach a defect problem where the scrap rate is low, for
example to go from a scrap rate of 1% to 3% to something approaching .1% (1000 ppm).

Assume that surface finish is the problem, and that a rating system had been developed going from 1 to 10
(10 best). A short capability can be run with at least 30 parts taken in 6 samples of 5 sequential parts. This
will give a quick snap shot of where the process is operating, and show if defects are being made even if
no defects appear in the samples. An approximate standard deviation can be calculated by dividing the
average range of each of the 6 groups of 5 samples by d2, , which is 2.326 for subgroups of 5.

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

This can be shown in the table that follows.

SUBGROUP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

SAMPLE 1 8 6 8 8 8 9 9 6
SAMPLE 2 7 8 8 8 9 7 5 8
SAMPLE 3 8 8 8 7 8 6 7 8
SAMPLE 4 7 5 6 6 8 6 8 7
SAMPLE 5 6 7 5 8 6 7 8 8 1

TOTALS 36 34 35 37 39 35 37 37
AVERAGES 7.2 6.8 7 7.4 7.8 7 7.4 7.4
RANGES 2 3 3 2 3 3 4 2

Table 1-2. Sample calculation of an estimated process capability. This table represents 8 samples of 5 sequential
castings taken for the purpose of establishing a quick picture of the process capability. The value will provide an indication
of where the process is performing on the average; in this case it is at 7.25 on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 is the best.

AVE OF GROUP AVERAGES, =X=
= 7.25
AVE OF RANGES, = R bar = 2.75

EST. SIGMA, OR R bar /2.326 = 1.182

note: VALUE OF CALCULATED SIGMA = 1.125

VALUE OF X= MINUS 3 X ESTIMATED SIGMA = 3.828

VALUE OF X= MINUS 3 X CALCULATED SIGMA = 3.999

The estimated sigma (σ) will provide an estimate of the variation as shown by this sample; in this case
σ = 1.182, which is larger than one would like. This puts the lower limit of the distribution curve (as
defined by the 3σ limit) below 4, and since anything below a rating of 4 was not an acceptable
casting; then there will be a some number of castings that will be rejects.

Note that no castings were found in the samples taken that were rejects, but the location of the overall
average, and the width of the distribution curve as defined by the estimated variation shown in this
sample, makes it certain that there will be some defects.

The exact percentage of defects can be calculated at about .31%, but this an approximation, and for
these purposes, the exact calculation is not as important as knowing that the process is where it needs
to be yet, and more work needs to be done to reach the goal.

Note that an accurate calculation of sigma is also shown, and it is close to the estimated value for
these numbers. While the estimated value using this method will not always be as accurate as in this
example, it will be close enough for the process engineer to have a good idea of where the process
stands for the sample taken.

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

This example assumes all the surface defects were combined into one rating number, but if there
is more than one quality issue, it may often be best to use a separate rating system for each of the
judgmental type defects.

If the short capability study comes out as shown in the example, then the process technician should
work on two things: one is to increase the average rating ( ),;the other is to reduce the variation.

The first step to increase the average quality level is to define the important process variables for this
casting. This is typically done with a DOE, but first the factors to use in the DOE have to be determined.
Hopefully, this book will be of some help in narrowing down the possible cause factors; the process
engineer should also do some brainstorming with qualified people.
1
Also, some simple techniques can be very powerful to narrow the variables to the correct ones. One
is to determine if the problem happens from time to time or from shot to shot. These are Shannin’s
techniques, and are described in Keki Bhote’s book “World Class Quality”. Mr. Bhote uses the Shanin
methods to suggest some simple but effective methods for process control that are intended to reduce
defects where the quality rating is judgmental.

Usually die casting will have high shot to shot variation, which would include plunger variations (fill
time, pressure, gate velocity, biscuit thickness, spray variations, etc,). Die or metal temperature would
usually be examples of typical time to time variations.

Once the probable variables are selected, a DOE would probably be the best next step because
there are usually a number of interactive variables in die casting. Other studies, such as a correlation
analysis could be done, but they will miss the possible interactions. The old fashioned full factorial is
always a good method.

Once these important variables are defined, the appropriate settings can be determined with
calculations and some follow on confirming experiments.

Variations in these factors should then be studied and reduced as much as possible. This is discussed
in more detail in the next section.

MAINTAINING THE SETTINGS, AND REDUCING VARIATION

Generally there are only a few really important variables, and limits need to be set on these based on
the information from the DOE. Once these limits are set, then monitoring the variables should be done
(at least for a short time) to make sure they can be controlled within limits, and to reduce the variation
even further if possible.

Monitoring can be done with SPC charts, run charts, or by using pre-control. Pre-control charts are
often overlooked, but they are accurate and they provide better information for process control, and
they are much easier for the operator to use.

As an example, if pre-control charts were to be used with the system discussed earlier, where 4 is
the worst acceptable rating; then the pre-control charts should have a line drawn at 5.5. The area
between 1 and 4 is colored red or called the red area. The area between 4 and 5.5 is colored yellow
or called the yellow area, and the area between 5.5 and 10 is the green area.

Five parts in a row are checked on start up to verify that the process is in control and within limits,
and they must all be within the green area to be comfortable that the process is ready to run. After
this check, then two parts in a row are checked at intervals; these intervals are found by taking the
time between stoppages (reds) and dividing by 6. The two parts are used as follows: a combination
of yellow and green is OK to keep running, two yellows means the process needs adjusting (but keep
running), and one red means the process should be stopped and corrected.

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

Using some kind of charting, whether it be pre-control, SPC or just run charts, will be important; but
once the process is stable, it is desirable to discontinue charts that are not needed. The important
thing is to do some charting until it can be demonstrated that the process is stable. However, it is also
extremely desirable to monitor all process variables as much as possible and to make every effort to
reduce variation wherever it is found.

These ideas and comments are intended to convince the reader that there is a lot more to correcting
a defect than just getting a good idea of what may be the cause. Since most die casting defects are
controlled by the process, it also requires good process discipline and control.

A good system to reduce defects requires considerable management skill and attention if it is to get 1
good results, and the system must have the capability of doing the proper engineering up front, then
analyzing defect problems to find the proper variables for process control, then imposing the proper
process discipline to correct the defect.

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Record Keeping and Management Concerns To Control Defects - The First Step chapter 1

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12
 Chapter 2
Surface Defects
DEFINITIONS
2
Surface defects are considered here to be those defects that are mostly visual, and that cause a
rejection for some kind of surface blemish. Although there are some exceptions, this will be the largest
single defect category for most custom casting operations where there is a variety of castings.
The defects this category have many names, and there are often different names used in different
geographical areas to describe the same problem.

Some of the typical names for this type of defect are as follows:

• cold flow
• cold laps
• cold fill
• cold
• poor fill
• non-fill or not filled out (NFO)
• swirls
• chill
• laps
• lines

Probably the first name is the most common, and it is also the most descriptive, so it is the one that will
be used in this book. The type of defects this term describes (as it is used in this book) are shown in
Figures 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, and 2-5.

This defect is usually referred to as a metal flow defect because it is characterized by irregularities on
the casting surface where the various metal flows apparently did not knit together properly.

This kind of defect occurs because it is always a race between the time the molten metal arrives at a
location in the die and the rapid solidification taking place. If the metal is partially solidified when two
flows come together, they form wrinkles or laps and laminations that are the characteristics of surface
defects. This defect is often apparent at the end of the flow pattern and or where the die is colder, such
as the ends of ribs and bosses.

Many times the technician will try to solve this defect with one standard correction for all castings; for
example, the most typical reaction is to always make some change to the gate design, even though the
gating may not have anything to do with the problem. Certainly the gating needs to be correct to avoid
these defects, but other process adjustments can be the major cause and are often much easier to modify.

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Surface Defects chapter 2

(Fig. 2.1) (Fig. 2.2)

(Fig. 2.3)
Fig. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 Typical examples of cold flow surface defects.
The idea that this defect is always a gating problem comes from the idea that this is a metal flow defect,
even though other process parameters (fill time, for example) can be much more important than the
metal flow pattern.

Thus the first step is a careful review of the process parameters. It must be kept in mind that the problem
may be an interactive one; and may be caused by the interactions of several process factors. To quickly
focus on one issue (such as the gating or die temperature) will usually severely limit the potential for a
robust and easy correction.

A list of the main factors involved in these types of defects is shown below, and these descriptions show that
there are indeed quite a number of interactions possible. These descriptions are general, there are quite a
number of other variables for each of these factors. The most important of these are listed below:

WALL THICKNESS - the average wall thickness is used for most castings (some use the thinnest wall
section that is critical for quality issues) - however the wall thickness is qualified, it is a critical factor in
surface defects

CASTING SHAPE - the geometry of the part; mostly the flow distance, the number of reflections before
the end of flow, and whether the flow can directly reach critical areas
FILL TIME (Ft) - or the length of time it takes to completely fill the casting with molten metal.

FLOW PATTERN, this is the flow pattern of the metal as determined by the gate design, and also by
how many obstructions are in the flow path.

DIE TEMPERATURE (Tdie), or the temperature of the die surface when the metal flows over it.

METAL TEMPERATURE (Tmetal, or Tm), or the temperature of the metal as it enters the die.

GATE VELOCITY (Gv), or the velocity of the metal as it goes through the gate.

METALLURGY, or the effect of the alloy constituents on the casting characteristics.

VENTING, or the efficiency of the die in releasing trapped gasses (which obviously concerns porosity
also, but also has and affect on metal flow from the back pressure of the trapped gas)

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14
Surface Defects chapter 2

While there are interactions, the effect of each of these will be considered in sequence. The above list
is arranged in priority order, which means that the top items on the list will often have the most effect,
however, this is not an absolute situation.

For example, if the wall thickness is fairly thick (say .125 inches for aluminum), then the fill time is much
less important, but if the wall thickness is a minimum (say .06 inches), then the fill time is by far the most
important variable.

Also, the quality characteristics vary from casting to casting. For example, if the surface quality is
critical (hardware or plated finish), then the wall thickness, the fill time and the die temperature are
by far the most important issues. If leakers were the important quality issue, then temperatures and
pressures are important. All of this makes defect elimination much more complex; and eliminates the
simple solution (like changing the gate).

WALL THICKNESS 2
Obviously this is controlled by the part design as set by customer. Since this is not something controlled
on the floor, it is often eliminated from the list of potential solutions. This should not be the case because
it is so important. If an effort is made to correct wall thickness problems it will often prove to be the most
robust and lowest cast solution.

The wall thickness becomes very critical when it is below about .090 inches (2.28 mm)in aluminum and
magnesium, and below about .075 inches (1.9 mm) in zinc. In these thin wall parts, it is worth checking
the wall thickness because it makes such a large difference in the flow. It will be desirable to move the
wall thickness to the maximum allowed.

These numbers are not absolute, and are interactive. The wall thickness, the die temperature, and the
fill time are interactive as shown by the approximate maximum fill time calculation from the NADCA
gating class. This calculation will be presented later under fill time.

The minimum wall thickness consideration will depend on this calculation, but it will be about .06 inches
(1.5 mm) for aluminum and magnesium, and .04 inches (1 mm) for zinc. These numbers are for very
short fill times, short flow distances, and properly heated dies. Many times operating conditions will
not permit walls this thin, but they can be achieved with good engineering and part shape conditions;
in fact, even thinner walls can be achieved by good engineering and good machines.

A plunger speed variation that causes a fill time variation of 30% may not be significant with a wall
thickness of .125 inches (3.17 mm) or greater, but a plunger speed variation of 10% can be extremely
significant if the wall thickness is .080 inches (2 mm) or less. The trouble-shooter needs to be aware of
these interactive factors.

The wall thickness must be uniform if surface defects are to be minimized. The metal flow is always
disrupted by thick and thin wall sections, and, as every design handbook will say, one critical factor in
die casting is to have an even wall thickness through out.

If the walls are thin over the whole part, it is important that it be consistent at the highest value allowed.
This usually means that the toolmaking tolerance is reduced. Thus a print tolerance for wall thickness of
.07 to .09 inches (1.77 to 1.9 mm) should be passed on to the toolmaker a tolerance of .085 to .090
inches (2.15 to 2.28 mm). Keeping the wall thickness at the high end of the tolerance band is important,
but of equal importance is keeping the thickness variation should be a minimum. Avoid solving a one
time toolmaking problem, but allowing a long term manufacturing problem in the process.

When a thin wall section has critical surface appearance requirements, it is best if the gate be placed
as close to the critical wall section as possible. (On the other hand, if the critical quality issue is porosity
in the adjacent heavy section, then that section should get primary consideration for gate location.)

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15
Surface Defects chapter 2

To summarize, some issues on the wall thickness would be:

• Talk to designers early

• Work to get consistent wall thickness
• Check the actual wall thickness if there are problems
• Use the wall thickness dimensional tolerance for the process, not for
• toolmaking
• Feed critical thin walls directly from the gate
• For thin walls, expect a much narrower process window
• Use very short fill times
• Use high die temperatures
• Use high gate velocities (but not high enough to cause erosion)

2
PART SHAPE

Part shape is a very important factor when trouble shooting of surface defects, and can often be the
most important; but unfortunately, it is the most difficult to change.
Some things in the shape that are important factors would be:

• Flow distance (distance as the metal has to travel from the gate to the furthest point to fill)
• Complexity of the metal flow path (how many reflections are required for the metal to
reach it’s final destination)
• Blind fill areas (cores, fins, etc.)
• Shaded areas (areas that are directly behind an object that divides the metal flow)
• Draft and radii allowed
• Allowable gate locations
• The shape also causes hot or cold spots in the die, and this in turn affects the surface defects.

Part shape makes each part unique, and it is the biggest variable in the whole process. Most of these
factors are not under the control of the person who solves the defect problem, however, every effort
should be made by the process engineer or technician to emphasize the importance of these factors
to those who can change them. An example is shown in Figure 2-6 , which shows a surface defect that
only appeared after a large radius was changed to a sharp radius.

The next four factors are those that can be most easily controlled on the floor, and these are what concern
most trouble shooter s. These are: fill time, flow patterns, die temperature, and metal temperature. We will
focus on these four things as the most important factors for correcting surface defects because they are
the most readily adjustable for an existing die; this will be the most important concern for most readers.

FILL TIME

The fill time is one of the most important factors in surface finish control, and quite often it is by far
the most important of those items that can be controlled on the floor. The fill time is defined as the
time beginning when the metal arrives at the gate and ending when the cavity is full (if they are small
compared to the casting volume, the overflows can be included).

As a good rule is that the faster the fill time, the better the surface finish. It should be observed that
no surface defect problems arise from a very short fill time. (Note: unless the gate area is changed,
changing fill time will change gate velocity at the same time, and excessive gate velocities can cause
problems; but a quick fill time with the appropriate gate velocity and proper gate design will never by
itself contribute to surface defects).

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Surface Defects chapter 2

Fig. 2.4 The arrows point to corners that were made sharp by the customer after the part had been run without problems
for several years. The sharp radii caused the surface defects shown here to appear.

The actual fill time must be measured with an injection system monitoring device, and will range from
less than 5 milliseconds for smaller zinc and magnesium parts to more than 200 milliseconds for a large 2
transmission housing in the 40 to 50 lb (88 to 110 kg) range. The typical range for a 600 ton machine
part (3 to 7 lbs, or 6.6 kg to 15.4 kg of aluminum) would be in the range of 40 msec to 100 msec.

The important relationships between the fill time, the die temperature, the metal temperature, and the
wall thickness can be approximated with the formula referred to earlier, and is the one used in the
NADCA gating course. This is:

(Ti - Tf +SZ)
Max fill time = K x ---------------------- x T
(Tf - Td )
This formula is best used to define a maximum fill time when the formula is used for process calculations.
It is not exact, but provides a very good start point for a maximum fill time estimate (and consequently
plunger speed requirements). It should be modified by any previous experience with this part or this
type of part.

Note also that the die temperatures and the metal temperatures are included in the calculations, thus
the formula takes these factors into account. The metal temperature is the temperature at the gate,
which is typically 70°F (21°C) to 100°F (55°C) lower than the furnace temperature for cold chamber
machines, and about 40°F (22°C) lower than the pot temperature for hot chamber.

The die temperature is the surface temperature of the die when the metal is injected, which can be
measured best with a surface pyrometer. This will be discussed later.

The fill time should be considered one of the primary tools for the trouble-shooter when reducing
surface defects. A maximum fill time should be determined using the formula (or from other sources),
with anything less than the maximum being desirable. The best approach to finding the estimated
maximum fill time is to use the formula as a starting point, and modify the results if there is solid
experience to support a change.

For some rough guidelines in estimating what the fill time should be, the following are some maximum
fill times based on calculations and experience and will be reasonable for most castings:

thin wall, average wall,

<.09 in (2.3mm) >.09 inches(2.3mm)
Al, approx... …5lb (11kg) .09 sec .1 sec
Zinc, approx…3lb (6.6kg) .03 sec .05 sec
Mg, approx.….2lb (4.4kg) .02 sec .03 sec

Table 2-1. Approximate fill times for average surface finish.

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17
Surface Defects chapter 2

Note: these numbers are approximate, and should be used for an average functional casting. For high
quality surface finish, these numbers should be reduced by as much as 50%.

Note also that the fill time may not be the dominant factor for other defects; other factors may be more
important if surface defects are not being considered.

CONTROLLING FILL TIME

The following list shows some of the things that can affect the plunger speed, which in turn changes the
fill time and the casting surface finish. Some of these are:

Changing the plunger speed control, (faster is lower fill time, and better finish)

A gate size change: A smaller gate will generally cause the plunger to slow down because of the extra
2 resistance at the gate (if no other changes are made) - this increases the fill time and causes a worse
finish (it also affects gate velocity, but the main effect on surface finish is on the fill time).

A larger gate will generally reduce the fill time and give better finish, but the PQ2 calculations must be
run to know the results before making the change.

Changing the shot system hydraulic pressure: (if no other changes are made) Increasing pressure
increases plunger speed and reduces fill time (it may also contribute to flashing). Lowering pressure
reduces plunger speed and increases fill time.

(Note: PQ2 calculations are a must for gate size, plunger size, or pressure changes
because these factors affect each other, plus they are interactive to other factors.)

Dragging tip (A dragging tip will cause the plunger speed to change and hence the fill time to change,
which can make the casting look different every shot, and will cause surface defect problems. You must
use a monitoring system to measure and control speed. ) Causes of dragging tips include:

• Plunger lubrication,
• Poor sleeve condition
• Poor plunger condition
• Poor cooling water flow to the plunger
• Sleeve deflection

Gooseneck and plunger ring conditions:

(A hot chamber injection system that is leaking metal because of poor sleeve or poor plunger rings will
have an extended fill time, and as a result can have surface defect problems. It is imperative that the
gooseneck, plunger, and plunger rings all be kept in good shape.)

Low (or high) nitrogen charge in the shot accumulator

(The nitrogen charge affects the speed of the plunger, especially at the end of the stroke. The nitrogen
charge should be checked frequently, and always when unexpected surface defect problems occur.)

When working in the design stage, or when trouble shooting a problem, the fill time can be estimated
with good accuracy by using the PQ2 calculations. This will allow estimating the fill time even though
there is no monitoring system in place.

These calculations match the machine to the die, and will save a lot of time and money over the trial and
error method of changing sleeves, gate areas, and machine settings on the floor. The PQ2 calculation
works and can be done in a few minutes with a computer - it should be done for every die.

The next page shows a typical PQ2 calculation by the computer.

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Surface Defects chapter 2

Fig. 2.5 Typical PQ2 printout using the computer program from NADCA.

A summary of fill time management would include these main points:

1. Set fill time maximum values with calculations supplemented by experience, then use disciplined
process control to keep it there.

2. Use PQ2 to predict the right values for gate size, plunger size, machine pressure, and machine
speed settings - eliminate costly trial and error.

3. Measure and control process variables with monitor system.

4. Maintain control of sleeve and gooseneck operating condition to keep the fill time within limits,
and maintain nitrogen pressure correctly.
FLOW PATTERN
The flow pattern is at least as important as the fill time in correcting surface defects, however, it is not
an adjustment that can be made easily on the floor. Getting the best flow pattern is an engineering
design issue, and it should be done correctly at the beginning.

A trouble-shooter needs to have a basic understanding of the way metal flows into the die. This flow is
different than many think, and these key concepts will be briefly reviewed here because they are key
to analyzing the surface defects.
The metal flow for die castings works far better (especially for good surface finish) if it is kept in the
atomized flow range. While this is a very turbulent flow region, research has demonstrated that this
type of flow is required for a good surface finish. It appears that the good surface is “spray painted”
on the steel, and metal flow streams not in the atomized flow region do not do as well.

The minimum velocity that will generate atomized flow is roughly defined by the formula:
[Gv]1.7 X [gate thickness] X [weight density (ρ)] > 750
This says the minimum Gv (gate velocity) will be defined by the gate thickness and Gv to the 1.7
power. Thus a thinner gate will require a higher velocity to maintain atomized flow.

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Surface Defects chapter 2

The maximum Gv will be determined by the onset of erosion and soldering in the die, and the velocity
where this occurs for a particular situation should be a judgment of the gate designer. This judgment includes
consideration of the type of cast material, the type of die material, shape of the cavity, and the fill time.

For 380 aluminum, the maximum velocity will typically be about 1600 to 1800 ips (40 to 45 m/s), and
for zinc it will be about 2200 to 2400 ips (55 to 60 m/s). For magnesium it is typically higher, possibly
up to 3000 ips (75 m/s) or even higher. For 390 (or other high silicon alloys) it is generally kept as low
as possible to avoid gate erosion; usually by increasing the gate thickness as much as possible.

In addition to the gate velocity, the gate design that develops the metal flow pattern should receive
careful attention. This design should be done systematically, and is best done with computer aided
tools. The flow pattern should be developed with careful consideration of the following design rules:

1. Use PQ2 to size the gate and the plunger, using the appropriate gate velocity, fill time, and
2 cavity pressure criteria. The fill time is calculated by the formula given earlier, the gate velocity is
set above the minimums and below the maximums given above. The metal pressure is discussed
at length in the discussion on porosity, but in general should be above about 3000 psi static
pressure for aluminum and 2000 psi for zinc.

2. Divide the casting into zones that represent different areas of concern for quality issues or for
metal flow. These will be areas that are thicker or thinner than the rest of the casting, or that have
special finish requirements, or that for some other reason need special attention. This is one of
the most important actions in the design process. See the NADCA design rules for more details.

3. Proportion gates so as to fill each zone at the same time. Each gate area needs to be
proportioned to the volume for the zone that will be fed by that gate.

4. Flow the short way across the casting if at all possible, depending on the directions of ribs,
openings, and the location of critical areas.

5. Avoid mixing flows if possible (unless close to the gate). Metal flow paths that mix together far
from the gate will likely cause surface defects.

6. Gate directly into areas that are of concern for surface finish if possible.

7. Avoid jet flows at all times, the narrow chisel gates and widely separated gating plan will cause
problems with surface finish. Always use distributed flow as much as possible.

8. If possible, set gate location so venting can be used opposite the gate.

9. Avoid flow directly on cores if possible, but don’t sacrifice a desirable flow pattern to avoid a
core. Cores are relatively easy to replace compared to the cost of high scrap.

10. Keep runner lengths equal, the distance between the biscuit and the cavity should be as equal
for all cavities as possible. Avoid “tree” type runners.

11. Eddies in the flow path (from cores or openings) will cause swirls, gate to avoid this if possible.

12. Gate to allow for high momentum, the velocities necessary will cause the metal to by-pass pockets,
fins, and cores. Plan for this in the design of the gates.

This list of rules is not intended to be complete - the point of listing them is to illustrate some of the things
that a trouble shooter needs to consider; and also to show it is very important to have a systematic
procedure and defined rules. These are taught in the NADCA gating classes, and are well established
procedures. They do work and the best chance of success is to use these rules.

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Surface Defects chapter 2

The engineer or technician that does the gate design should leave a trail of drawings and calculations
to show the reasoning. This will allow an intelligent correction if things don’t turn out as expected, and
prevent duplicating efforts later.

The guess and grind approach is outdated and much too expensive anymore. While the trial and error
approach is popular, it just isn’t accurate enough for modern quality requirements.

It is very common practice for the first correction for a surface defect to be a gate change. While it may
be desirable eventually, gate changes should not be done until the rest of the process is set within the
desired guidelines. The best approach is to bring the fill time, the gate velocity, and the die temperature
into normal operating windows, then do a gate change if necessary. Optimizing the rest of the process
parameters the doing any gate changes will provide a more robust solution.
DIE TEMPERATURE
The die temperature is another of the important factors that control surface defects. Like the other factors, 2
there are times when the process conditions and the part quality requirements make the die temperature
the primary adjustment for surface defects; and there are times when other process factors should be
primary. Generally, a bare minimum die temperature of about 400 F (204 C)is required.

A low die temperature helps cools the metal flow and increases the percent of solidified metal in the
metal stream. If the percent solidified metal is high, it may not knit together well; and the flow forms
“wrinkles”, or cold flow.. This is the commonest type of surface defect.

Other important factors are a long fill time, a long flow path, a thin wall, and a low metal temperature.
A short fill time can compensate (up to a point) for long fill time and thin wall; and higher gate velocity
and short fill time can compensate for a long flow distance.

Controlling die temperature is vital, yet it is not measured regularly in many shops; although those
most concerned with this defect will have thermocouple or hot oil control in all the dies. Since the
control of die temperature must start with measurements, they will be discussed briefly here. In general,
measuring die temperature can be done three ways:

• Hand held pyrometer

• Thermocouple in the die
• Infra red device

Each has advantages and disadvantages:

HAND HELD PYROMETER - very accurate and easy to use, but must stop the machine to get a
reading.

THERMOCOUPLE IN DIE - continuous reading (necessary for good process control), but does not
measure surface temperature and is generally hard to maintain and awkward to install

INFRARED - easy to use, but not accurate because the die surface changes color over time (emmissivity
value changes continually)

Other factors are the timing during the cycle when the reading is taken and the reading location.
Procedures must be established for these factors if measurements are to be compared from one setup
to another.

Following are some typical temperature ranges minimums needed to avoid surface defects: (these are
approximate surface temperatures, as measured with a hand held pyrometer just after the casting ejects)

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Surface Defects chapter 2

good finish average finish

Aluminum 475 - 600 375 - 600
Zinc 450 - 550 375 - 550
Magnesium 450 - 550 400 - 550

The surface temperature is not measured as often as it should be, although it is one process factor that
is almost totally under the operator’s control. The temperature is often adjusted by the “look” of the
casting, which is a very crude guide.

The following parameters control the die temperature, and all of these are primarily adjusted by the operator.

• Die spray
• Water/oil flow rates
• Cycle time
2
Thus the usual situation is that the operating temperature of the die is controlled directly by the operator;
and this temperature management is probably the most important activity of the operator/technician
at the machine.

The main influence of the die designer or the process engineer in die temperature control will be in the
location of the water/oil lines or cartridge heating units. This is certainly important, but the operator
controls the flow rates, which can override good location.

The action of these three die temperature controlling activities will be reviewed here because it is so
important to surface defects.

The die spray is about 99% water. When sprayed on the die, the evaporation (boiling) of the water on
the hot die extracts large amounts of heat from the die. Thus, the water controls the temperature; not
the die lubricant material - the spray cools the die quickly because of the large amount of heat quickly
pulled out of the die as the water in the spray boils away.

The type of lubricant does have a major effect on the cooing action, however. The wetting action
of the lubricant can cause the liquid to spread out and have a lot of contact with the die at certain
temperatures. If the wetting action of the lubricant works well at the die temperature it encounters, then
the amount of heat extracted can be increased by at least 50% according to research done at OSU.

Long spray times in aluminum die casting can cause over cooling, which can easily cause surface
defect problems; and may cause water to be left on the die which causes porosity problems. This is not
a common problem in zinc or magnesium.

Application of die spray is left to the skill of the operators or technicians. The type of spray used, the
mixture ratio, the spray volume, the spray location, the drop size, and the amount of air pressure used
are a few of the important parameters.

These must all be considered important if there is a surface defect problem. Like everything in die casting,
it is far more important to be consistent than anything else. If the consistency is there, corrections can be
made if needed; but if the application is not consistent, it is likely that problems will never be solved.

The operators skill is usually an inconsistent factor; a new operator or one with a different skill level
will change results quickly. In order to minimize the dependency on the operators skill, it is best to do
a thermal analysis in the design phase, and engineer the cooling properly so as even and reasonable
die temperatures at the expected operating conditions.

This up front engineering effort will put the die thermal conditions in a more robust operating window
that can tolerate more variations in spray conditions, and minimize dependency on the operator’s skill.

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Surface Defects chapter 2

Experience has shown that a good computer thermal analysis can increase production rates by 10% - this
is worth a lot of money.

Some good techniques for managing die spray include:

• Spray in 2-3 second increments with careful adjustment of the spray pattern
• Spray the areas that need cooling, not just where the casting might stick
• Automatic sprayers with a set manifold for each job are a good way to keep spray to a minimum
• Keep spray equipment in good shape, the most important factor is consistency
• Document pressures, nozzles sizes, flow adjustments, and spray times in detail, and use this
data every set up
• Undocumented changes should not be allowed ( changes should not be stopped, just
documented)
• The ends of bosses or fins will always be cold, avoid spraying the bottom of bosses or
fins with direct spray because of overcooling 2
Factors in the spray actions that are very important in controlling die temperature:

• Length of time of spray

• Spray nozzle adjustment, or spray pattern
• Distance from nozzle to the die
• Balance between air pressure and lubricant pressure (drop size and velocity)
• Minimize over spraying
• Document everything - spray time, pressures, spray location, mixtures, etc.
• Be consistent

The second die temperature control factor is control of water/hot oil flow. It is important to understand
that flow rate is the critical parameter for controlling the cooling or heating of the die.

Flow rate is generally more important than line size or even the inlet temperature of the fluid. This is
especially true for water cooling where there is little control available on the inlet temperature; but is
less true for hot oil units where inlet temperature is more controllable.

Measuring flow rate is a very desirable way to improve process control; and will be a very good way
to maintain consistency. Another method is to maintain consistent water pressure at each machine with
pressure reducing valves.

The flow rate is determined by the smallest opening in the supply line; this is usually the quick connect
fitting, but it can be other connectors. The water (or oil) manifolds must be designed properly, otherwise
there will be more area in the outlets than in the inlet pipe; this can make for reduced flow in some lines.

Flow adjustment valves should be easy to see, easy to use, and have settings that can be repeated (or
the flow rate measured). Low flow rates may over-cool and cause cold flow defects; when this happens,
consider using air instead of water, or use solenoids to turn the water on and off each cycle.

Hot oil systems will often make a significant difference in the surface defect rate for two reasons:
• First, it keeps the die hot during stoppages - this is where hot oil can easily pay for itself; and
• Second, it can add heat or cooling to the die as needed to maintain consistent die surface temperature.

Many of the surface defects come during start up situations. Often, it is hard to determine the last bad
casting and the first good one, and frequently there are some bad castings in with the good or vice versa.
External heating units (hot oil or cartridge heaters) can eliminate this major source of surface defects.

Hot oil units cool about half as effectively as water, so the thermal design must account for this to get
the cycle times desired (use higher flow rates, move lines closer, make larger, etc.)

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Surface Defects chapter 2

It is difficult to get the full benefit from hot oil when using dies designed for water cooling, high flow
rates are usually needed. A pumping unit that can supply high flow rates is desirable.

Some things to consider in design of water/oil heating/cooling:

• Do not place water lines around the outside edge of the cavities (this cools the cold
areas)
• Give priority to cooling/heating lines, even if this means moving ejector pins or other
changes
• Do not use the same line to control temperatures in both a hot area and a cold area
• Depth of the line is critical, set depths carefully
• Size of line must match the flow rate, do not use a big line in the die and use the same
connections (the heat transfer will go down instead of up)
• Provide for thermocouples in the die, this will not cost anything in the die build, but
2 will provide the basis for thermal control if needed later
• Treat cooling water because deposits only .005 in thick (.125 mm) cut heat transfer by
about 40%
• Review the connections to be sure the lines aren’t too large for the connection method
• Use constant pressure (pressure reducing controls)
• Measure flow and use flow controls
• Do use computer thermal analysis for optimum cycle time
• Use hot oil to keep the die hot for pre-heat and short stoppages
• Maintain cooling water and oil temperature at a set point as much as possible

Adding overflows is a common method of reducing cold flow defects. The biggest benefit is usually the
increased die temperature from the added metal volume. This heat can be added at spot locations,
and directed at either die half, so it is a good way to add spot heating as needed. This can make a
much more noticeable difference if the casting has thin walls in the area of concern. A good thermal
and flow analysis can show the need for the spot heating and help select the best method for adding
the needed heat. Recycling metal does have some costs.

Overflows do change the metal flow pattern to some extent, and some of the leading edge of the flow
(with it’s attendent porosity, oxides, and solidified metal) may find it’s way into the overflow, but this is
not always the case because the small gates required inhibit free flow. Figure 2-8 shows some of this.

Fig. 2.6 Porosity indicates flow pattern into an overflow. Probably indicates poor venting, but also could be influenced
by restrictions at the overflow gate, slow fill time, poor flow pattern, low die temperature, and long flow path in
combination with a thin wall section 50x. (Courtesy Prof. J Brevick at OSU)

A well designed thermal management system and well engineered flow system will greatly reduce the
number of overflows required. If these are done in the up front engineering, then a minimum number of
overflows should be used; frequently they are not needed at all.

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24
Surface Defects chapter 2

Another important control for the die temperature is the cycle time. Again, the cycle time is essentially
under the operator’s control, even in an automatic system.

The die temperature at any given time is the direct result of the number of pounds of metal that went
through the die in the last one to two hours.
A consistent cycle time is one of the most important factors in good defect control. The cycle time
should be measured and displayed to the operator or technician in some way to get good control (if it
isn’t measured, it isn’t controlled).

Die temperature changes slowly, which can cause some delayed effects, and perhaps some confusion

Example:
What can be expected from a change that adds nozzles to the spray manifold, and shortens the spray
time but supplies much more cooling than before; this change also shortens the cycle time?
2
There will be two effects, one short term and one long term; the short term effect will come from the
increase in spray cooling, and the long term effect from the change in cycle time. Increasing the
cooling from spray will reduce the die temperature quickly (short term); and reducing the cycle time
will increase the die temperature (long term).

While these two effects may possibly balance out in the long run, the first change the operator notices
may not show the total result of the changes made because of the delayed effect of cycle time on die
temperature.

Part of controlling the cycle time is keeping the die hot during short stoppages and pre-heating the
die before all start ups. If the record keeping is done as suggested earlier, it will become apparent to
management that the start up scrap is a very significant cost, and also that much of start up scrap is
surface defect scrap.

It is not unusual to find that the start up scrap is 30% to 50% of the total scrap, which makes it worth
a considerable engineering effort. Much of this kind of scrap comes from short stoppages during
production. The die isn’t usually pre-heated after these stoppages, and the first few pieces are scrap
or at least marginal.

The primary actions that will make a difference are: using hot oil or electric cartridge heaters that will
automatically add heat as soon as the die stops; and not starting the die until a pre-set temperature
is reached.

Summary of correcting surface defects with die temperature:

• Minimize start up scrap and marginal production situations with die pre-heating;
keep die hot during short stops
• Measure die temperature to know where to change and how much
• Establish temperature goals for minimum defects
• Increase die temperature in the area of the defect by:
• Reducing spray
• Reducing water flow rate
• Adding overflows
• Increase overall die temperature by:
• Reducing cycle time
• Increasing hot oil temperature and flow rate
• Use good spray practices and keep consistent
• Use good computer aided thermal analysis for cooling /heating line design
• Measure and control flow rates and establish process discipline
• Use good engineering to provide quality cooling water at consistent pressures and flow rates

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25
Surface Defects chapter 2

METAL TEMPERATURE

The metal temperature can affect surface defects; obviously, the hotter the metal the better the surface
finish, although the metal temperature is always limited by other factors.

In aluminum, limits on high metal temperature come from flash, more oxide formation, greater sleeve
and die erosion, soldering, shorter plunger life, difficulty in maintaining consistent temperatures and
other problems. In zinc, high temperature causes flash plus erosion on the pot and the gooseneck, the
loss of magnesium and other problems. In magnesium, high metal temperatures can cause flash and
oxide problems.

In general, adjusting metal temperature is not one of the best ways to reduce surface defects for the
long term, although it can be a short term fix. This is particularly true if the temperature adjustments are
not controlled, and the metal temperatures are changed frequently. In this situation, surface defects can
2 be better improved by eliminating all adjustments and using one setting for all shifts.

In general, the most desirable situation is to keep the metal temperature at a high range, but not high
enough to cause a lot of other problems. Keeping the zinc at 810°F (432°C) as a maximum, and the
aluminum at about 1270°F (687°C) maximum are reasonable limits.

The most important factor in the metal temperature is maintaining a consistent holding temperature;
allowing more than a 10°F (5.5°C) variation can cause problems, especially in thin wall parts with
long flow distances - this should be watched carefully no matter what set point is used. The holding
furnace and the furnace temperature controllers need to be kept in good condition so temperature
variations can be kept within these limits.

The dynamics of many metal delivery systems make it difficult to change holding temperatures when
low energy holding furnaces are involved. This is because the delivery system will deliver at one
temperature, while the holding furnace has to add or lose heat to get the metal to the correct set
point. This can be a slow process, and a better operating procedure is to set the holding furnace at a
reasonable temperature and maintain that setting for all dies ( a few exceptions can be permitted).

In cold chamber operations, the temperature loss in the ladle and the sleeve must be kept to a minimum,
or at the least it should be kept consistent for all situations. The ladle waiting time must be consistent,
and the delay in the sleeve should be carefully controlled (it may be set by other process conditions).

For hot chamber, the temperature of the nozzle can be significant. The nozzle must be hotter than the
molten metal so the nozzle can add heat to the metal, but if the nozzle is too hot, it will start to react
with the molten metal and cause washouts and other problems. The biggest problem is leaving the
nozzle on high fire for short stoppages; this causes large fluctuations in nozzle temperature; this can
be controlled automatically.

In summary, the metal temperature control should use the following factors:

• Control metal temperature on holding furnaces to within

10°F (5.5°C) or less using good furnace and controller maintenance procedures
• Use consistent holding furnace set points, do not use metal temperature as a variable unless
absolutely necessary
• Use consistent times between ladling and shot
• Control nozzle temperatures for hot chamber machines

The type of alloy can make a quite a bit of difference in the surface finish

In zinc, Zamak 7 was designed to have the best fluidity and surface finish of the common alloys, in
aluminum, the alloys closer to the eutectic will be more fluid and will tend to have better surface finish

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26
Surface Defects chapter 2

(384 for example). The Zamak alloys have up to 4.2% aluminum in them, and the fluidity is quite a bit
higher at the high end of the aluminum range; this makes a difference in thin wall decorative castings.

The silicon content is important in the common aluminum alloys, and should be maintained at the
high end of the range; the variation in silicon content should be reduced from the 2% allowed in the
specifications because the difference in the flow and the freezing characteristics is markedly different
at the extremes of the allowed silicon ranges.

The eutectic alloys will have a smaller freezing range, and will be more sensitive to variations in the
holding temperature and other process variations, and so are regarded as harder to cast.

Venting and vacuum can be significant for surface defects in some cases. Certainly the trapped air will
cause blisters and gas porosity, but it will also cause back pressure in the cavity; and this back pressure
can change the flow enough to cause surface defects.
2
This will be most noticeable in blind features (such as bosses, fins, etc.), where the back pressure from
tapped gas may be enough to prevent a complete fill in these areas. Review the metal flow pattern to
find out if this could be a problem. Probably the regions close to the last points to fill will be the most
affected. (The gating design should have been carefully done so as to set the last point to fill at a
location where venting would remove the trapped gasses.)

To remove gases from blind features, it may be necessary to add vacuum. Vacuum will be beneficial in
all situations where back pressure is suspected of altering the flow path, and should be used wherever
it is feasible. The other benefits of vacuum, such as reducing out-gassing, blisters, and gas porosity,
make it desirable to use in any case.

Vacuum can be added to hot chamber machines by drawing the vacuum before the shot starts, then
starting the shot when the vacuum is established and the metal has been sucked almost to the sprue
by the vacuum.

However, just the proper engineering of the gating and venting should provide a system suitable
for many die castings without the use of vacuum. This requires a well designed gating system with a
planned fill pattern, and vents that are large enough to allow the air to escape during cavity fill (see
section on gas porosity).

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27
Surface Defects chapter 2

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 Chapter 3
Laminations
LAMINATIONS FROM METAL FLOW CONDITIONS

Laminations occur when two layers of metal do not mix to form a homogenous solid; rather the layers
remain separate, although they may be held together to some extent in areas that were not completely
skinned over when the two flows met. 3
Laminations occur when a semi-solid layer of metal, or a layer of metal that is becoming semi-solid and
may have an oxide skin forming meets a similar layer; and one layer flows over the top. These layers
can be attached to each other to some extent, sometimes the lightest external pressure will cause them
to separate.

The following figure shows a schematic of the type of situation that is most common, with a cold
flow line that would be classed as a surface defect in the previous discussion being present with a
lamination defect.
COLD FLOW LINE

DIE SURFACE

FLOW 1
FLOW 2

FLOW 3

Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of the way most flow laminations occur.

Figure 3-1 shows this condition schematically, and Figure 3-2 shows a photographic example of this
kind of lamination condition. In this example, flow 1 or flow 2 arrived first, solidifying rapidly as they
moved because of their contact with the cold die. This will take only a few milliseconds. Flow 3 would
be the main or final flow that finishes filling the casting. The surface of flows 1 and 2 is semi-solid by
that time, and flow 3 does not attach solidly to either one. In the example shown, flow 2 is cold enough
so that flow 3 does not attach solidly to it and forms a lamination. Flow 1 isn’t quite cold enough for
this to happen.

It has been shown that once the solidification starts, it is physically impossible for there to be enough
energy available from flow 3 to completely re-melt and recombine with flows 1 and 2.

One major manifestation of this particular lamination situation is when the part is finished by machining,
shot blasting or vibratory finishing. The mechanical action of the finishing operation will loosen the
top layer, which will then will peel up. There may have been no visible indication that the metal was
layered before the finishing operation; however, the problem was there from the initial fill.

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Laminations chapter 3

Fig. 3.2 This shows a layer that peeled up when the part was grit blasted

Thus some of the causes of laminations will the same as those that caused surface defects. However,
there are several other factors to check in addition to these.

One is the initial speed of the metal as it begins to flow into the cavity. If the first metal in is slow
because the plunger is still accelerating to fast shot, then this metal will have the tendency to dribble,
3 splatter, or run into the cavity at low velocity. It only takes a millisecond or so for this metal to solidify
as a layer on the die surface. As the cavity fills with the rest of the metal, the rest of the metal flow will
lay on top of the first layer and will not remelt it. This will be a lamination.

The correction for this type of lamination is to move the fast shot start switch closer to the pour hole, or to
start fast shot earlier by whatever control is being used. This way the metal is accelerated to atomized
flow velocity before it enters the cavity, and the total cavity fill time is shortened considerably.

Starting the fast shot earlier is a good starting point in solving or laminations, the next check would
probably be for some of the same solutions mentioned earlier for surface defects. Again, for those
process factors that are controlled directly on the floor, these would include:

• Fill time
• Flow pattern (gating design)
• Gate location
• Gate velocity
• Die temperature
• Metal temperature
• Venting

As mentioned, the wall thickness and the casting shape can also be factors contributing to surface
defects and also to lamination defects, and perhaps changing these is feasible and worthwhile;
however, in the usual case, the trouble-shooter will find that the sequence of corrections should be:

• decrease fill time,

• increase die temperature,
• increase metal temperature (if possible)

If necessary, change metal flow pattern:

• change flow directional patterns (don’t guess, use calculations)

• change gate velocity
• change gate location

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Laminations chapter 3

OTHER SOURCES OF LAMINATIONS

Laminations are possible from a flexing die or inadequate clamp force from the machine. This may
occur when the impact spike at the end of the stroke occurs, or when the intensifier increases metal
pressure. These pressure increases may flex the die or open the machine slightly; and another layer of
metal could be added outside the initial casting skin. This situation is shown in Figure 3-3.

3
Fig. 3.3 Schematic representation of the way most flow laminations occur.

This layer (depending on the temperatures and timing) could be on top of the skin that is still soft or
semi-solid; and it may partially stick for a time, and may peel or flake off later. In general, it will tend
to be concentrated a short distance from the gate. The corrections would be:

• Make sure the die strength is adequate, including the proper thickness and enouugh
support pillars
• Calculate the opening force on the machine from the intensified pressure, and make
sure the machine can hold the die closed

(Note: the full projected area of the die does not usually get the full intensified pressure
applied because of partial solidification, so a lowered force may be appropriate; the
factors that permit the use of a reduced pressure or area would be: wall thickness or the
part, shape of the part, rise time of the intensifier pressure, and die and metal temperatures.)

• Review the machine condition to be sure worn linkage is not a factor

• Review the tie bar adjustments to be sure the loads are balanced

Laminations can also come from oxide skins trapped in aluminum or magnesium, but mostly in aluminum.
These skins are formed continually when the liquid metal is exposed to air, they may come from one
of the following: improper skimming of the ladling area in the holding pot, they may be formed in the
cold chamber or the cavity during injection, they may be formed upstream in the delivery ladle or in
the melting furnace.

These kinds of laminations will tend to be random in location, and usually are fairly small; perhaps .08 (2mm)
in size or less. They can be larger; especially if proper skimming is not being done in the ladle area. The
small oxides will usually not present a problem unless they are in an area that gets machined or finished.

However, these small oxide particles can get dislodged when machining, and the depression left
when the particle is dislodged is mistaken for porosity. A careful examination under 4 to 10 power
magnification before and after machining is needed to determine that the oxides are a factor. They
usually occur infrequently, so examination of a number of machined castings will be necessary to
determine if this is a problem. The examination should look for oxide flakes just under or next to the
surface that didn’t flake out.

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Laminations chapter 3

This condition is shown in Figure 3-4

Fig. 3.4 Oxide skins caused this defect, although it was thought to be porosity at first.

The corrections involve good metal handling procedures, including:

• Skimming the holding pot properly (probably most important)

3 • Keep the time in the cold chamber to a minimum, and keep the cold chamber temperature high
• Filtering as close to the ladle area as possible
• Fluxing and degassing properly
• Use the proper fill times and good gating practices

Laminations can also come from flash captured in the casting. This happens when the die is not cleaned
properly, and the flash left on the die drops into the cavity as the die closes. The incoming metal will not
remelt the flash and cause it to mix with the rest of the casting; in fact, the molten metal may barely adhere
to the flash. This condition is shown in Figures 3-5 and 3-6. Thus the flash location in the casting will be a
weak spot, causing cracks and leakers in addition to layers on or near the surface (laminations).

Fig. 3.5 Flash left on the die caused these laminations, which became fracture in this casting.

The corrections include those activities that reduce flash (especially flash left on the die) such as:

• Keeping the die clean between shots (good operating procedures and process discipline)
• Use robust die designs so die doesn’t flex
• Don’t postpone die repairs
• Calculate and use the appropriate metal pressures, both static and intensified
• Make sure the die is centered on the machine
• Keep the machine in good operating condition and adjusted properly
• Proper adjustment of the machine and intensifier settings
• Engineering the die cooling to keep die expansion as even as possible

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Laminations chapter 3

Further information can be found in the section in this book that discusses flash as a casting defect.

Fig. 3.6 Flash as a lamination just under the skin of the casting that was exposed when the part was grit blasted.

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Laminations chapter 3

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 Chapter 4
Gas Porosity
POROSITY IN DIE CASTING, THE BIG PICTURE

In general, porosity is one of the biggest problems in die casting. High volume production and very
near net shape makes the process very attractive, but the reputation of die castings as being full of
porosity has heavily restricted use of the process. Strong customer pressure for better quality has
forced an increased the use of engineering and technology, and this is rapidly reducing the traditional
porosity problems. Currently there are successful applications for heat treatable die castings that would
not have been considered even a few years ago.
4
Shrinkage porosity and gas porosity are the major types of internal porosity in die castings; although
another type of porosity (called flow porosity here) is also possible, and will also be discussed later.

The two major causes, gas and shrinkage, require almost completely opposite actions for corrections;
hence a person doing trouble shooting must first identify the type of porosity in question; otherwise the
corrective action is likely to be of little or no value.

This means that a critical first step is the initial identification to determine the type of porosity. However,
even after identifying the type of porosity; the exact cause will not be determined that easily; and it will
not always be clear cut. Corrections will often require a judgment based on the most probable cause.
But the trouble shooter should not jump to a likely probable cause without an examination and making
a best effort at determining the type of porosity. This will save a lot of very expensive trial and error,
and it is recommended that samples be prepared for examination, and the castings examined under
magnification before starting the correction efforts.

A magnification range of 5 to 50 power will handle most questions, although much of the time a hand
held magnifier with 5 to 10 power will be satisfactory. A stereo microscope with up to 50 power
magnification is very desirable to settle questions about whether the porosity is shrink or gas, and are
relatively inexpensive. Training is desirable, but someone working in this area can quickly learn to
recognize the differences in the types of porosity with continued use.

X-ray examination is a good method, but it has it’s limits, especially in identifying the smaller sizes.
Sawing and fracturing are the typical methods. As mentioned earlier, it is very much worth while to set
up a machining method (an obsolete lathe will do) close to the die casting machine so machining cuts
can be made for porosity examinations.

Regardless of what type of examination method and process control system is used, it is critical that
a disciplined procedure be in place that will provide feedback to those managing the process. As
discussed earlier, this will certainly require examination of the castings and immediate feedback on the
current porosity quality levels, and will probably require the establishment of a rating system. This may
mean just sawing a casting every hour, it may mean X-ray examination of a sample lot, it may mean
machining samples, it may mean fracturing a sample group, but a system for providing operational
feedback and thus controlling the process must be established.

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Gas Porosity chapter 4

To reach the very low scrap levels now routine at the best shops will also require a much higher level of
process discipline than the traditional operator control. To know what causes the problem is only the first
step, often the most difficult part is to establish the process discipline needed to effect a correction.

The porosity will be dealt with in separate chapters. This chapter will deal with gas porosity, and later
chapters will deal with other defects caused by the shrinkage phenomenon.

SOURCES OF GAS POROSITY

Gas porosity is the largest single problem in die casting. This is an unwanted byproduct of the high velocity
injection methods used. Going away from these injection methods would the first choice; but unfortunately
these methods are a requirement to fill the complex, thin wall parts that die casting does so well.

It would be ideal if die casting could use the minimum turbulence fill methods that are common in other
processes, and thus greatly reduce the trapped gasses, but this hasn’t been possible to date. Squeeze
casting and other processes have increased the options, but the thin walls and complex shapes must
still be done by the high velocity quick fill methods.

However, rapid progress is being made in developing methods for both reducing the amount of gas
trapped in the casting and to use the non-turbulent methods of filling in the die casting. Current high
vacuum methods can almost eliminate gas in the cavity, resulting in castings that can be heat treated
4 or welded; and thixotropic fill methods are showing considerable promise in extending the usefulness
of less turbulent fill methods.

But most die castings are made with the same methods used for years; which involves atomized flow
for most castings. This results in gas entrapment and castings that have a hard time passing the usual
“blister” test. This test holds castings above 600F for an hour or more; those castings full of gas porosity
will blister and deform from the pressure of expanding gas in the porosity. This test is frequently used as
a way of qualifying a casting for general porosity levels.

It is expected that much more extensive use of die castings will become the norm as the process is
improved and gas porosity greatly reduced in the next few years.

RECOGNIZING GAS POROSITY

Gas porosity is almost always in the form of trapped bubbles; this gives it a distinctive look that typically looks like
a series of smooth rounded holes in the casting. This is shown in Figures 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, and 4-4. These bubbles
can have a flattened look as shown in Fig. 4.5. This can happen if the bubble is squeezed from one direction
when the casting is pressurized at the end of fill or by the intensifier. These shapes are easily recognized.

Fig. 4.1 Photomicrograph of the gas porosity. This was found in an era with a sharp geometry change of the casting in
section 15-2. 0.5% HF. 50X

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Gas Porosity chapter 4

Fig. 4.2 Photomicrograph of round and isolated gas porosity typically caused by entrapped air during metal injection.
0.5% HF. 50X (Courtesy Ohio State University)

Fig. 4-3 Photo micro graph of round gas porosity (possibly from steam) in a casting.
50x (Courtesy Ohio State University)

Fig. 4.4 Typical gas porosity, this in a heavy section.

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Gas Porosity chapter 4

Fig. 4.5 Gas porosity where the bubbles have been flattened by the pressure.

The first step in treating a gas porosity problem is to examine it carefully to be sure it is gas porosity.
It is very important that the type of porosity be determined before starting corrective action to avoid
wasting time with efforts that won’t help. This examination may take a magnification of 5 to 12 power,
but seldom requires more, and can be done with pocket magnifiers in most cases.

Note that these bubbles can have a flattened look as shown in Figure 4-5 . This can happen if the
bubble is squeezed from one direction when the casting is pressurized at the end of fill (or by the
4 intensifier). These shapes are easily recognized.

The key identifying characteristic is the smooth wall associated with gas porosity. The appearance of
the wall can be that of clean aluminum, or perhaps it can be heavily discolored by dark by products of
burned lubricant. Figure 4-6 show this situation. The key factor to look for is the dark colored, relatively
smooth, rounded wall.

Note that trapped gas can be associated with shrink porosity; thus the predominant appearance could
be that of shrink porosity, but still there is considerable gas present. Thus a die casting that has no
visible gas porosity bubbles can still contain substantial quantities of gas trapped in the shrink porosity
space. Perhaps this is most apparent in outgassing, where there may be a minimum of gas bubbles
present; but when heated, the gas expands and pushes out through a newly applied paint layer (this
problem will be discussed later).
SOURCES
Gas porosity comes from three main sources in die casting:

• trapped air
• steam
• burned lubricant

Fig. 4.6 Gas Porosity with darkened walls, probably from burned lubricant.

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38
Gas Porosity chapter 4

While it is certainly true that hydrogen can also be a problem in die casting, it will not be considered
here in detail because it is a small percentage of gas porosity problems in the typical die casting plant.
This comment comes from several studies that show the average gas content of die castings will be in
the range of 5 to 50 cc per gram, with an average gas content in the 20 to 30 cc per gram range. This
is based on a small but random sample of die castings from at least 10 different plants, and is based
on standard temperature and pressure conditions.

This quantity of gas is much larger than the possible gas content from trapped hydrogen, which would
be less than 1 cc per gram as a maximum. Thus, the hydrogen gas could be a problem, but it is
currently quite small for the average die caster when compared to the other trapped gas problems
associated with the process. Since these other trapped gas sources are by far the greatest problem,
they will get the majority of attention in this book.

TRAPPED AIR, PLUNGER SYSTEM

Trapped air is by far the most common of the gasses trapped in die castings. Some of the air is trapped
because of the atomized flow characteristics, but a lot of air can be trapped in the metal flow as it
moves from the shot sleeve or gooseneck up to the gate. While it is not usually possible to change the
turbulent flow pattern needed to fill the casting, it is possible to reduce considerably reduce the amount
of air trapped in the metal feed system during metal flow up to the gate.
Air Volume Air Entrapment
[C-In3] 4
40
35 2 in. - Y
30
25 2 in. - C
20
15 4 in.
10
5
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fill percentage

Fig. 4.7 Graph showing percent fill vs trapped air using typical die casting conditions (OSU).

The first consideration should be the percent fill in the cold chamber. Some research data has shown
that this should be at least 50% full to minimize trapped air. While this is very desirable, unfortunately
it is not always possible.

Just making an acceptable appearing casting has to have first priority, and the fill time, gate velocity,
and pressure requirements very often make the use of the 50% fill impossible. There is usually a trade
off in matching a die to a machine’s metal pumping capacity; the percent fill is one of these. It is critical
that these comparisons be made with the PQ2 calculations before selecting the appropriate cold
chamber size and percent fill.

Once the sleeve size is selected, the next consideration should concern the pour rate from the ladle
into the sleeve. If there is less than about 50% percent fill, the metal will tend to generate a wave that
travels back and forth between the plunger tip and the die. As the plunger starts forward, it generates a
wave in front of the tip; and this can meet the reflected wave ins the middle of the sleeve. This generates
turbulence and trapped air.

The best solution is to start the plunger forward just after the wave has reflected from the tip, this means
the plunger will be traveling in the same direction as the original wave, and the trapped gas from this
source will be minimized. The other method of reducing this potential source of trapped air is to use
PQ2 to generate an acceptable design that will provide a 50% full sleeve.
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Gas Porosity chapter 4

pouring hole die cavity

shot sleeve

pouring hole die cavity

shot sleeve

pouring hole die cavity

plunger tip shot sleeve

Fig. 4.8 This illustrates what happens when the wave from the plunger meets the reflected wave (OSU).

shot sleeve

4 (b) Trapped Air Type I die cavity

pouring hole trapped air

shot sleeve

(b) Trapped Air Type Ii

die cavity
pouring hole trapped air

Fig. 4.9 Three problems with trapped air in the shot sleeve. The top situation is “surfing,” where acceleration is too fast,
causing surfing before the critical slow shot situation is reached. The other situations are when acceleration is too slow,
causing a large trapped air bubble. (OSU)

Once the plunger has started forward, recent research has shown that the acceleration rate from
standstill to the first speed selected is critical. If the acceleration is too fast; the wave in front of the tip
“surfs”, and traps air bubbles.

If the acceleration is too slow, then a wave travels to the die, is reflected, and meets the plunger
further on in the plunger travel. There is considerable danger of a large trapped air bubble when this
happens.

The optimum acceleration will be very close to a straight line when the sleeve fill percentage is below
50% (which is when this technique is needed the most). This straight line represents an acceleration that
will achieve the critical slow shot speed an inch or two before the sleeve full point.

Above 50%, the optimum acceleration becomes more of a curve, although it can still be approximated
by a straight line. The calculation to determine the optimum linear acceleration speed is best done with
a new NADCA computer program.

The optimum acceleration is usually between 2 and 3 inches per second per inch of travel. The results
of a typical calculation with this program are shown here.

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40
Gas Porosity chapter 4

Fig. 4.10 The NADCA plunger profile program showing acceleration for a 400 ton machine with 32% fill. The straight
line approximates the optimum acceleration curve.

30

25

20
4
Plunger Velocity (in)

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Plunger Position (in)

Fig. 4.11 The optimum acceleration profile and the straight line approximation (dotted) of this profile.

Use of this speed is difficult for many older machines because they have no way to control the
acceleration speed. Most machines tend to give the plunger a jump start; this sudden jump forward
causes turbulence and trapped air. This same situation is true for the hot chamber machines.
A relatively simple modification of the slow shot valving will allow most machines to meet these
acceleration profile .

The correct acceleration for any given situation is determined by the percent fill and the length of the
sleeve. This program will also display the wave that will be generated by a machine that can’t control
acceleration; allowing the user to select the profile that causes the least turbulence for a machine that
hasn’t been modified to be able to do the proper acceleration.

Once the plunger has started forward, the slow shot speed used for the acceleration should be the one
that can be calculated from the following formula:

[ ]
Css = (22.8)
(100% - fi)
Where Css = critical slow shot speed = Ccc √ dpt
100%

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41
Gas Porosity chapter 4

This formula looses some accuracy when the percent fill is below 50%, but it still provides the best prediction
available of the slow shot speed that will trap the least air. If the linear acceleration mentioned above is used,
the plunger will usually reach the Css at a point about 1 to 2 inches before the sleeve is full.

Note that the objective for both cold and hot chamber machines is to use techniques that minimize
turbulence as the metal moves toward the gate.

Also note that the techniques will only push the air ahead of the metal, they do not remove it. Thus,
good venting practices or vacuum is an absolute requirement to eliminate or minimize trapped air
porosity. Venting and vacuum will be discussed later.

If a slow shot speed above the critical is used, then the wave in front of the plunger tip will tend to “surf”,
or roll over; which traps some air bubbles in the metal. If a slow shot speed below the Css is used, then
the wave in front of the tip pulls ahead of the tip, hits the die face, and is reflected back towards the
tip. When the reflected wave meets the slow moving tip, there can be a large bubble of air trapped
between the wave and the tip.

When large bubbles are trapped in this manner, they expand suddenly as they go through the gate,
causing small explosions and splattering of metal, which also increases other defects as well as the
trapped air porosity.

4 The factors that reduce the trapped air porosity are often small adjustments, and it is necessary to
do all of the little things and to have the process discipline to keep them constant to reach the higher
quality levels.

In summary, the factors that need to be adjusted and monitored include:

COLD CHAMBER:
• POUR RATE
• DELAY TIME BEFORE SHOT
• SLOW SHOT ACCELERATION
• POUR HOLE SPEED
• CHANGE OVER POINT FROM POUR HOLE SPEED TO SLOW SHOT SPEED
• SLOW SHOT SPEED
• FAST SHOT START POINT

HOT CHAMBER:
• SLOW SHOT ACCELERATION
• SLOW SHOT SPEED
• CHANGE OVER POINT FROM SLOW SHOT SPEED TO FAST SHOT

TRAPPPED AIR, RUNNER SYSTEM

The next part of the metal flow where air can be trapped is in the runner. The metal flow speed
is between 40 mph (64 km) and 100 mph (160 (km) in the runner system (to put it in automotive
terms). At these speeds, the momentum will cause the metal to pull away from the runner wherever the
runner changes shape too suddenly for the flow to adjust. This causes eddies and swirls, which are all
locations for trapped air bubbles to be captured in the flow.

The correct solution is to use the proper procedures for designing the runner shape. The runner shape
should be such that the metal does not pull away from the walls, and is under control at all times. This
requires curved and carefully sized runners.

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42
Gas Porosity chapter 4

Once the metal arrives at the gate, the smooth flow usually cannot be maintained, and the metal must be
further accelerated to the atomized flow range. This is unfortunate, but a fact of life for most die castings.

TRAPPED AIR, VENTS AND VACUUM

The best benefit for reducing trapped air porosity from this point on is to made sure the vents (or
vacuum system) is properly designed and working.

The first step is to size the vents adequately to allow the air to escape ahead of the incoming metal.
One way to do this is to size the vents (or vacuum system) to make sure the velocity is below about 70%
of the speed of sound (using standard conditions). This provides an estimate of the maximum speed for
air flow in the vents. Since the flow rate of the incoming metal is known, the vent size can be calculated
as follows:

Vent Area = Q/ 8000

Where :
Q = incoming metal flow rate (plunger area time velocity)
8000 = constant representing the approximate maximum velocity allowed in the vent
(about 70% of the speed of sound at std)

This vent area should be carried to the edge of the die. Vents using Z shapes or fan shapes that get 4
shallow toward the edge of the die can be used to avoid spitting.

An important factor in using vents is their location; which should be at the last point to fill. The last point
to fill should be determined by simulation, by short shots, or by experience; and vents of adequate size
should be located at this point.

The casting should be oriented in the die so that the last point to fill will be located such that vents
can be used. If, for example, the casting orientation is such that the last point to fill is on a slide, it will
be difficult to design a good vent of the proper area. It is almost always worth the time and money to
change the orientation of the part so the vents can be located at the last point to fill (even if this results
in a die that is more expensive and difficult to build).

Vent and vacuum channels should not have choke points or restrictions, although they are less serious in a
gas flow system than in a liquid flow system (such as the runner and gate or cooling water flow systems).

The vacuum systems must be operated so they generate a substantial vacuum before the metal
arrives. The time between the closing of the pour hole and the metal at the gate should be part of the
specifications on the set up sheet. This time should usually be at least 1 second, although this quite often
will need some adjustment of the slow shot start point at the end of pour hole speed.

When vacuum is used for the hot chamber process, the vacuum is turned on before the plunger is given
the signal to start the shot. This allows time for the vacuum to be established, and draws the metal up
the gooseneck into the runner system. Usually the fast shot is started when the molten metal has been
drawn up to the sprue. With this procedure, a reasonably good vacuum will be established just to pull
the metal through the gooseneck and nozzle, and thus it will also be established in the cavity.

One of the major problems with vacuum systems is leakage. Once the die is hot, or when the die has
some wear, or perhaps during start up, the steel to steel seal along the parting line develops openings,
and air can enter along the parting line. This will limit the ending vacuum reading, and this number
is important. O-ring seals on the die or a larger evacuation path will be needed to overcome this
problem. This is especially needed when the goal is to produce heat treatable or weldable castings; in
this case the cavity vacuum must be monitored every shot.

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Gas Porosity chapter 4

Vacuum is one of the best ways to reduce the trapped air porosity, and is usually required to obtain
heat treatable or weldable castings. Even though vacuum technology is not difficult, it is not used as
much as it could be.

A process engineer could use a checklist like the following to minimize trapped air porosity in the
runner and cavity areas:

RUNNER
• NO SQUARE CORNERS
• LOW OR HIGH EJECTOR PINS ELIMINATED
• RUNNER AREA DECREASES SMOOTHLY WHEN PROCEEDING DOWN THE METAL FLOW PATH

VENTS
• VENTS IN BEST LOCATION
• VENTS GO TO OUTSIDE EDGE OF DIE
• VENT AREA CORRECT
• OPERATING PROCEDURES THAT REQUIRE VENTS TO BE CLEAN AND OPEN AT ALL TIMES

VACUUM
• VACUUM CHANNELS SIZED PROPERLY (ESPECIALLY AT CAVITY ENTRANCE)
• VACUUM IN THE CAVITY IS MEASURED AND A MINIMUM SET
4 • VALVES FUNCTIONING PROPERLY
• FILTERS CLEAN, AND CLEANING SCHEDULE ESTABLISHED
STEAM
Steam is generated when the molten metal encounters some water as it fills the die. This water is turned
to steam literally in an explosion. A gas bubble of steam now exists where a drop of water previously
existed. The gas bubble (steam) will occupy about 1500 or more times the space previously occupied
by the water.

Thus the generation of the steam doesn’t occur until the molten metal arrives and converts the water to
steam. Thus the gas is generated in the midst of the leading edge of the turbulent molten metal flow,
and there is no opportunity at that point to push the gas out the vents. The gas will be trapped inside
the metal someplace; just where is hard to predict.

The usual source of the water is die lubricant, which is typically about 98% water. The amount of die
lubricant in the water can influence the amount of gas generated, but by far the major amount of gas
will be generated by steam from the water associated with the lubricant.

The sources of water include the following:

• To much water based die lubricants on the die (the die must be dry as it closes)
• Leaking water lines
• Leaking water pipe threaded connections
• Crack in the die into a water line
• Sprayer dripping on the die as it closes
• Water glycol hydraulic fluid getting on the die

Probably the most important factor is that the die must be dry as it closes. It cannot be assumed that
any water left on the die will evaporate before the metal arrives.

It is not unusual to have the die dry as it closes, but to find steam porosity in the casting. In this case,
close the die, lock the machine, wait a short time, then open the die without shooting any metal. This
may disclose a crack in the die that doesn’t visibly leak water until the die is distorted during closing.

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Gas Porosity chapter 4

A typical leak in a hot chamber machine is the sprue post. This often cracks due to heat stress, and leak and
cause steam porosity. This condition should be checked for and corrected during all start ups for magnesium,
since a water leak on the sprue can cause an explosion that would be very dangerous. Runner sprues often
have thin steel between the runner and the water line, and should be checked often.

The appearance of the gas porosity caused by steam is about the same as that caused by trapped air,
although the steam porosity can be a single large bubble or perhaps a large number of small bubbles
grouped together. Frequently the walls of the bubble porosity are smooth and almost shiny. The first
suspicion when there is a group of bubbles that always appear in about the same place and have a
clean smooth wall is that there is some water on the die. Check spraying practices or look for water
line leaks.

Water trapped in the die will also gather in colder spots, and sometimes will be present during start up.
Thus the spray activity during start ups should be much reduced until the die warms up. An indication
of die temperature is valuable to tell how fast the die temperature is increasing during start up.

Steam bubble will frequently congregate in one location, probably somewhere down stream from
where the water was encountered. Figure 4-12 shows a concentratrion of bubbles that could have
come from steam.

DIE LUBRICANT
4
The die lubricant or the plunger lubricant can also evaporate, boil or burn when the metal hits it. In
each case, there is some gas generated that will be trapped in the metal because it was generated
during the metal flow and it is not possible for the gas to escape out the vents because it is mixed with
the metal flow as it is being formed; nor will vacuum capture very much of it.

The biggest source of gas porosity from lubricant in a cold chamber machine is the plunger lubricant;
and the biggest problem with the plunger lubricant is inconsistent application. The dark colored walls
on the surface of the porosity cause one to be very suspicious of excessive plunger lubricant.

The type of lubricant makes some difference, but all materials will generate gas or burn when the
molten aluminum hits them. The best solution is to use a minimum amount, use it consistently, and to
change the sleeve and the tip when required.

Fig. 4.12 Concentration of bubbles that could indicate water on the die generated the steam that caused this porosity.

Many times the extra lubricant comes from trying to extend tip life beyond the point where dragging is
apparent. Not only does adding lubricant add to gas porosity, but it is likely that the plunger operation
is erratic because of the wear. This may not cause large problems for surface defects, but can be a
disaster for porosity defects, especially shrink porosity.

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Gas Porosity chapter 4

It is absolutely essential that worn plungers (both hot chamber and cold chamber) be changed as soon
as wear is evident. Some of the more successful cold chamber operations change plunger tips based
on the pressure during slow shot, and not on plunger appearance. This may change the tip earlier than
waiting for visual evidence, but it does eliminate some marginal castings from the production stream. For
hot chamber, changing the plunger rings is based on the speed of plunger drift after the end of shot.

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46
 Chapter 5
Blisters
SOURCES AND CORRECTIONS

Blisters are gas porosity, just the same as the holes inside the casting. They are just near the surface and
more visible. Some typical blisters are shown in Figure 5-1.

The gas is under pressure during the solidification process (pressure of 2,000 psi to 15,000 psi or 137
bar to 1000 bar). When the casting is taken out of the die, the casting surface is hot, probably about 600
°F (315 °C), and the cast metal is still quite soft and pliable. The gas pressure then forces the soft skin up,
and forms a blister.

The same corrections that work for gas porosity are needed for blisters. The way to get rid of blisters
completely is to eliminate the gas porosity. Briefly, the main actions are:

• Reduce trapped air (see gas porosity corrections for the many ways to do this) 5
• Reduce the spray and plunger lubricant to a bare minimum - this will eliminate or minimize the gas
generated from steam and lubricant
• Eliminate any water or excess lubricant on the die
• Correct any venting and vacuum problems

Fig. 5.1 Typical blisters.

While all the things mentioned for gas porosity are important, some will be a little more important for
blisters. For example, when the blister area seems to be part of a swirl or back fill area, then the flow
pattern is part of the problem. If this is the case, review the items mentioned in this section on surface
defects; but in particular, spreading the flow pattern out and getting rid of “jet flow” types of gate systems

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Blisters chapter 5

is always a good approach. Design the flow pattern to avoid dead spots and eddys as much as possible.
Use reflections and add gates on the sides of castings as necessary.

Also venting is very important. Use vents to the edge of the die as first choice, overflows without added
vents as second choice.

In decorative castings, even very small blisters would not normally be noticed are a problem. Some of
these push up the skin after buffing; which has made the skin thin over the gas bubble, which expands
and forms a blister. These small blisters are frequently found between metal flows or at the end of them;
try changing the flow pattern with better gate design.

When blisters continually form about in the same spot, it indicates that the blisters are not random bubbles
that formed in the shot sleeve or the gooseneck, rather that there is a source of trapped gas in the system
that is consistently putting bubbles into the metal stream the same every shot. A good place to look for this
kind of problem would be in the metal flow path after the sleeve, or after the sprue.

This could be a square corner on a runner, a short ejector pin in the runner, a poor gate design, or
anything that would cause turbulence in the metal flow path on the way to the cavity. There have been
cases a persistent blister in one spot on the casting was traced to a short ejector pin in the runner.

It is very important that the runner be designed using the NADCA rules about runner area reduction, and
that the entire metal flow path be as smooth as possible from the biscuit or sprue to the gate. Pay attention
to the little things.

For cold chamber machines, one source of trapped air can be the sharp corner at the end of the sleeve
5 where the metal must make a 90 bend as it leaves the sleeve. This sharp corner is sure to trap some air,
and should be reduced with a radius at the end of the sleeve if at all possible. The use of a “hog nose”,
or metal saver that projects into the sleeve can also help.

For hot chamber machines, the sprue can be a place where air is trapped. Using runner sprues will help
considerably, but they must be engineered correctly. The sprues and sprue bushings from catalogs are
often difficult to configure, even the constant area sprues will probably not have good flow as the metal
transitions to the runner. Many companies have found it necessary to design and build the proper shaped
sprue to fit the die and runner configuration required.

HIDING BLISTERS

If working to eliminate the gas porosity isn’t possible, or there isn’t the time or the inclination to get a
permanent solution; blisters can be hidden in most cases by cooling the skin over the blisters so as to make
it stronger at ejection and thus prevent the gas from pushing it up.

This can be done by cooling skin more before removing it from the die. This is usually done by spot cooling
the die surface exactly where the blister occurs. The most common techniques would be as follows:

• Cool the blister area with extra die spray

• Cool the blister area by adjusting water lines flowing in that area, or by adding water lines or
fountain to the blister area
• Add an air blast to the area on the die where the blisters occur

Spot cooling the die to hide the blisters with any of these methods will generally cause the cycle to be
slowed down; at least a little. Thus they can be expensive in the long run.

Another technique that is even more expensive would be to cool the entire die by slowing down the
cycle rate. This cools everything, including the blister area, and is easy and effective in many cases. It
is just expensive.

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Blisters chapter 5

In general, the “hide the blister approach” is a poorer solution than eliminating the gas porosity; however,
it is the easiest and quickest way, and thus has it’s place.

Other things that can be done include quenching the part in water immediately after it is ejected, or
spraying water on the part in the blister area as soon as the die opens or when the part comes out of the
die. This can often stiffen the skin in the area of the blisters enough so the blisters do not push up.

Reducing the metal temperature can help some, but this may cause other problems, such as cold flow
or non fills. Probably most important is keeping the metal temperature (and all the process variables)
consistent.

Adjusting the gate or the gate speed is in the category of adjusting the flow pattern or venting; all of these
actions are very interactive - that is adjusting the plunger speed changes both the gate speed and the fill
time, and will add to the impact pressure. This makes it difficult to determine just which factor is critical.

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Blisters chapter 5

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50
 Chapter 6
Flow Porosity
DESCRIPTION AND CORRECTIONS

The term flow porosity as it is used here is intended to describe a defect that can occur on the inside of a
casting (or sometimes on the surface) that develops from poor metal flow situations. While this is similar
to the surface defects discussed earlier, this term applies mostly to the flow defects that occur inside the
casting and that look similar to other kinds of porosity.

Essentially, this name is used for porosity caused when poor flow conditions allow space to develop
between solidifying flows on the inside of castings, which is then seen as porosity.

Some flow porosity is shown in Figure 6-1 and 6-2 . These Figures show flow porosity on the surface of
the casting, but it is the same as the porosity on the inside. While these flow porosity defects may also
fit in a combination of the other categories, they are considered common enough to deserve special
consideration; and so they are listed separately here.

One kind of flow porosity defects come from low pressure at the end of stroke, where metal pressure
was lost just at the end of the stroke. Figure 6-1 occurred because the hot chamber machine had a bad 6
plunger and ring set; Figure 6-2 occurred because the cold chamber machine had a plunger that was
dragging at the end of the shot.

Flow porosity often develops from this situation (low pressure at the end of the shot), and the particular
cases shown are probably the two most common causes; although there are a number of others.

It should be noted that, while the porosity is of real concern , it is just part of the picture. Whatever caused
the flow porosity defect (in the examples shown, the low pressure at the end of the shot) will no doubt also
be causing a number of other defect problems. In other words, the poor internal soundness from the low
pressure will mean there are probably a number of other defects as well. (Fig. 6.3).

Fig. 6.1 Typical flow porosity extending to the surface in a zinc casting formed with a plunger that was hitting bottom.

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Flow Porosity chapter 6

Fig. 6.2 Typical flow porosity from low pressure conditions that caused the depressions in the casting.

Fig. 6.3 This shows some porosity generated by poor flow conditions inside the casting. (Courtesy The Ohio State University)

These kinds of process problems can be intermittent, and waiting until the inspector has found some bad
castings may be too late; by then there are already quite a few bad castings mixed in the production flow.
Plungers should be changed before the first bad casting is found, and other process settings should be
changed when the process goes out of limits instead of waiting for the inspector.
6 Flow porosity can also occur from cold metal temperature. This means the temperature at the gate is
too cold, which usually (but not always) means that the holding furnace temperature is too low. It could
also develop if the pot temperature is correct, but the metal cools too much in the sleeve or the ladle
from long delays.

A low metal temperature is often used to stop flashing and spitting; the casting may not look too
bad, so the operator accepts it; but there are internal porosity effects that are not caught until later in
the process. It is important that changes as important as metal temperature are not made arbitrarily,
they should be documented at the least, and should not be done without being reviewed at the best
because they can cause internal changes that will cause problems at a later processing point.

Very cold die temperatures combined with cold metal, long flow distances, and long fill times can result
in flow defects. All of these factors are additive, so if each one is a little out of limits, then flow porosity
may appear when it would not if only one or two of the factors were slightly out of limits. It is desirable
to set some process limits on these factors. We have discussed a maximum fill time and a minimum die
temperature for start up; in addition the metal temperature should have low limits. The operator should be
aware when, say 3 out of 4 of these factors go out of limits; and this should be recorded at the least.

Another way to get flow porosity is to use a very slow fill time. This will result in internal porosity that
is hard to distinguish from shrink porosity when it is sectioned. Possible ways to identify this kind of
porosity include:

• Careful adjustment of the X-ray machine may show the lines between the flows inside the casting.

• Examination of the wall surface of the porosity does not show the dendritic structure characteristic
of shrink porosity, but the narrow “crack like” appearance is not that of gas porosity

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Flow Porosity chapter 6

• Examine the porosity, then saw the casting in the apparent flow direction and apply die penetrant
to the area of the porosity. If the penetrant travels in a fairly straight line away from the defect, it is
probably following a line between metal flows; and this would indicate a flow defect situation.

A check list of action for these kinds of defects would be as follows:

• Look for pressure problems at the end of the stroke from one of the following:

• cold chamber
dragging tip
worn sleeve
short biscuit
low accumulator pre-charge
excessive flash
(see also the list in the shrink porosity chapter under pressure problems)

• hot chamber
worn rings or plunger
worn gooseneck insert
excessive flash
low accumulator pre-charge
exceeding gooseneck capacity
(see also the list in the shrink porosity chapter under pressure problems)

• Calculate the maximum fill time, look for long fill time several times the values calculated

• Check for low metal temperature, a temperature well below the normal would be suspect; some
approximate values would be as follows:

• aluminum, < 1200 °F (634 °C) 6

• zinc < 770 °F (410 °C)
• magnesium < 1200 °F (634 °C)

• Check for a cold die, probably one that was below about 330 °F (165 °C) - Note: Look for poor
start up procedures, and the defects would be intermittent in this case

The items listed above are additive, so if all of the above are out of limits to some degree, they may add
up enough to cause problems even if one of the factors is not far out of limits

Also check surface defects section, the actions for correcting surface defects will also be beneficial
flow defects.

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53
Flow Porosity chapter 6

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54
 Chapter 7
Shrink Porosity
LOCATION OF SHRINKAGE POROSITY

Shrinkage porosity occurs because most of the cast metals (there are a couple of rare exceptions) will
occupy less space when they change state. In other words, when the metal goes from liquid to solid,
the metal takes up less space than it did when it was a liquid.

This is the direct opposite to the familiar action of water, which expands when it freezes, and will
break water pipes if necessary to get the space it needs. But in metal casting, if a cavity is filled with
liquid metal, then the same metal turns solid, there will be some space left over. In zinc, aluminum and
magnesium, this empty space will be about 4% to 6% of the volume.

This space can appear at a number of locations; when it is inside the casting it is shrink porosity. The
space inside the shrink porosity is usually filled with some gas, but this doesn’t have to be the case. If
there is no gas present to fill the space inside the shrink porosity, then there will be a vacuum inside.

This porosity can also be on the outside of a casting, but wherever it occurs, it will always be at the
last point to solidify. This will also the hottest point in that region of the casting. This is a local hot spot,
and there may be several of these in any given casting. Thus shrink porosity can be in several localized
areas, but wherever it occurs, you can be sure that that location was the hottest point in the casting in
that immediate vicinity.
7
Obviously, this local hot area and the location of the shrink porosity will normally be in the center of a
heavy section; but there are some exceptions - which we will discuss later.

MODIFYING SHRINK POROSITY WITH DIE TEMPERATURE

One of the ways this porosity can be managed is to change the location of the local hot spot This can
be controlled (to some extent) by changing the die temperature.

In thinner castings, using die temperature to change the location of the hot spot can be managed fairly
easily; while in thicker castings it will be much more difficult. The die configuration (construction methods),
part geometry, and metal temperatures also affect the controls available for moving the hot spot.

One important point to remember is that the die temperature is not directly the issue, it is the hottest
area inside the casting as it solidifies that matters. Thus the die temperature is indirectly affecting
the problem, and there will be situations where the just isn’t enough adjustment available in the die
temperature to make a big difference.

Thus changing the die temperature can be a very appropriate way to manage shrink porosity in a fairly
thin wall casting (very approximately <.12 inches or 3 mm wall for aluminum), but may not work very
well for a thicker section (very approximately >.6 inches or 25 mm for aluminum). The configuration
(casting and die shape) at the hot spot will also be an important issue.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

Another point to remember is that the movement of the hot spot does not change the amount of porosity,
it only moves the location. Often this is all that is required to solve a specific problem; however, if
moving the porosity is not going to solve the problem, then another solution should be sought.

Another caution is that changing the die temperature can affect a number of other factors, such as
cycle time, soldering, sticking, and dimensional issues.

Another point when using die temperature for shrink porosity control is that an even casting temperature
will cause the porosity to spread out, whereas a bigger temperature difference between areas in the
casting will cause the porosity to concentrate in one area (the hot spot).

Keeping the temperature inside the casting as even as possible during solidification should be the goal;
however, to get this situation inside the casting may require an uneven die temperature. For example,
the die may need to be quite cold in a heavy section of the casting and hot in a thin section. The result
would be a more even temperature in the casting during solidification, which will result in spreading out
the porosity. In practice, the porosity can be so spread out that it is not visible without magnification.

Often, this solution is quite satisfactory. Actually, the total amount of porosity is not changed a lot, it is
just spread out so much that it is not visible without magnification; and thus it is no longer an issue. As
a precaution, this approach will not improve a leaker situation; if fact it may make it worse (as will be
discussed later).

These ideas are illustrated with the following sketches. The first sketch illustrates a typical situation,
where the gate area is a hotter section, and the water lines were run around the outside of the casting
(cooling the outside that was already a colder area).

Fig. 7.1 Example showing typical location of shrink porosity.

Fig. 7.2 Changing die temperature can influence the location (but probably not the size) of shrink porosity.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

Fig. 7.3 Centerline porosity

In all situations, the hotter section will tend to have the shrink porosity.

If the die temperature conditions were changed to those shown below, the shrink porosity would tend
to move to the new location of the hot area.

If the die temperature is adjusted so that the solidification temperature inside the casting is fairly even,
and solidification occurs fairly uniformly throughout the casting, then the following sketch illustrates the
general situation.

If the temperature is even enough, and especially if the solidification time is very quick, the shrink
porosity is centered on the neutral thermal axis (which is the last point to solidify). This axis represents
the location of a line between the heat flow going to the ejector half on one side and the cover half
on the other.

The porosity in this location is usually microscopic, and probably cannot be seen with the naked eye;
however, it still can be porous (see leaker defects).

One important factor to remember is that temperature differences between die halves are very important
to the location of this centerline porosity; and, when trouble shooting, the temperatures should be taken
on both die halves. The porosity will always move towards the hot die half.
7
Changes in section thickness’ of the die will cause some shift in the location of this centerline porosity
(or the location of the neutral thermal axis). Some of the situations that will exist are shown on the
following sketch.

Fig. 7.4 This shows the neutral thermal axis and thus the location of “centerline” porosity.

This shows the neutral thermal axis and thus the location of “centerline” porosity.

Controlling die temperature on the production floor is done with die spray, water/oil flow, and cycle time
adjustments. Die spray is usually the easiest and most effective way to control die surface temperature,
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57
Shrink Porosity chapter 7

but water or oil flow rates are also quite effective. Some operations will use pure water spray for
temperature control of the die surface, then add a short spray with the die release agent after the
cooling spray. (Note: heavy use of die spray will significantly reduce die life.)

The internal casting temperature can also be influenced by using a high heat transfer die steel. This is
usually either a high tungsten or high molybdenum material that has a thermal conductivity of 4 to 5
times the normal H-13. In the sketch above, if the core on the right were made of one of the high heat
transfer materials, the neutral thermal axis would immediately recede from the surface and into the
casting.

This change would reduce or eliminate the surface defects that appear from having the shrink porosity
appear on the surface, and will also greatly reduce cracks and leakers.

APPEARANCE OF SHRINK POROSITY

To solve shrink porosity problems, a trouble shooter must be able to identify it. One dominating
characteristic is the rough and irregular shape, and this characteristic is the best way to make a
preliminary identification. However, there are some exceptions, so this kind of quick identification
should be preliminary until other factors are checked.

The irregular shape and rough appearance comes from the way the casting solidifies. Understanding
this solidification process is important if one is to be able to identify and correct shrinkage defects of
all kinds, so it will be reviewed here.

When the casting is filled in the normal die casting process, it is filled with high velocity metal in a very
turbulent flow condition, and the metal flow is mostly a spray as the metal leaves the gate.

Where a surface of the turbulent moving metal flow contacts the die surface, it will freeze almost
instantaneously (probably in a few milliseconds for most aluminum castings, faster for most zinc and
magnesium castings).

This layer of very rapidly frozen metal forms a strong, dense, and fine grained surface with very low
7 porosity. These are very desirable characteristics, and thus it is valuable to maintain the skin, and to
have it as thick and unbroken as possible.

However, once the skin has formed, the freeze rate for the rest of the cast metal slows down and the
structure inside the casting gradually changes as the distance away from the skin towards the inside of
the casting increases.

As the casting solidifies towards the center (or wherever the hot area is located), and the solidification
rate slows down, a dendritic structure starts to appear. In most die casting alloys (there are a few
exceptions), dendrites are formed from the pure base metal (aluminum, magnesium or zinc). The
dendritic structure is roughly shaped like a tree - they have a center bar with arms on each side. These
structures are randomly located in the solidifying metal.

The dendrites grow fairly slowly (compared to the casting solidification rate), and so they will get
larger at the last point to solidify, where there is the most time for them to grow. By the time the last
metal solidifies, there will be a lot of dendrites in this area of last solidification. Figure 7-5 shows how
dendrites look.

This rough, dendritic structure is what will predominate at this point. The last point to solidify is also
the point where there will not be enough material to fill all the space available. The solidifying metal
has been completely filling the space available up to this point, but at the final solidification point, the
reduction in volume associated with the change in state from a liquid to a solid catches up with us, and
there will be some space left over.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

This means that shrink porosity occurs where the structure is mostly dendritic, and the walls of shrink
porosity voids will have this rough dendritic structure. This rough surface will be one of the best ways
to determine that a void is a shrinkage void. Figure 7-6 shows this rough surface.

This rough appearance usually manifests itself in a crack like appearance, and this is the main feature
used to identify shrink porosity. This is in comparison to gas porosity, where the walls are usually
smooth. Figures 7-7, 7-8 and 7-9 show some typical shrink porosity as it appears in a die casting.

Fig. 7.5 Dendrites - These grown over about a 48 hour period in just the right conditions for dendritic growth, so are much larger
than anything in casting; but the shape is the same.

Fig. 7.6 Wall of a shrinkage void. Note the rough appearance caused by the dendritic structure.

Fig. 7.7 Massive shrink porosity in a heavy section. 50x (courtesy OSU)

The space immediately surrounding the location of visible shrink porosity is filled with the same dendritic
structure. Although there is not visible porosity in this area, there still is space between the dendrites and
this will be one of a loose dendritic structure, and will not be nearly as solid as the rest of the casting.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

Fig. 7.8 Combination of shrink and gas as typically found in a die casting. (Courtesy OSU)

Fig. 7.9 This shows the typical appearance of shrink porosity. 100x (Courtesy OSU)

This section will normally be porous, at least to some extent. Thus the presence of shrink porosity also
indicates that there will almost certainly be leak paths in that area.
7 Occasionally (usually in a very heavy section) the shrinkage porosity will appear in long paths with
more rounded and smooth shapes; this kind of shrink porosity is sometimes called “worm hole porosity
” because of it’s appearance. This happens in a eutectic liquid, and doesn’t happen all the time in die
casting, but it is not unusual.
SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURE EFFECTS AND CONTROLS
To summarize a the effect of die temperature in controlling shrink porosity:
• controlling porosity with die temperature is possible only on some castings, the thicker wall castings
will be much less affected by die temperature

• in the typical fairly thin wall die casting (very roughly about .04 or 1 mm thick to .17 inches or 4
mm thick in most areas with some thicker sections), adjusting the die temperature can move the
porosity, and it will always move toward the hot spot in the die

• adjusting die overall temperature does not reduce the amount of shrink porosity, although it can
spread it out or change the locations

There are several factors the trouble shooter should look for:

• Die spray is important because it can change the spot temperature between areas of the die.
Water/hot oil line control is also good for spot cooling or heating. However, the cycle time will
change overall die temperature.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

• Watch temperature difference between die halves

• Remember, you can heat up the cold spot as well as cool the hot spot

• Adding metal savers or making other configuration changes is another good way to move or
disperse the porosity

• Even temperatures will result in dispersed porosity that is generally not visible, although it may be
a leak path

• The best way to get dispersed porosity is to have an even wall thickness

METAL PRESSURE

The other tool to fight shrink porosity is metal pressure. This is called the high pressure process because
this is the only casting process that adds pressure over a few atmospheres, and the reason die casting
machines use the high pressure is to reduce shrink porosity.

The intensifier systems on die casting machines are intended to add pressure during solidification
and thus to reduce shrink porosity. Although the intensification pressure can fill some of the voids as
they develop, the timing of the pressure while maintaining a certain casting temperatures is critical.
Unfortunately, these factors are hard to control.

The timing is critical because the porosity is not there when the metal is liquid, so pressure at that time
doesn’t help (it will only add to flashing); and after the casting is solid, the pressure obviously will not
help; therefore, the only time pressure can be used to feed metal into the developing porosity holes is
during solidification.

This is the time when the cast metal is partially liquid and partially solid. This means the metal is in the
freezing range of that particular alloy. Most common die casting alloys have a freezing range - which
means they go through a “mushy” stage as they solidify. It is during this mushy stage that we can add
pressure and reduce shrinkage porosity by filling some of the voids as they are forming.
7
Pure metals and some alloys called eutectic alloys solidify the way water does - that is the material goes
directly from a liquid state to solid state at a single temperature - in this case there is no “mushy” stage. These
alloys are very difficult to die cast, especially if the casting shape is complex at all or there are thin walls.

Some typical freezing ranges for the most common die casting alloys would be as follows:

380 aluminum ------------ 80 °F

384 aluminum ------------ 120 °F
413 aluminum ------------- 15 °F
AZ91d magnesium ------ 230 °F
Zamak 3 zinc--------------- 10 °F

Within the same alloy, the longer freezing range generally means it will be easier to fill thin walls
and complex shapes, but that doesn’t apply between alloys. Thus zinc can fill thinner walls and more
complex shapes than aluminum, and magnesium solidifies so fast it requires extremely fast fill time for
most shapes.

In aluminum, the application of the intensifier during the mushy stage is probably the most important single
factor in controlling shrinkage porosity. Several things must be considered in the use of pressure:

• The casting configuration, for example, are there thin walls between the gate and the point of
interest ?

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

• The amount of metal pressure applied at the end of the plunger stroke - the packing pressure
• The final intensified metal pressure
• The rise time
• The die temperature
• The gate freeze time
• The metal injection temperature

Casting configuration is the most important - factors such as consistent wall thickness, gate placement,
and location of critical porosity areas. It is often worth the effort, especially if there are critical porosity
areas, to add metal savers or other features that bring the casting configuration closer to a consistent
cross sectional area.

The control of the metal pressure is important - both the pressure at the end of the stroke (called
static metal pressure, which is used for the “packing pressure”) and the intensified pressure. These two
pressures have somewhat different influences, but both are important.

For heavy sections and large castings, the intensified pressure becomes most important - for thinner
walls and smaller parts, the static metal pressure is most important.

Typical values for minimum pressures would be:

Table 7.1. Minimum metal pressures

Static Pressure Intensified Pressure

Aluminum 3,000 psi 8,000 psi

Zinc 2,000 psi NA
Magnesium 3,000 psi 8,000 psi

These should be regarded as the minimum for good casting quality internally - lower pressures are
sometimes used when the internal quality is not that critical. Note that these are not exact boundaries, the
7 pressure minimums will never be defined exactly for any specific casting without careful experimentation;
and then the results will apply only to that casting and to the particular quality questions for that casting.
It is a mistake to assume one has discovered the secret for all castings when the pressure requirements
for one shape have been pinned down.

For heavier section castings, some die casters use 10,000 psi as the minimum intensifier pressure, but
the effect of this pressure is also very much dependent on the intensifier rise time.

The static and the intensified metal pressures should be checked in the design phase - if shrink porosity
in a heavy section is a major concern, then process parameter selections that affect the pressures are
the primary consideration.

The selection of the machine size, the plunger size, the operating pressure, and other operating
conditions will be defined by this requirement. These selections are different if gas porosity or surface
finish are the primary quality issues.

An factor in these selections is the amount of flash that can be tolerated. While the static and the
intensifier pressures can be increased indefinitely with some benefits to the casting quality, the continual
increase of pressure above the minimums will have diminishing returns because of flash problems.

While higher pressures can help some, the question will be at what pressure do we get an increase
in flash problems with little or no reduction in porosity. Experience indicates that somewhere around

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

4500 to 5000 psi static pressure would be as high as needed without starting to get more flashing
than desirable.

Some engineering judgment is needed in selecting the process parameters where pressure is concerned.
For example, a thin wall part that has no porosity requirement may benefit very little from intensifier
pressure because the metal is solidified so quickly, and the intensifier may only add flash without any
offsetting benefit. On the other hand, some heavy sections shapes will be very sensitive to all the
intensifier settings.

Some casting processes have traditionally run at lower pressures. Small four slide zinc, for example
may run at 1400 to 1500 psi or even less - mostly because the shrink porosity is not as big a problem
as flash. This doesn’t mean that there isn’t any shrink porosity; it is still there; it is just that the size and
shape of the typical part with the quality issues involved can often accept a somewhat increased
amount of porosity. If there were a choice, however, it would be desirable to increase the pressure for
any casting above the minimums listed.

Again, these minimums are intended to show about where the minimum pressures are for most castings.
There will be a pressure for any given set of conditions below which the internal soundness start to
increase rapidly. This point will depend heavily on casting shape, and on other process operating
factors (such as metal temperature, die temperature, fill time, etc.). However, it is typical that once
the threshold is reached, even a being a little below the critical will greatly increase shrink porosity
problems. Thus, it is desirable to use these guides in the design phase to help avoid the problems.

Magnesium and zinc tend to solidify much faster than aluminum, and do not have the large freezing
range. This means that the pressure must be applied during a much smaller window of time, and many
times the intensifier cannot be operated within the time limits reliably. Thus the intensifier timing and
all the temperatures are especially critical if an intensifier is to be used effectively; especially with
magnesium.

For cold chamber machines, a big operational consideration in maintaining pressure on the metal
during the solidification is keeping the biscuit size large enough and it’s size consistent.

While small biscuits are desirable for many operations to maintain a fast cycle rate, this also means 7
running on the edge of being able to maintain pressure during the solidification process. Thus, there
are some bad castings as the normal variations push the process into the area where the biscuit is too
small.

This is difficult for some operations because the operator will not see any difference in the casting
appearance, and where the operator is trying to run with a minimum biscuit, and also adjusts the
machine settings based on his judgment of the casting appearance, then it is certain that there will be
some occasional high porosity castings into the stream of good castings.

The cavity pressure decreases very rapidly once the biscuit reaches a certain minimum; this minimum
varies with the size of the shot sleeve, the metal temperature, the fill time and other factors. The following
graph shows some approximate results from research studies, and illustrates the idea that it is critical to
monitor the biscuit size and keep it enough above the minimum that the operation is never on the edge;
even when the normal biscuit size variation causes a thinner than normal biscuit.

If it is necessary to keep the cycle rate up, the proper procedure would be to add the proper cooling
to the biscuit area so as to obtain the cooling with a biscuit size comfortably above the minimum.

Also, there will be some castings where the shrink porosity is not significant to the quality features of
concern, and running a small biscuit will not jeopardize the quality issues of concern.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

When reviewing the metal pressure factors, one should look at the following factors:

Figure 7.10. It is critical to monitor and control the factors controlling static metal pressure, and biscuit
thickness is a very critical one.

Fig. 7.10 It is critical to monitor and control the factors controlling static metal pressure, and biscuit thickness is a very
critical one.

When reviewing the metal pressure factors, one should look at the following factors:

1. Check the process design for the proper selection of conditions to get the appropriate metal
pressure, both static pressure and intensified pressure. It is most important that a PQ2 analysis be
performed correctly to get the best pressure conditions.

Things to consider:
• plunger size
• hydraulic pressure settings
• intensifier pressure settings

7 2. Sleeve or gooseneck and plunger condition is very important - for cold chamber, check lubrication,
sleeve condition, tip condition, especially when there are intermittent shrink porosity problems.

3. Use a monitor system to check the many factors in the pressure trace at the end of the shot - be
sure there is consistency first. If the traces are not consistent, it is usually poor lubrication or wear
in the plunger or sleeve/gooseneck.

4. Then measure impact spike, rise time, and deceleration speed.

5. A high impact spike may cause flashing, and this may force the operator to use a lower pressure than would
be desired for good quality. The high impact spike is an inherent feature of the machine, although the
low impact feature on some machines works well enough that it can help. Maybe a change in machines
will result in good pressure with a lower impact spike and less flash (even though the pressure is higher).

6. Watch for a long deceleration at the end of the shot, the deceleration should be rapid in most
situations, although there is some variation with part shape.

7. Also check design factors, such as tip to sleeve clearances, cooling on the die end of the sleeve to
reduce plunger binding, poor condition of the sleeve due to erosion or wear, cooling in the tip, etc.

8. The nitrogen pre-charge pressure will also cause pressure loss on the plunger at the end of the shot (low
static pressure), and the casting will not get the “packing” pressure it needs to reduce shrinkage porosity.

9. Check biscuit thickness for consistency and the appropriate value, especially calculate biscuit

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

variation and make sure the average biscuit thickness is enough that the variation will not cause
some biscuits to be too thin.

10. Hot chamber machines have problems with metal leaking by the plunger - this causes low
pressure at the end of the shot and lack of pressure just when you need it (packing pressure).

11. Trying to run too close to machine capacity in hot chamber machines can cause low
pressure at the end of the stroke when some of the normal variations (such as pot metal
level) cause the plunger to reach bottom at the same time or just before the casting is full.

In many of these cases, the casting appearance on the surface will not change, and a rejection by the
operator based on casting appearance will not eliminate the bad castings.

METAL TEMPERATURES

Also, one should keep in mind that the pressures are interactive with die temperature and metal
temperature. Running colder metal may reduce shrink porosity because more solidification takes place
before the die is filled. Filling the cavity with metal that is 50% solids will reduce the amount of shrinkage
voids in the cavity by 50%. But, the 50% solids solution will be slushy and very hard to compact, and it
will tend to have very poor surface finish, poor fill in cavity details, and possibly flow porosity inside.

Also, cold metal temperature can be difficult to maintain, and the entire process window is much
narrower than the normal. This will put the operation on the edge of the normal operating window,
and a small metal temperature change or other small process variations can easily cause serious
flow problems. This kind of operation would require a minimum allowable process variation in metal
temperature, probably something less than 5 °F (3.3 °C).

Shrink porosity can occur at the gate because this tends to be a local hot spot - porosity in this location
should respond to better pressure management (temperature control also); see also the chapter on
edge porosity.

Improving the pressure applied during solidification can also be done by changing the gate location. 7
This will allow the plunger to feed metal during the solidification phase, but the correct application
of pressure will depend on being able to repeat the pressure and temperature conditions accurately
every shot.

Another way to add pressure is to use auxiliary pins (called pressure pins or squeeze pins) operated
by hydraulic cylinders in the die. The pins are placed as close to the shrink porosity area as possible.
These can also be cores that are converted to be made to move in and out, and thus converted to
squeeze pins. The biggest advantage of this technique is that it can add pressure to a hot shrink
porosity area after the gate is frozen.

The squeeze pins can be very effective if they are put in the correct location. They are used extensively
by some companies for porosity and leaker reduction. One disadvantage of the squeeze pins is that
they require very careful monitoring of the process conditions.

They are usually activated after the gate freeze, and will be activated by a timer. The timer setting is
critical, and it will be on the order of 3 to 9 seconds after the end of the shot. The timer should have
settings to the nearest .1 second. Also, the temperatures are very important for determining the time. If
the die or metal temperature is allowed to vary, then the timer setting will not be accurate; this means
that this method works well for those with good process discipline, but is only marginally well for those
who do not have good control of die temperature.

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Shrink Porosity chapter 7

SOME COMMENTS ON TROUBLE SHOOTING WHEN GAS AND

SHRINK POROSITY ARE COMBINED

When trying to determine what action to take to correct porosity i a particular situation, it is often not
clear cut about what type of porosity requires the most action. The next figures show some examples.

As can be seen from the pictures, gas and shrink porosity are both present in many situations, and it can
often be difficult to identify just which is the most important. The gas porosity may tend to be random,
or concentrate in locations where there is an anomaly in the metal flow (such as a blind pocket or the
line between two heavy flow paths); while the shrink porosity will always concentrate in the areas that
are the last to solidify and are the hottest in that section of the casting.

The decision about what action should be taken for correction should be tempered with considerations
about the most likely improvement possibilities. For example, a large heavy section with thin walls as the
metal feed path will always have some shrink porosity in the center, and it will be very difficult to show
substantial improvements, so one may want to consider using expensive squeeze pins or changing the
part configuration, and not count on big improvements from fine tuning process considerations.

Fig. 7.11 This shows a combination of gas and shrink porosity. 100x (Courtesy OSU)
7

Fig. 7.12 A combination of gas and shrink porosity found near some sharp corners in the casting. 50x (Courtesy OSU)

Another example would be a concentration of bubbles next to a core or projection into the part. This
should be looked at as something that probably has a definable cause, and that it can be reduced if
not mostly eliminated.

If possible, several samples should be examined. One sample may not show the true relationship.
Always consider the particular sample in conjunction with the rest of the casting, i.e., where is the gate
located, and can more metal be fed; what is the part configuration around the sample location, what
are the process parameters, was this a truly representative sample, etc.

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 Chapter 8
Sinks
DESCRIPTIONS AND CAUSES

Sinks (surface depressions) are a form of shrink porosity. A sink forms when the shrink porosity develops
close to the casting surface, and as it cools, it pulls the thin skin on the die surface in towards itself,
forming a depression. Figures 8.1 and 8.2 show some typical sinks.

The shrink porosity is close to the surface because the surface of the casting is the hottest point in that
area of the casting - generally that means that the die is also very hot at that point.

Formation of the sink comes about from the following sequence of events.

First, when the die starts up and the die temperatures are all about the same, the shape shown below would
have shrink porosity formed in the about the location shown. This is a typical situation when the heavy
section is far from the gate or there is a thin wall in the casting between the gate and the heavy section.

In either case, the heavy section will freeze after the gate is blocked from feeding metal; in this situation
there has to be some shrinkage porosity formed because there will not be enough material to fill the
space. It will be about in the center of the heavy section at this point.

Fig. 8.1 Typical sink, sometimes called heat sink. Fig. 8.2 Typical sink, sometimes called heat sink.
As the casting is run longer and longer, the die temperature gets hotter and hotter in the areas marked
hot, and the die stays relatively cool in the areas marked cool.

Since shrink always will move to the hot spot, the shrink will move toward the three hot areas shown in
the diagram. The corners will get quite hot because of their shape, but the flat surface will also get hot
because of the extra heat from the heavy section flowing into the die at this point.

Note that the corners get hot because this shape does not remove heat very well:

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Sinks chapter 8

cold

porosity

hot

Fig. 8.3 Initial conditions before a sink is visible.

The Heat Flux arrows
have lots of room,
and move heat out
fast, so the corner
stays very cold

The heat flux arrows

crowd together here
and the heat cannot
escape fast, so the
corner gets very hot

Fig. 8.4 Corners are either hot or cold, depending on their shape.

The flat surface under the heavy section also gets very hot because of the heat from the mass of metal
above it. Thus the hottest spot in the casting (and the shrink porosity) moves down towards the lower
flat surface.

Eventually, the shrink porosity is just below the surface. On the surface will be a thin skin that was
initially formed as the casting was filling. The die surface in this area is likely to be quite hot because
there is not likely any extra spray or other effort to cool this area.
8 (The operator may not cool this area with spray because there is no evidence that this is a hot area,
and besides, the casting is not going to stick on a flat surface - so it is a waste of time to spray there.)
Gradually the shrink porosity moves toward the bottom flat surface, and the scattered porosity combines
into one large void just under the skin.

This will all be happening long after the gate has frozen and there is no chance to feed this porosity
with more metal by adding intensifier pressure. The last of the liquid material will be surrounding the
forming shrink porosity, and the solid portion will be a loose dendritic structure. In the later stages, the
shrink porosity has formed into a long crack like shape just under the skin.

Finally, as the last of the liquid starts to freeze, the contraction of the solidifying metal pulls the skin in
towards the shrink porosity; this pulls the skin away from the die surface. As soon as this happens, this
sunken portion stops transferring heat to the die surface and so stops cooling and remains very hot and
semi-liquid longer than the rest of the surrounding material.

Eventually, the casting solidifies with the sink in the surface. Sometimes some of the remaining liquid is
squeezed through the porous skin to form beads of metal between the sink and the die surface. This
remaining liquid is called the eutectic because it’s composition should be close to the eutectic point by

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Sinks chapter 8

this time. Sometimes this eutectic fills all the space between the sink skin and the die surface.

Figure 8.6 and Figure 8.7 show these cracks and the beads of metal that form between the sink and
the die surface.

Fig. 8.5 Final steps in the formation of shrink porosity.

Fig. 8.6 Sink with beads of eutectic that leaked through the skin.

Fig. 8.7 Sink showing the crack-like shrink porosity just below the surface.

CORRECTIONS

Sinks often occur on the flat side of castings, but they also frequently occur in corner sections. Wherever
they appear, it is certain that the location is very hot, and that it is one of the last points to solidify in
that section of the casting.

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69
Sinks chapter 8

Obviously the correction for sinks will be to cool the area where the sink appears. This means cooling
the die as much as possible just at the point where the sink appears.

The clue that a point in the casting is getting hot and that a sink might form is when the surface of the
casting starts to get rough (or frosty in appearance). This appearance is because the rougher dendritic
structure that always surrounds shrink porosity is starting to influence the surface condition, and thus the
surface takes on this rough, or frosty, appearance. Figure 8-8 shows this in a frying pan.

This rough appearance indicates that the last point to solidify is near the surface, and it is likely that
there is shrink porosity just under the surface. This will happen first, and will happen before and change
on the surface has happened.

The operator should notice this condition, and start to spray and/or adjust water so as to make
corrections - if corrections are not made, then it is likely that the sinks will appear shortly.

Note that a correction that cools the whole die, such as slowing the machine down, is not very effective
because the problem is that the area where the sink appears is hotter than the surrounding casting
material. Thus the problem is a difference in temperature more than the absolute temperature.

What is needed is changing the temperature balance between the hot spot and the colder areas. This
may mean that the operator should spray a flat surface heavily; even though it may not seem natural
to spray an area that will not stick, and thus has no obvious requirement for being sprayed.

The use of spray is a good way to get localized cooling because if it is done correctly, only the hot
section will be cooled. The spot to cool is exactly where the sink occurs on the casting, and not any of
the adjacent areas. Sometimes when the sink is opposite a boss, the tendency is to cool the boss more;
but this is exactly the wrong thing to do. The end of the boss is already too cold, and that is part of the
problem.

Another point is that the temperature imbalance can also be corrected by heating up the cool area as
well as cooling the hot area. In this case (as in many cases), part of the problem is that one half of the
die is running considerably hotter than the other half. Spraying the hot spot is not the only corrective
action that can be taken.

While using die spray is one way to quickly get some control of sinks, it is not the only way. Remember,
changing the temperature balance will be moving the porosity but it will not be reducing it. This can
8 only be done by finding a way to use pressure to feed the shrink voids as they form. Perhaps this can be
done by moving the gate close to the area of the problem, or redirecting the metal flow from the gate
so there is some chance of pressurizing the area during solidification, or by using a squeeze pin.

Certainly another way to reduce the shrink porosity (and hence the sink) is to equalize the wall thickness.
This will cause the last point to solidify to be spread out more, and there will not be a sink if the heat
is not concentrated in one spot.

Probably the most certain method of eliminating sinks is to put a fountain (bubbler) directly under the
spot where the sink formed. This will provide good spot cooling of the problem area without cooling
the adjacent sections of the casting, and will almost guarantee the heat sink will be gone regardless of
how the die is operated.

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 Chapter 9
Leakers
CAUSES

Leakers are castings that leak gas or liquid through what should be a leak tight part of a solid casting.
This is another form of shrinkage, and a manifestation of the solidification process.

The section of the casting that leaks may not have any large voids, in fact there may not be any visible
porosity in the location of the leaks. The problem is the loose dendritic structure that occurs close to the last
point to solidify. At the last point to solidify there may be some visible shrink porosity, but not necessarily.

However, surrounding this point is an area of dendritic structure that has enough space between the
dendrites to allow gas or liquid to work through it. This is shown in Figures 9.1 and 9.2.

The lower picture shows a close up of the same leaker site as in the upper picture, showing the as cast
surface on the left is connected to the shrink porosity through the loose structure surrounding the shrink.
500x (Courtesy OSU)

But the shrinkage phenomenon is still at the bottom of the problem, so the same factors that cause
shrinkage porosity also cause leakers. In fact, if there is visible shrinkage porosity present, then it is
certain that the area around it will be porous. How far the porous section extends will depend on
the shape of the casting, and the temperatures and pressures during solidification. In one trial, a
drilled hole was present in an area with visible shrink porosity. Filling the hole with die penetrant and
pressurizing the hole caused the penetrant to move from .5 in. (12.7 mm) to 1 in. (25.4 mm) into the
area around the visible porosity.

It is not the same if the visible porosity is gas porosity. Random gas bubbles are independent, their
presence does not necessarily mean that the surrounding area is porous. However, as noted in Figure
9.2, there is often some gas porosity present in the same location as the shrink porosity; and sometimes
just being at the scene of the crime causes the gas porosity to get the blame. Correcting the gas 9
porosity is probably a good thing to do, but it may not have much effect on the leaker problem.

Figure 9.3 shows the concept in graphic terms.

The center of the casting is usually the last point to solidify, and this point will some amount of this loose
dendritic structure we have been talking about. The amount of space between dendrites depends on
the temperature differences at the time of freezing and the ability to feed new metal in during freezing
(the static and intensified pressures and the shape of the casting are the most important things).

Most thin castings freeze quickly without much time for the dendritic structure to grow; also there will
not be a lot of space for developing a leak path between the skins. Thicker castings will have a larger
porous section along the neutral thermal axis. The skin is not porous, and will block the passage of
gasses - thus thicker castings would allow at least a little gas to pass the center if it were not for the
dense and non-porous skin.

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Leakers chapter 9

Fig. 9.1 This shows the shrink porosity under the area of the leakage site. The leak path is through the area between the visible
shrink and the surface. These show the loose dendritic structure in the center of a runner, the solid pieces are pieces of casting skin
that was formed in the shot sleeve.

Fig. 9.2 (a) shows the general area of a leaker, with general porosity present. There is both some gas and some shrinkage porosity,
but the shrinkage phenomenon is of the most concern for leakers (50x). (b) shows a close up of the same leaker site as in (a-left),
showing the as cast surface on the left is connected to the shrink porosity through the loose structure surrounding the shrink (500x).
(Courtesy OSU)

Fig. 9.3 Drawing of the shape of porosity, showing how shrink porosity differs from gas porosity as far as leakers are
concerned.

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Leakers chapter 9

Consequently it takes a break in the skin (and usually a break in the skin on both sides of the casting)
to generate a leak through the casting.

A typical situation is shown below

Figure 9.4 Schematic showing the a possible leak path caused by machining deeply on both sides of
the casting.

The break in the skin that starts the leak can come from a crack or a drag, or a machined area, or it can
be because the last point t o solidify is quite close to the surface - the same as with the sink condition.

Fig. 9.4 Schematic showing a possible leak path caused by machining deeply on both sides of the casting.
When this happens the surface generally gets the frosty appearance where the skin gets very thin and
the dendritic structure starts to show through. This is visual clue of where a leak may be located.
A leak path often exists between a machined surface on one side and a hot spot (or frosty spot) on
the other (Fig. 9.5). The casting shape heavily influences the location of the hot spot, which often is on
a die half that is much hotter than the other. Moving the hot spot away from the surface can help to
reduce the leak by strengthening the skin in that aera. This means trying to move the hot spot more into
the center of the casting.

One part of the effort would be to bring the two die halves closer to each other in temperature
(if possible). This is something that should be checked when leakers are the issue. The temperature
difference between die halves should be kept <50°F (27°C), but should not be over 100°F (55°C).

CORRECTIONS
9
The first correction effort should be to try to minimize the temperature differences in the casting, and
particularly to find a way to develop a good skin on the casting. If a solid skin can be developed, then
the leak path is stopped.

Increasing pressure can be important. The troubleshooter should check factors that would allow an
increase in static pressure first - try to get it up to 5000 psi or more. Perhaps this can be done with a
change in machine shot pressure or a smaller plunger size. Adjusting the intensifier pressure and rise
time os also important.

Changing the temperature differences inside the casting may well spread out any visible porosity but
the leak path may still be there; thus, correcting leakers takes more effort than just eliminating cisible
porosity. Still, it is worth adjusting the temperature blance to move any visible porosity, especially when
it is moved away from the skin into the center of the casting.

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Leakers chapter 9

Fig. 9.5 A leak path generated by a hot spot just under the surface on one side and a machined groove on the other.

This moving can be done (sometimes) by cooling the hot spot with spray, by changing or adding a
water line, or changing to one of the high heat transfer steels in that area.

Slowing the job down is generally not a good idea. Besides being very expensive, it may not help as
much as anticipated. It does cool the whole casting, and this may help generate a stronger skin, but it
does not correc the temperature imbalance that is the real problem.

Adding radius where possible around the leaker area is a good idea, but can only help so much -
adding more than about a 0.18 to 0.32 inch (4.2 to 8 mm) radius does not help much.

Solder or drags are another factor for leakers, they will break the skin in a hot location, providing a
starting point for a leak path. Keeping the die in good condition to minimize drags in the leaker area
is a good idea.

Fig. 9.6 Leak path through a thin wall casting caused by oxide skin in the casting.
When considering pressure options, squeeze pins can work well if the process is stable and they can
be controlled accurately. Moving a feeder gate near the leaker area can help if the gate and runner
design is done correctly, but watch for a change in temperature balance.

Also chack the metal temperature at injection - a lower injection temperature can make a significant
difference because it will reduce the amount of shrink porosity, and may reduce it enough to make a
difference in the leaker problem.

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Leakers chapter 9

However, this can cause problems (such as cold flow or flow porosity), and should be done carefully.
Also, when operating at the low end of the metal temperature operating window, previously acceptable
temperature variations may cause the metal temperature to be too low on occasion. It is likely that
the metal temperature variations will have to be kept in the 5°F (3°C) range (and the other process
variables will have a similarly reduced operating window) for a low metal temperature operation to
be really successful.

Fig. 9.7 Oxide layer, apparently between metal flows, that caused a leak in a break system.

Other factors that can cause leak paths include oxide skins or cold flakes. These can float around and
land next to or in the skin where they will provide a path for the gases to flow. The alloy does not bond
with the oxide material, so there is a small leak path next to surface of the oxide material.

These types of leakers may be random in location instead of being located consistently next to a
hot area in the casting. They will also not appear consistently from shot to shot as those caused by
shrinkage.

If the leak path seems to be randomly located and does not occur on every casting, then checking for
oxides is a good idea. Fig. 9.6 and 9.7 show leak paths from oxides.

When checking for this cause, it is a good idea to saw to both sides of the leaker location, then fracture
the casting through the leak path. Sawing or machining will destroy the evidence. Examining the
surface with 5 to 30 poser magnification can provide a lot of good information about the presence of
oxide films or cold flakes. Doing this to more than one casting is a good idea. This will make the shrink
porosity, or whatever else may be causing the problem, more visible.

If it an oxide skin, then the metal handling procedures should be reviewed, in particular the methods of
cleaning dross from the ladle well. All other metal handling procedures should be checked to see if there 9
is some improvement possible. A good practice is to have a filter as close to the ladle point as possible.

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Leakers chapter 9

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76
 Chapter 10
Cracks
CAUSES - SHRINKAGE AND STRETCHING

Cracks (along with sinks and leakers) are among the defects that have shrinkage problems as their
common underlying cause. However, while shrinkage is the root problem for a great many cracks,
there are a number of other factors that can also cause cracks. It is generally much better to be very
cautious about the diagnosis of cracks until all factors have been reviewed.

The same factors that were discussed previously can also contribute to shrinkage cracks. When there
is a sharp corner on the inside of a casting, and the casting spends more time than is necessary in the
die, then tension is developed in the casting. This is because the casting is trying to contract and get
smaller as it cools, but the die steel holds it in place. The longer the casting remains in the die, the more
internal tension.

Fig. 10.1 How tension from the casting contraction can cause cracks in corners or hot locations.

If an area on an inside corner is one of the last points to solidify, then the structure at this point will not
be as strong as the areas where a good skin has developed, especially if location stays hot longer
than the rest of the casting. The end result is that the tension in the die may cause the casting to crack
in these hot areas.
10
Sometimes, these areas are so hot enough that the last point to solidify is next to or on the surface,
which makes the shrinkage porosity appear on the surface; in which case it will look like a crack.
However, it is really the same thing as the shrink porosity that appears inside the casting.

This is a common situation for cracked castings in the die casting process, and the corrections are the
same as for other situations with shrink porosity, i.e.:

• cool the hot spot

• check for good radii at the crack location
• add pressure to this area during solidification
• heat up adjacent cool spots

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Cracks chapter 10

If there is shrinkage porosity present in an area that later develops a stress crack, the two cracks
will have a little different appearance. The crack may not appear as two cracks because the stress
cracking may have only enlarged the shrinkage crack.

The portion of the crack that formed during solidification will have a darker color from a layer of oxide
that is a few microns thick, while the stress crack will look the same as a fresh crack on any casting.
This is shown in Figure 10.2 where one crack is two different colors. To determine if this is the case, a
trouble shooter has to fracture the casting in the area of the crack to see the crack surface (don’t saw
or machine).

There are some things that can be done with stress cracks that would not be effective with shrinkage
cracks. Since these occur from stretching of the casting after solidification is finished, the pressure and
to some extent the temperature, corrections will not have as much effect. Some of the things to use to
correct this situation include the following:

Fig. 10.2 This shows the darker color crack that occured during solidification, the remainder of the crack happened
sometime after solidification.

• shorten hold (dwell) time to get the casting out of the die sooner
• reduce stress and heat concentration by rounding all corners
• if the runner and biscuit or sprue) do not cool fast enough and force the die to be held shut too
long, then the correction has to be to add cooling to the runner and biscuit area

The last item listed is a common cause of cracks; it originates from a die that has a heavy runner system,
and poor cooling to the runner and biscuit (or sprue). In this case, the die must remain closed until the
runner is solid; and by that time the casting has cracked from contracting in the die too much. Figure
10.3 shows this kind of crack.

The thermal control system should be designed so that cooling the runner and the biscuit area do not
control the dwell time for the casting. This is particularly important for castings with thin walls that will get
10 stretched over long distances by features in the die that prevent the natural contraction of the casting.

This consideration becomes so important in magnesium that is can be a primary part design criteria.
In this situation, the thermal system should be so designed that it will maintain high die temperatures
during the cycle.

CAUSES - MECHANICAL

In addition to the listed possible causes, cracks can also come from mechanical causes. These can
occur during die opening, during ejection, or during trimming.

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Cracks chapter 10

The first check should be on die shift when the die faces first separate. This kind of crack would come
at a feature in the die that would be stressed if the two die halves moved in relation to each other. Long
thin ribs or cores projecting into one half or the other would be good examples.

Fig. 10.3 Crack caused by a poor thermal design - a large runner with poor cooling forced a long dwell time, and this
caused the thin wall casting to crack.

Die movements would happen just as the dies separate; and could happen from worn shoes on the
movable platen, worn toggle links, lack of a die support, worn tie bar bushings, improperly stretched
tie bars (one or two tie bars tighter or looser than the others), or worn die bushings. It is most likely that
a combination of these will cause the problem.

This cause is most evident when there are long thin bosses or projections into the stationary die half.
When the die halves first begin to separate, the movable die half will suddenly shift (usually downward
but it could be any direction) because of one or several of the machine problems listed above. This shift
will generally be accompanied by drags, and can cause a crack at the base of these long bosses.

Sometimes it is very difficult to see the die shift by eye; slowing the machine down will help some, but it
comes during the decompression of the tie bars; and this can be an event that is quite “jerky” in some
machines. More modern machines will control this decompression smoothly, which will help reduce
the cracking problem.

Actions for this problem would be:

• Carefully watch as the dies separate to catch the shift in the dies (usually the movable drops). Slow
down the machine as much as possible to try to see what happens. It will be difficult or maybe
impossible to catch all the movement by eye.
• Add die carrier to movable half
• Reset the die to be sure of die alignment (good precaution)
• Adjust the shoes under the moveable platen, be sure they are carrying the platen weight 10
• Check condition of the tie bar bushings and the machine linkage, make repairs as needed.
• Use strain gages to check tie bars for even loads, adjut as necessary

Cracks can be caused by uneven ejection. If the ejection system does not move the casting out evenly,
the casting can twist or cock, causing cracks. Cracks at the base of long bosses or ribs in the ejection
side may come from this problem. Drags or sticking problems are usually also present when this
happens. Actions for this kind of cracking problem would be:

• Slow down the ejection action (if possible) so as to be able to observe carefully
• Watch for uneven ejection, i.e., the ejector plate twists during ejection.
• Check for worn guide bushings on the ejector plate, larger bushings or a more robust guide system
may be needed

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Cracks chapter 10

• Check that bumper pins are all exactly the same length
• Check that the bumper plate is not bent or loose

In magnesium, the metal freezes so fast that the cracking problem is greatly aggravated, especially
in thin wall castings. Any factor that will cause the metal to freeze faster will be a problem. The major
single factor in most situations is a cold die. The magnesium provides very little heat for the die, so hot
oil or electric cartridge heating is essential for many thin wall castings. Die temperature control with
thermocouples is extremely desirable.

Also in magnesium, small differences in flow patterns can create separation in flow patterns that will be
a potential crack line. Thus the flow pattern may be a factor, it will certainly be a more sensitive issue
that with aluminum or zinc. Projections in the die that will cause the casting to be stretched between
the projections (as noted above) are a bigger problem in magnesium. Adding strengthening ribs in the
direction of the stress can be a good help. Sometimes adding ribs on a corner can help also.

A poor product design with thick sections next to thin sections may make it almost impossible to cast
some shapes, especially in magnesium

If the cracks as associated with metal flow patterns, then the cracks may be following a cold flow or
knit line between metal flows; it is also likely that there is an oxide layer between the two flows (in
aluminum). If this appears to be the case, then the actions in surface defects should be reviewed. A
quick summary is included below:

• Change the flow pattern (gating) to avoid jet flow; spread the flow out as much as possible and
match the flow volume to the casting volumes (use zones of fill)
• Reduce the fill time as much as possible
• Increase static metal pressure if possible
• Use vacuum and good venting to minimize trapped air
• Possibly increase the gate velocity (especially if a poor flow pattern cannot be changed)

The trouble shooter should also be alert for cracks that appear in trimming; they can be blamed on the
casting process. Probably the main corrective action for this problem is quality trim die construction.
The trim die should be carefully constructed and should fit correctly, a trim die constructed with an air
grinder will not meet the quality needs of most castings today. It is critical that the casting get good
support at the shear points.

Other factors that can contribute to cracking problems:

• Improper alloy constituent proportions. Make sure the Fe, Cu, and Si are in the correct ranges for
aluminum, and also be sure there aren’t excessive silicon modifiers in the melt.
• Too much variation in the process - thus a number of factors that are a little out of range once in a
while will cause intermittent cracking; and this is very hard to find.
10

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 Chapter 11
Inclusion
ALUMINUM OXIDE, THE MAJOR SOURCE OF INCLUSIONS

Inclusions are by far the biggest problem in aluminum, where inclusions are mostly oxides. Although the
metal handling practices will always result in some oxide in the melt in die casting, most oxides become
a problem come from poor metal handling and furnace cleaning practices. Other sources of inclusions
include refractory from the furnace walls or possibly sludge; in zinc, the iron aluminum inter-metallics
can lead to some polishing and machining problems.

Any time the aluminum alloy contacts oxygen, it will combine to form another compound called
aluminum oxide (Al2O3). This is the gray material that forms the skin of castings, and that coats the
surface of the molten alloy.

The aluminum alloy without an oxide coating has a very shiny appearance. This shiny appearance is
visible when a casting is machined, and is also visible when the skin on top of molten aluminum is pushed
back.

Aluminum oxide is a separate material, and different from aluminum; it cannot be re-melted back into
aluminum (without using some special processes). Thus putting aluminum oxide into the furnace will not
re-melt it, and it will stay in the melt as Al2O3.

Most aluminum oxide will be in the softer form, or the gamma form, that is the coating typically seen
floating on top of the molten aluminum. In this form it is a little lighter than the molten aluminum with a
specific gravity of about 2.8; and most of it floats on top of the bath. Figure 11.1 shows skimmings (or
dross) that represent the softer (gamma) form.

Figure 11.2 shows what happens in the casting when this soft oxide material is allowed to be ladled
and injected with the rest of the aluminum. Even if it cannot be seen, the dross forms stringers that
considerably weaken the casting and form leak paths for pressurized castings. The oxide material (or
dross) can form a ball and drift into an area where an automatic ladle will pick it up with the rest of the
aluminum. While this cannot be prevented entirely, the dip out well should be skimmmed and cleaned
carefully and periodically.

Aluminum oxide is formed every time the metal is disturbed and a new surface is exposed to the air,
thus some is formed whenever a delivery ladle pours into a holding furnace, or when the metal is
poured into the shot sleeve. Many of the aluminum oxide particles formed when the metal is exposed 11
to air for a short time will be small; some are microscopic in size. Other particles will be larger, perhaps
from just visible up to fingernail size; they can come from several sources - for example they can be
mixed into the melt during the time the dip well is skimmed.

Oxides of aluminum are polymorphic, which means that in certain environments (principally high heat),
the properties of the alumina crystals change drastically. Of interest to die casters is the change that
occurs when the crystals are heated above about 1472 °F (800 °C). In this situation the Al2O3 starts to
covert to the alpha type of Al2O3 ; which is much harder and more dense than the original gamma

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Inclusions chapter 11

form. This change is greatly accelerated if plenty of oxygen is present, or if moisture is present. The
hardest of this material is called corundum.

Fig. 11.1 Softer oxide skimmings from the top of a pot.

Fig. 11.2 Casting that contained dross from the ladle dip out well.

Corundum has a specific gravity of about 4.0, and thus will be heavier than the original alloy. It will
tend to sink to the bottom of the melt, although some of the Al2O3 maybe mixed with flux, aluminum,
and other compounds and so the mixture can be of a density that doesn’t sink rapidly.

Corundum is hard, in fact it is so hard it is next to diamond on Moh’s scale of hardness. This means it
is harder than steel (that is why it is used in grinding wheels), and a steel cutting tool that encounters
corundum in the casting will be machining process will be the loser in the encounter, and will get nicked
or broken in the process.

The Al2O3 in either the soft gamma form or the hard alpha form is the chief component in inclusions
in aluminum die castings. The soft oxide is continually generated any time a fresh surface of the alloy
encounters air, and so will be mixed with the alloy.

The corundum, on the other hand, is mostly generated in the melting furnace of the die casting plant. It
is possible that some of it was in the ingots when they were delivered from the alloy supplier, but this is
11 very unlikely if a reputable supplier is used. A low cost, part time supplier could be suspect, however.

Melting or holding furnaces will have wall temperatures of 1800 °F (982°C) or more. The alloy in
contact with the wall at the top of the melt will certainly see wall temperatures this high, and these
temperatures are more than enough to convert the aluminum oxides to their corundum form. How fast
the conversion takes place will depend on the temperature and the amount of oxygen present.

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Inclusions chapter 11

Thus most of the hard spots we see in die castings were made in the melt furnace at the die casting
plant. It is possible some corundum is generated wherever there is a high temperature at the melt line,
which could happen in refractory types of holding furnaces, some launder systems, and other furnaces.
But in general, by far the major source is the melting furnace wall.

The corundum adheres to the furnace wall, and is scraped off in the cleaning process when it falls
into the bath. It also is usually mixed with flux or pieces of refractory or the softer Al2O3 when it is
dislodged in furnace cleaning procedures. If it were only the hard corundum that fell into the bath, it
would sink to the bottom of the furnace, but it is often mixed with other material that will cause it to float
or remain suspended in the bath; and eventually reach the casting. Figures 11.3 and 11.4 show some
oxides generated in melting furnaces.

Thus the control of the hard spot problem is mostly one of managing the furnace cleaning and the metal
handling procedures. Since most of the hard material will sink, one of the most important procedures is
to allow time for the hard oxide material to sink to the bottom of the furnace after furnace cleaning.

Thus it is critical that a furnace that was just cleaned be allowed to sit quietly without anything disturbing
the melt for as much time as possible after cleaning. This quiet time should be one or two hours or
longer if at all possible; but avoid tapping a furnace that has just been cleaned at all costs; use every
minute of quiet time available, even if shorter than the ideal. Once the heavier material is on the bottom
of the furnace, it will generally not get into the metal flow and wind up in the castings.

Fig. 11.3 Nearly pure corundum from the side wall of a melting furnace.

11

Fig. 11.4 Mushroom shaped balls of pure corundum that were formed under an electric heater that was very close to
the bath surface; excess air infiltration contributed to the buildup.

The hard spots don’t always look the same, they can be large particles that can barely get through the
gate to microscopic sizes that can’t be seen without magnification. Figures 11.5 , 11.6 , 11.7 , 11.8 ,
11.9 and 11.10 show some of the variations in appearance.

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Inclusions chapter 11

REFRACTORY AS HARD SPOTS

A small percentage of aluminum hard spots are refractory particles that were dislodged during
cleaning. These refractory particles (usually silicon carbide) are hard enough to cause problems in
machining. However, the corrections are the same since this material comes from the same sources as
the corundum. Figures 11.11 and 11.12 shows a refractory hard spots in castings.

Fig. 11.5 Typical hard spots in castings - these corundum particles were most likely generated on the melting furnace wall.

Fig. 11.6 Massive pure corundum inclusion in a small engine piston.

11
Fig. 11.7 380 allloy die casting with dispersed corundum that looks like gravel - probably cast just after a furnace was
cleaned.

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Inclusions chapter 11

Fig. 11.8 Very fine corundum inclusions that would cause heavy tool wear.

Fig. 11.9 Dispersion of corundum particles with one large chunk (to the left) could look like porosity to some.

Some details of correctional procedures are as follows:

• Always check to be sure the furnace was not tapped early, and that there was a quiet time after
cleaning before tapping started. The longer the better, but it should not happen within bout 30
minutes in any case.
• Review the cleaning and fluxing procedures. These should be in written form so there isn’t any
question about what to do and when.
• Be sure the furnace tenders are trained. This is often neglected, consequently one of the more
important jobs in the whole plant is not done well; hard spots and other problems will result.
• Be sure the appropriate tools are available. This is a very difficult procedure at best, and good
tools and the proper dress will allow the attendant to do a good job.
• Maintain proper discipline on keeping regular intervals for cleaning (usually once per day or once
per shift, further cleaning once per week).
• A higher than necessary temperature used at the melting furnace will increase the oxide formation;
usually a temperature of 1350 °F (732 °C) to 1425 °F (773 °C) is adequate. 11
• The melting furnace should be kept in good operating condition, with attention to the following
being most important:

• Burners should be checked and adjusted for fuel air mixture every 3 to 6 months; the fuel air
mixture should not be oxygen rich to minimize generation of oxides
• Air leakage into the furnace should be kept to a minimum
• The temperature controller should be checked every 6 months for proper settings; the

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Inclusions chapter 11

controller should maintain temperature without over shooting or undershooting the set point
• Even scrap feeding procedures should be used; a scrap conveyor or other means to feed the
furnace evenly is very beneficial. (Slugging the furnace will cause low and high temperature
overshooting)
• Clean and degas the metal after it leaves the melting furnace.
• Use filter systems where possible; the closer to the ladle dip out well the better. If filters are
installed, check:

Fig. 11.10 A small inclusion magnified 25 times shows that it is a mixture of aluminum oxide (gray to black), flux (white), and
parent alloy (light gray),

Fig. 11.11 This hard spot is from a piece of refractory dislodged during cleaning.

• Filter cracked and leaking

• Leaks around side of panel filter
• Filter needs replacing
• Most of the hard oxides will be generated in the melting furnace, but some can be generated in
the holding furnace. Use a hoe to rake the bottom of the furnace (not during operation or you may
stir some oxide material into the ladle), look for corundum. If there is corundum, check furnace
operation and cleaning procedures.

SLUDGE
11
Sludge is a compound of the heavier elements (Al, Si, Fe, Mn, Cr) that can form some complex inter-
metallics. It is a sandy (or sugary) looking material that is much heavier than aluminum and is found
at the bottom of the furnace. It is quite hard, and when found in sufficient quantities in castings, it can
cause very rapid tool wear during machining.

The sludge is crystalline in form, and will characteristically form a straight sided pentagon shape.
Figure 11.13 shows some typical sludge as it came from the bottom of a furnace, and Figure 11.14

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Inclusions chapter 11

Fig. 11.12 This hard spot include almost everything, with corundum, flux parent alloy, and chunks of refractory. It also shows
typical refractory shiny rounded appearance.

shows a photomicrograph of sludge, showing the straight sided particles that are typical.
The necessary components to form sludge will always be there for die casting alloys, and the tendency
to form sludge will be minimized by adequate cleaning of the metal during alloying, by good furnace
temperature control. And on controlling the percentage of iron, manganese and chromium within
certain limits.

The relationship between these elements can be expressed in an empirical formula that should not
exceed a minimum value if the tendency to form sludge is to be minimized. This formula is:

(%Fe) + {2 X (%Mn)} + {3 X (%Cr)} }< 1.75

The maximum value is sometimes set at 1.80, depending on the requirements of the casting plant.

Die casting plants should request the supplier to provide alloy that meets this criteria to avoid generating
sludge, especially if the furnace temperature control is not very good.

Using this formula does not guarantee that there will not be any sludge if the furnace temperature control
is such that the furnace has low temperature swings; something below about 1200 °F ( 648 °C) will start
to increase sludging depending of the sludge factor of the melt, but and low temperature swings will
accelerate some sludge development.

11
Fig. 11.13 Typical sludge as dipped out from the bottom of a furnace.

Use a ladle or hoe to check the bottom of the furnace to determine if there is some sludge being
formed. It is normal to have a little sludge formed, but if it is apparent within a few weeks of starting
operation after the furnace was cleaned, then check the sludge factor of the alloy, or the furnace
temperature control and calibration, or the metal handling procedures to find the cause for the low
temperature swings.

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Inclusions chapter 11

Fig. 11.14 Typical sludge particles showing the pentagon shape usually exhibited.

Excessive sludge will not generally cause a lot of problems, although there will definitely be some
difference in machining castings with more sludge particles. Another problem caused by excessive
sludging at the holding furnace is that the sludge will draw the iron from the alloy, and the metal being
cast may be lower in iron than desired. This can cause excessive soldering (see section on soldering).

HARD AREAS AND COMET TAILS IN ZINC

Zinc generates very few hard spot problems, but it can occasionally generate some particles that can
increase tool wear during machining, or generate a scratch mark (comet tails) when buffing.

The main inclusion is an iron-aluminum inter-metallic (FeAl3). This is formed when the aluminum in
the zinc alloy reacts with the iron in the pot or the gooseneck. This is greatly accelerated if the pot
temperature is increased above about 820 °F (437 °C). Often the main problem is that the temperature
control allows high and low swings. This can come from poor adjustment on the temperature controller
or from poor metal feeding practices (slugging) the furnace. Sometimes the burner arrangement is such
that it overheats one spot on the pot, which can cause rapid erosion in that spot and accelerate the
hard spot development.

However, the inter-metallic formed will be lighter than the zinc, and will float to the top; where it forms
a dross layer which can be skimmed off. Not all dross in zinc should be skimmed off, but if there are
problems with hard spots, then skimming should be considered.

The ZA alloys have more aluminum, and will be more aggressive in combining with the iron in the pot
and the gooseneck, plus they also require higher melting temperatures. This makes the erosion of the
iron in the pots and goosenecks more rapid, and the formation of the inter-metallics more frequent.

11

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 Chapter 12
Solder
SOLDER IN ALUMINUM

Solder is defined here as when the cast material (usually aluminum) combines with the steel, and forms
a compound that becomes part of the die steel surface. Figure 12.1 shows some typical solder on an
aluminum die.

Fig. 12.1 Typical solder on an aluminum die.

The aluminum and steel have a natural affinity for each other, and would naturally form inter-metallic
compounds if given the chance. This tendency is greatly accelerated when the die steel is at higher
temperatures.

When solder occurs in aluminum, it penetrates into the die steel a small amount. Once the solder has
started, the solder will return very quickly if some aluminum is left on the die, thus all the aluminum must
be removed to be able to run after a solder build-up episode.

To remove all the aluminum, it is necessary to remove a thin layer of the die steel; usually a few
ten thousands, but possibly as much as a thousandth or maybe more. When removing the steel by
polishing, the dimensions are changed slightly, so a few times with this procedure can put some critical
features out of dimension.

Another way or removing the aluminum can be by using strong alkaline solutions or inhibited acid
solutions. They can remove the imbedded aluminum with a minimum change in the steel, but must be
used carefully with considerable safety precautions.

Another factor that can protect the steel is the natural coating that is built up on a die. This coating is
mostly an iron oxide, but it is very tough and can protect the steel from attack by the aluminum to a 12
certain extent. A die can be started and run carefully at low pressure and temperature until it generates
it’s own coating, then it can be operated at full temperature and pressure without problems as long as
the natural coating remains.

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Solder chapter 12

Thus this naturally occurring iron oxide coating is an important barrier to solder formation. It can be
removed by high velocity metal flow, or by polishing or other means. High velocity metal flow from the
gate that impinges on the die close to the gate entrance erodes this coating away, and also provides
extra heating that accelerates soldering, as noted below.

One of the most important cause factors is the die steel temperature at the solder location. The solder
build up will increase rapidly as the die temperature increases. Thus once the natural die coating is
removed and the steel temperature is increased, then rapid soldering can occur.

However, it takes time for the molten metal flow to increase the die steel temperature at the point of
impact. This can be used to advantage to get by with very high gate velocities and short fill times.
While the higher flow rates greatly increase the rate of heat transfer, they can be used for a difficult
casting if combined with very low fill times. This would mean, for example, that a long flow distance
down a very thin wall could be accomplished with a gate velocity double the normal, with a fill time of
5 msec or less with minimum gate wash or soldering. The gate velocity is excessive, but the damage is
minimal because the die doesn’t have time to be brought up to the high temperatures.

Other factors are also important to prevent solder. The temperature of the incoming metal will also be
important; another factor is the initial temperature of the steel, which is determined by the system used
for controlling die temperature.

However, controlling the die temperature so as to reduce solder is the most important action in most
cases. This can be done in several ways. One is to reduce the initial temperature of the whole die.
This would usually be done by slowing the cycle, but it can also be done with spray or water flow.
However, controlling overall die temperature will slow the production rate, and it will probably over
cool other areas of the die, which can cause other problems.

Spot cooling just in the area of the solder build up is a better way. This can be done in several ways.
Increasing die spray at that location is the first method considered, and it may be the only way to get
cooling in some situations. However, it may not be the most effective in the long run.

The type of spray used is important for two reasons. The first is that the spray characteristics should be
matched to the die temperature so maximum wetting and maximum heat transfer (cooling) is effected.
Probably a high temperature lubricant will be most effective, but the trouble shooter should measure
the die temperature in the solder area and seek a suitable spray. The temperature effect of the spray
is most important, but a second reason for seeking a better spray is that there is sometime is some
difference in the lubricant’s ability to inhibit soldering.

Another way of spot cooling is to use small fountains (bubblers) close to the solder build up area. This
is the most effective and most certain way to reduce soldering, and it is well worth the effort and cost
to put small cooling channel in the die right at the soldering areas. Small fountains with 1/16 in. pipe
thread with .125 in ( 3.18 mm) tubes can be used in a hole size of about .173 in. (4.4 mm) to reach
tight locations.

These can also be used in cores .5 in. (12.6 mm) in diameter or even smaller; and their use will cause
a dramatic reduction in solder. The small diameter creates high flow rates and very rapid cooling; in
fact the cooling may too aggressive, and the flow rate will need to be reduced or cycled off and on
with the shot.

Another factor in aluminum soldering is the iron content of the alloy. The only reason to have iron in the
12 alloy is to inhibit the alloy’s attack on the die steel. Without iron, most shots would stick in most dies. The
380 alloy specification calls for 1.3 % iron maximum. There is no minimum specified, but experience
has shown that an iron content less than about .7% can cause accelerated soldering and sticking in
the die; die casters should make sure a minimum is specified to their suppliers.

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Solder chapter 12

CORRECTING SOLDER DEFECTS

Factors to consider in correcting soldering defects would include the following:

• Reduce gate velocities or redirect the gate so it doesn’t impinge on the die at the entrance

• Check the factors affecting the gate velocity, plunger speed and size, machine pressures,
gate size, and the other PQ2 factors
• Reduce fill times to reduce time available for heat build up.

• Reduce die temperature in the area where solder build up will occur:

• Add cooling lines specifically at the point of soldering, control water flow as needed
• Review spray in the solder area
• Use high heat transfer steel inserts

• Other factors that can accelerate the solder buildup would include:

• High metal pressure. A high metal pressure can increase solder and sticking, especially
if there are minimum draft areas in the casting. The metal pressure should be calculated,
and set at the minimum required for the quality issues for this casting. Both the static and
the intensified pressures are important (as mentioned under shrinkage defects). Changing
machine pressure to change metal pressure also changes other parameters, and so should
be done after calculating all effects with PQ2.
• High metal temperature. Increasing the temperatures at the interface of the steel and the
alloy will increase the tendency to solder. It is best to use normal casting temperatures.
• Draft angles. The draft angles should be monitored carefully, as they will not always be what
the print indicates. The maximum allowed by the die casting standards should be used.
• Surface roughness. The die should be polished, and undercuts and roughness eliminated as
soon as any solder appears. If the solder is allowed to continue, it will be more and more
difficult or remove.

While several factors affect soldering, changing die steel temperature is probably the best way to
make a robust correction.

ZINC SOLDERING

Zinc soldering is a different process than aluminum soldering; the chief difference being that the zinc
solder build up is not a combination (or galvanizing) of the zinc with the die steel. Instead it is a deposit
of the zinc on the surface of the die steel. This means that it is technically not soldering by the definition
being used here, but it is commonly called soldering by many so it is included here. Figure 12.2 shows
some soldering on a decorative finish in a zinc die.

The deposits can be generally be removed by polishing, and do not need the steel removal, however,
the polishing will probably remove some steel. The deposit is typically on top of a very thin (2 micron)
thick layer of aluminum; and, while it is not completely understood at this point, it is likely that the initial
attachment accomplished by the aluminum’s attraction to steel.

Unlike aluminum, the zinc deposits are in locations away from the direct flow of metal. Thus the deposit
will generally occur where there are “eddies” in the zinc flow pattern.
12
The zinc deposit is quite sensitive to temperature, so one of the primary methods of controlling the zinc
build up deposit is by minimizing the die temperature in the soldering location. This may be difficult to
do where there is a requirement for good surface finish.

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Solder chapter 12

Other methods of reducing the zinc solder are to use high polish on the die and to use the maximum
draft available. Some hard and smooth coatings may be beneficial, such at nitriding or tufftriding,
although they seem to have uneven results.

This same phenomenon is sometimes present in alumium castings, where the white deposit is in areas
away from the main metal flow, and is usually in the eddy areas of the flow. The aluminum can be
polished off fairly easily when this occurs.

12

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 Chapter 13
Carbon, or Die Buildup 1
13
SOURCES

This topic refers to a deposit on the die that is different from the solder buildup discussed earlier. This
build up is not an attachment to the die, rather it is a layer on the surface of the die that can be removed
by means other than polishing or chemically dissolving the alloy.

This build up is called different names, but the most common is either just “build up”, or “carbon”. The
build up is usually dark in color, although it can look rather whitish-gray sometimes. Because of this, it
is sometimes called solder build up also. The carbon name will be used here. Figure 13.1 shows some
typical carbon build up.

Usually the carbon build up initiates with die spray. It will start with some die spay material that die
not completely evaporate, and gradually built up on the die surface. The die spray has to have some
material in it that promotes sticking to the die steel, and if too much is applied, then this sticky material
can get excessive. In some cases, the aluminum or zinc gets embedded in the built up, causing it to look
whitish and thus be mistaken for true solder.

Carbon build up can be removed with scraping, or by applying lubricants. Special anti-solder lubricant
will be most effective. Sometimes just some extra heavy spray on the material will cause it to peel off
the next shot. Sometimes it sticks to the casting with a spotty black appearance.

CORRECTIONS

The main way to reduce this kind of build up is to control the amount of die lubricant applied; especially
in the colder areas of the die. Careful and disciplined management of the spray direction and volume
from automatic sprayers is a very good approach, and will have other benefits as well. The main intent
should be to avoid getting over spray in cold areas of the die.

Fig. 13.1 Typical casting surface where there is carbon buildup on an aluminum part.

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Carbon, or Die Buildup chapter 13

This may require heating up cold areas of the die with hot oil or perhaps adding overflows, and it may
require changing the spray pattern and spray volumes.

Another action would be to measure the die temperature and obtain a lubricant suitable for the die
temperature being run. If the die has both hot and cold spots on it, it will be difficult to find the proper
lubricant. (This die temperature variation should be reduced with good thermal anslysis in the design
phase.) In any case, the die temperature numbers should be provided to the supplier for the optimum
lubricant formulation.

Often too much lubricant is being applied, and the correction is simply to reduce the total amount.
Another frequently neglected activity is blowing off the excess lubricant before the die closes. The die
13 should be dry as it closes. This should be a primary activity to control gas porosity, but it will also help
reduce the carbon build up as well.

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94
 Chapter 14
Erosion or Cavitation
SOURCES OF EROSION

The erosion of dies in aluminum is a complex action, and many factors are involved. The high velocity 14
required at the gate is significant, as is the condition and the temperature of the die steel at the point
of impingement. Also, the inclusion content of the alloy is important, with either oxides or silicon (or
other materials that may be added to some metal matrix alloys) contributing. In addition, the chemical
reaction of the aluminum on the die steel can be important (this is called corrosion), with the aluminum
essentially dissolving some of the die surface away.

Cavitation is completely different, with the cavitation coming from gas bubbles trapped in the incoming
metal stream. These bubbles “implode” on the die steel, causing some tiny pits that then grow with
additional bubble activity.

The erosion normally seen in aluminum dies is a product of both corrosion and erosion. Both of these
are affected by the die and the melt temperature, with both erosion and corrosion greatly accelerating
with higher temperatures. Figure 14.1 shows die erosion.

CORRECTIONS FOR EROSION

Certainly the gate velocity is important and the first factor to consider in any correction action. The
upper limit of gate velocities is determined by the erosion problem, and because there is any quality
issues from the high velocities. Thus the high limit of gate velocity is determined by erosion.

Some common limits would be:

• Zinc: about 1200 ips (30 m/s) to 2000 ips (50 m/s)
• Aluminum: about 1000 ips (25 m/s) to 1600 ips (40 m/s)
• Magnesium: about 1000 ips (25 m/s) to 3000 ips (76 m/s)

Fig. 14.1 Typical die erosion in aluminum; this example is from a poor gate design. This sort of erosion should not be the case
in any well designed gating system.

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Erosion or Cavitation chapter 14

The exact limit upper depends on the configuration of the die and the quality requirements of the part.
When the metal stream impacts directly on a surface a short distance from the gate, and this surface is
sensitive to dimensional or visual quality measurements, the it would b important to stay under the values
given. However, if the metal does not impact immediately on a surface in the die, or if there are no critical
quality issues at this point, then there would be no problem in going higher in most of these values.

For zinc, the upper limit for can go to 2400 ips (60 m/s) or even a little higher for some applications.

For aluminum, the higher velocities are going to cause some gate erosion even if there are no
impingement issues, however this can be considerably reduced by good gate design. A well designed
tangential gate can control the flow and the direction of flow, and still have even flow across the gate
length, consequently reducing the impact of high gate velocities. A fan gate will always have heavy
flow in the center, which will cause erosion at the center and change the flow pattern. A velocity of
1800 ips (45 m/s) to 2000 ips (50 m/s) can be used without causing premature wear in many cases;
14 and sometimes the other design factors force these kind of velocities.

For magnesium, the maximum velocities are much higher because the erosion is not as much of a
problem. Part of the reason is that the heat content of magnesium is much lower than aluminum or zinc,
and the fill times are much shorter. The combination of these two factors keeps the die from heating
up very much (comparatively) during the time of metal flow; and without die heating, the amount of
erosion and soldering is greatly reduced.

Probably the biggest problem and the most important issue concerning gate velocity is that many die
casters or toolmakers do not calculate the value of the gate velocity for a given die, and they do not
know the limits. This is a very expensive way to operate, and is totally unnecessary; although it does
generate good die repair business.

Other factors for control of erosion include a check of the die and metal temperature. The erosion can
be reduced or even eliminated by using temperatures as low as possible. Reducing die temperature in
the gate area can be done with spray or with spot cooling with additional water lines.

Controlling the temperatures will be generally done to optimize the current visual part quality, with little
regard for the long term erosion effects. Thus if all else is equal, it is desirable to opt for the lower metal
and die temperature at the gate for erosion and soldering issues. However, the trouble shooter should
be aware that the die temperature should be maintained at a minimum of around 350 °F (177 °C), and
preferably higher to maintain the crack resistance of the die steel.

These temperature issues have also been discussed under soldering and surface defects. The die
temperature effects described are both long term die life issues, and are not likely to be considered in
the day to day adjustments of the operating conditions without some independent review and good
process discipline.

The inclusion content in aluminum alloys will be important. The oxides normally carried in the alloy are
the same material used to make grinding wheels, so there is going to be some effect. Filtering, de-gassing
and cleaning, and other metal handling procedures discussed under inclusions are factors to consider.

High silicon alloys such as 390 will have high erosion characteristics because of the silicon, and alloys
with strenghteners in them, such as silicon carbide used in some alloys, will also have very high erosive
characteristics. Such alloys will be even more sensitive to gate velocities and gate design than the
normal 380 alloy, and the lower end of the gate velocity range should be used.

Careful design of the operating parameters and flow pattern will allow the gate velocity to be kept at
the low end of the range, and if this can be combined with a short fill time, the erosion can be somewhat
minimized. This should be calculated carefully in advance with the PQ2 calculations. The design of the
gate is also important; a gate design (such as a tangential gate) that has even flow characteristics
across the full width of the gate should be used to prevent continual erosion in one area of the gate.

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Erosion or Cavitation chapter 14

CAVITATION

Cavitation is the bursting of bubbles being carried in the fluid stream as they traverse from a high
pressure area to a low pressure area. This situation exists at the gate in the metal flow in die casting.
When the bubbles enter the cavity and the pressure drops to atmospheric (or close to it), the bubbles
will burst. If they happen to be on the die steel when this happens, then they burst in a way called
“imploding”, and they direct a very small and extremely high velocity jet of liquid metal at the die
surface. This will cause a tiny crater in the die surface. Figure 14.2 shows cavitation in a zinc die. The
deep pitting occurred after only about 1000 shots.

Cavitation is difficult to eliminate, but careful consideration of the causes can allow some good results
much of the time.

If the conditions persist, then there will be a continuous stream of bubbles that will burst in about 14
the same spot, and they can quickly generate a good size pit in the die. When examined under
magnification, these pits will have a very jagged and irregular look. The bottom and sides of the pits
will have very sharp peaks and valleys.

Fig. 14.2 Cavitation in a new zinc die after only about 1000 shots. Bubbles generated at a runner intersection are thought
to be the culprit.

In aluminum, the cavitation will probably be associated with the normal erosion, and so may not have
the sharp point in the straight walled pits, rather everything is rounded and smoothed because of the
erosive effect. In zinc or magnesium, however, the pits will have the sharp appearance characteristic
of cavitation.

The best correction for cavitation will be to eliminate the bubbles; this is not always easy but should be
the first effort. The first check should be for bubbles generated in the runner or gate system (close to the
gate). If these bubbles were generated from a square corner in the runner system (for example), then
the bubbles will have about the same trajectory every shot and will tend to burst in the same location.
However, if the bubbles were trapped in the shot sleeve, then their location would be more random,
and the effect would not be to cause a problem in one location.

A sharp corner or a gate shape that tried to cause very rapid acceleration (large area change from
large to small) would be suspicious and should be changed. An x-ray of the runner and the part may
be helpful to trace the source of these kinds of bubble generators.

Also review the sources gas bubbles listed in gas porosity defects. These are all important.

Another way to minimize the damage would be to relocate the gate so that the bubbles would not be
against the die steel when they burst. Having the gate enter an open area of the die would be better
than having the metal flow encounter a wall or core a short distance from the gate.

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Erosion or Cavitation chapter 14

14

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 Chapter 15
Outgassing and Edge Porosity
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Outgassing is a defect problem associated mostly with painting or other finishing processes that require
an elevated temperatures at the end of the process. This high temperature causes some of the trapped
gas to push out through the main gate or the overflow gates, where it causes a blister or a crater in the
soft painted surface. Figure 15.1 shows a typical outgassing bubble type defect.
15
Edge porosity (porosity at the gates to the casting or the overflows) is considered here to be enough
similar to outgassing and to have enough of the same solutions to include it in this section. Figure 15.2
shows some typical edge porosity.

There are two factors of concern in the outgassing problem. One is the volume of the trapped gas, and
another is the porous nature of the casting at the point where the gas escapes; obviously changing
either would help eliminate the problem, and would also help reduce edge porosity as well.

While this problem is most often associated with decorative zinc castings, it does occur with all metals,
although to different degrees.

Heating the casting expands the trapped gasses, raising the internal pressure, and causing the gas
to migrate through the casting if it is porous enough. The factors determining the porous nature of the
casting are those mentioned before in discussing shrink porosity.

If it is a hot area, and there is visible shrink porosity, then it is almost certain that there is a porous section
extending beyond the visible porosity. The shape of the porous section will vary considerably, depending
on the temperature gradients inside the casting during the last portion of solidification. Usually there is
some gas trapped in association with shrink porosity, and this gas can migrate wherever this porous
section exists in the casting. Figure 15.3 shows some shrink porosity with associated trapped gas.

Fig. 15.1 Typical blister like appearance from outgassing.

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Outgassing and Edge Porosity chapter 15

CORRECTIONS

If the problem is gate porosity, it should be first examined carefully to determine if it is gas or shrink
porosity. Once this determination is made, the appropriate corrective action can be applied. Most of
these actions will also apply to outgassing.

For outgassing, reducing the trapped gas content would be a good solution, and certainly should be
explored as much as possible (see the chapter on gas porosity). The gas could have come from many
sources. A lot of gas is trapped early in the metal feed system (in the sleeve in cold chamber, and in
the gooseneck and nozzle in hot chamber); so the engineering design applied to the entire injection
system should be examined (PQ2 ).

If the problem is gate porosity, and it is determined after close examination that it is gas porosity, then
the first place to look would be a source of bubbles in the runner or gate system. Check the runner
system for sharp corners or sudden area changes that will trap air in the metal flow. Possibly an X-ray
of the runner will show some trails of bubbles and will give a clue about the source. For hot chamber,
be sure to review the sprue area; a runner sprue is the best way to get good smooth flow.
15

Fig. 15.2 Typical edge porosity; this one is a primarily gas porosity.

Fig. 15.3 Typical shrink porosity with associated tiny gas bubbles. No doubt there is also some gas in the shrink voids, and the
gas can move throughout the picture area and well beyond if there are pressure differences to drive the movement.

While trapped air is probably the largest trapped gas source for most castings; the die should be
checked to be sure it is dry when the metal arrives, and that excessive lubricant is not being used.
Water and lubricant can also be large contributors to distributed gas porosity.

After checking the obvious sources of trapped gas for a quick improvement, the venting system should
be checked to see that it is properly designed, and that it is actually kept clean and operating in
production. If possible, adding a vacuum system would be a good step. This would be a very good
use of hot chamber vacuum, although it may not completely cure the problem by itself.

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Outgassing and Edge Porosity chapter 15

Once the gas is minimized, then the porous path through the gate should be reduced or eliminated. This
path comes because the gate area is one of the hottest areas in that section of the casting. Part of this is
unavoidable because the gate will always be a hot location, however, there are some things to consider:

• A thicker gate with higher gate velocities will tend to add more heat in one local area. Spreading
the gate out and making it thinner may reduce the heat concentration and may also improve the
flow pattern.
• A thinner gate doesn’t mean a higher gate velocity necessarily, the flow should be properly engineered
to keep the flow in the correct range (see surface defect or erosion/cavitation sections).
• Try to avoid sharp transitions in gate shape just at the gate as shown below:

15

Fig. 15.4 Some suggested configurations to reduce the concentration of heat at the gate section, with the resultant shrink
porosity and porous area of the casting at the gate.

• This type of design effort will also help reduce gate porosity if it is due to shrink porosity.
• These same considerations (probably without the water line, but depending on the situation) would
also be applicable to gates into overflows.
• If the flow pattern and the casting shape will permit, consider moving the gate from a thick section
of the casting to a thinner section that will run cooler.
• Increase spray at the gate to reduce the heat concentration.
• Segment the gate to avoid concentrating gating in one location (this will likely also help the flow pattern)

If the problem is shrink porosity, then metal pressure should also be examined, especially if there is a
lot of shrink porosity at the gate. The injection system should be able to feed shrinkage at the gate,
so the process parameters of the injection system should be reviewed. The actions to take have been
discussed for other shrink porosity defects, but some of the most important would be:

• For a cold chamber:

• Check for minimum biscuit thickness at all times, and that there are no unexpected variations
causing thin biscuits
• Check for plunger sticking due to poor lubrication, poor sleeve condition, or poor tip
maintenance
• Check the accumulator pre-charge pressure, be sure it is maintained at all times
• Check intensifier operation, make sure the rise time is quick and as required

• For hot chamber:

• Check plunger conditions, make sure the plunger rings are in good shape, no metal leakage
• Check the gooseneck condition
• Be sure the machine has adequate stroke to fill the part under all conditions (low pot level,
leaking rings, etc.)(50% safety factor is desirable),
• Check the accumulator pre-charge pressure, be sure it is maintained at all times
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Outgassing and Edge Porosity chapter 15

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 Chapter 16
Bending, Warping
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Sometimes castings bend and distort under the many stresses of the die casting process. Correcting
these problems requires some good trouble shooting because many operational and design issue are
involved. Figure 16.1 shows a typical bending problem on a thin wall casting.

The work should start with the design issues. This involves the part design, the die design, and the
process design. Distortion in one form or another is a problem that continually faces those responsible
for correcting die casting defects. The approach here is to review actions that can be taken after
production is started, which may involve some limited corrections of design deficiencies that should 16
have been corrected in the design phase.

DESIGN ISSUES

One of the first steps is to try to determine if the problem is an operational issue or an engineering design
issue. To review all of the factors involved in design issues is far beyond the scope of this book.

However, given the equipment and process capabilities available for this particular part, it should be
determined if these capabilities were considered correctly in the engineering design work. There will always
be some variability, and this should have been factored correctly into the original design work. If these
process capability limits were not known, then it may be that a capability study should be done to establish
the capabilities. Using the published NADCA standards is always a safe approach, but if the part design is
too far beyond the process capabilities, then it may be difficult to justify a lot of other effort.

Fig. 16.1 Bending on a thin wall part.

Some of the more important design factors to review would include:

• For dimensional issues, check the part print to be sure the toolmaker was not given all the tolerance
available (80% process, 20% toolmaker is a typical rule), and that the die is within specifications

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Bending, Warping chapter 16

• Review the shrinkage values assigned, it is likely that one shrinkage value for every dimension is
not the best decision.
• Not enough draft allowance, especially on short walls and internal cores
• Thick and thin walls adjacent to each other may make dimensional stability difficult or impossible.
Also, correct radii should be specified.

OPERATIONAL ISSUES

While there are a number of operational issues required to maintain dimensional stability: the most
important overall objective will be that the part is ejected at the same temperature every time from a
die that is maintained at the same temperature for every ejection.

Thus consistent die temperature is one key for stable dimensions and to control bending and warping.
Obviously consistency is the key; die temperature can be maintained with consistent cycles and with
consistent water flow rates and consistent spray operations. The control needed on the temperature
factors is far more critical for the tighter tolerances than is general practice in many plants, and proper
maintenance of tight dimensions may require more process discipline than is typical for past operations
in some plants.

A big help is controlling die temperature with thermocouples and water/oil flow control devices.
Ejection based on measured part temperature has been done in difficult cases to maintain consistency.
16 Metal temperature must be included in the effort. Also, a good thermal analysis in the design phase
will go a long way towards consistency.

The other major factor in distortion is the stress placed on the casting when the die opens and when
the casting is ejected (see also cracking defects for some items to check when the die opens and the
casting is ejected).

When the die opens, there can be stress placed on the casting from worn equipment (usually machine,
but can be a die problem). Worn shoes on the movable platen, worn toggle links, lack of a die support,
worn tie bar bushings, improperly stretched tie bars (one or two tie bars tighter or looser than the
others), or worn die bushings are possibilities.

Watch for uneven ejection. Usually drags or some evidence of sticking is present. The actions
listed earlier for cracks are repeated here:

• Slow down the ejection action (if possible) so as to be able to observe carefully
• Watch for uneven ejection, i.e., the ejector plate twists during ejection.
• Check for worn guide bushings on the ejector plate, larger bushings or a more robust guide system
may be needed
• Check that bumper pins are all exactly the same length
• Check that the bumper plate is not bent or loose

Also look for:

• Poor ejection system design

• Incorrect ejector pin locations
• Proper action of slides
• Drags from heat checking or worn die conditions

It also should be understood that the injection system and metal temperature parameters are controlled
carefully with good process discipline.

If the part is a thin wall part and the shape is difficult to control, then perhaps adding ribs or other
shape changes could be done.

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Bending, Warping chapter 16

OTHER OPTIONS

If the variation is within limits, but the process is not centered properly, then one action would be to
modify the die so the casting will come out straight and within dimensions. That is, the die is made out of
dimension so the casting will be in dimension. This should be done only after a careful capability study.

Another option may be to use a straightening press. This can be done in conjunction with the trimming
in some cases. Straightening can do some things, but should not be regarded as a substitute for good
process discipline, although it may be cheaper than adjusting the die.

16

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Bending, Warping chapter 16

16

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 Chapter 17
Flash
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Flash could be described as when liquid metal flows into an area on the die where it is not expected,
such as the parting line, under a slide, along side an ejector pin, etc.

Flash is a serious operational problem with die castings; it limits the ability of die casters to use the full
capabilities of the process in different pressure and temperature settings to make better castings.

CAUSES

In general, flash comes when there are high metal temperatures, mechanical considerations of the
machine or the die (poor die fit or uneven machine locking pressures), or improper calculations of the
machine pressures, or just plain wear and tear on the die and the machines.
17

Fig. 17.1 Examples of flash with different levels of severity.

The metal temperature question should be easily settled as noted below, and then the issue becomes: is
it the die or the machine? This argument often becomes a permanent skirmish and is never settled. The
engineering calculations for the metal pressures are quickly done, but should be reviewed. One way
to help get settlement of these issues is to use the ideas below in a set sequence as discussed below.

METAL TEMPERATURES

The metal temperatures should be reviewed first. They should be in the normal operating range, which
would be about as follows for the usual alloys:

• Zinc 800 °F (426 °C) °±5 °F (3 °C)

• Aluminum 1200 °F (650 °C) to 1250 °F (675 °C) (± 10 °F (6 °C))
• Magnesium 1200 °F (650 °C) to 1250 °F (675 °C) (± 10 °F (6 °C))

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Flash chapter 17

If higher temperatures are required, check the process design factors (gate area, fill time, gate velocity.
metal pressure, flow pattern, etc.) to be sure they are correct. Very often high metal temperature is used
to make up for design deficiency in one of the other process factors. Sometimes a higher temperature is
acceptable, but it is should be an unusual exception to the normal setting used for the other castings.

A typical metal temperature problem is not so much the setting, but in maintaining a stable operating
condition. A temperature controller or operating procedure that occasionally allows high temperatures
can be a real problem in creating flash, especially in an automatic operation.

OPERATIONAL FACTORS - MACHINE LOCKING PROBLEMS

The next step would be to use a squaring block (or a new die or a known square die) on the machine
to balance the tie bar loads. Each tie bar should be set to take the same load using some method of
measuring tie bar strain when the square block is installed. This should eliminate any unbalance in the
tie bar adjustments.

Other design issues mentioned below for the machine set up should be reviewed one at a time.

• General condition of the machine:

• Toggle links not worn

• Tie bar bushings not excessively worn
• Platens flat, not bent or rough
• Tie bar nuts not loose

17 • Moveable platen shoes adjusted correctly

• Die is set up correctly
• Die carrier in use and adjusted correctly

The metal pressure should be reviewed. The static metal pressure is important, as is the impact pressure
and the intensified pressure. The approximate suggested static metal pressures minimums were
presented in the shrink porosity section, and are presented again here; along with some additions for
suggested maximums. The maximums are not necessary for part quality, but they are important for
flash reduction.
Table. 17.1. Static pressures - minumums and maximums.
static pressure approximate maximum intensified pressure approximate maximum

Aluminum 3,000 psi 5500 psi 8,000 psi 15,000 psi

Zinc 2,000 psi 4000 psi NADCA NADCA
Magnesium 3,000 psi 4000 psi 8,000 psi 12,000 psi

The maximums are approximate, and are intended to provide some guidance on what are typical
values. Each die caster should be capable of selecting the value that is best for their parts and their
operation. As an example of the considerations for the die caster, it is usually counter productive to run
a small plunger tip to get a high percent fill if it also pushes the static pressure too high and causes too
many operational problems from flash.

It is best to keep to the lower end of these values to minimize flash.

The impact spike will vary from machine to machine, but the biggest single factor influencing the size

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Flash chapter 17

of the impact spike is whether the shot accumulator is in the back of the machine or in the front. An
accumulator in the back can easily double the impact spike.

Various operational procedures are used to reduce the impact flash. These typically would include:
delay the onset of fast shot, decrease the fast shot speed, reduce the metal temperature (or delay the
shot with the metal in the sleeve), reduce the shot accumulator nitrogen pressure, etc. All of these can
have some very serious impact on part quality, even though it is not apparent in the casting appearance
at the operator’s station. It is critical for good defect control that these types of solutions for flash don’t
dominate the machine settings.

Sometimes these types of adjustments are the appropriate choice, but they should be used only after
verifying that there are no other detrimental effects. If necessary for good casting quality to run with a
setting that increases flash, it may be the responsibility of the process technician to find another way to
reduce flash and not leave it as an optional machine adjustment.

The low impact control on some machines is a very valuable option - if it can be made to work properly.

DIE SEALING PROBLEMS

Most dies are made to fit quite well at room temperature (although there are some exceptions); the
problem with incorrect die fit occurs when the die is at operating temperature. At this point, the die will
be heated unevenly from the casting process (most of the heat is usually in the center of the insert), and
this will cause the die to expand unevenly.

As the die expands unevenly, the die doesn’t fit as it did in the tool room at 75 °F, and flash develops. This
is not difficult to correct if the die has a flat parting line, but if the parting line is stepped and there are slides 17
involved, it becomes quite difficult to predict the die shape when the die is at operating temperature.

A very important consideration in the die expansion is the proper thermal analysis and the proper
location of the cooling system in the die. This is best done with a computer analysis, which will not only
pay for itself in increased cycle time, but will help in reducing flash by keeping the die temperature
even. It is especially important that hot areas in the biscuit and sprue areas are properly cooled.

In operation, it often it becomes necessary to check the die fit by bluing the die at operating temperature.
This is usually done just before the die is scheduled to come off; then the die should be run steadily to
be sure it is at operating temperature. The die should be stopped, water turned off, the die cleaned,
bluing applied, and the die faces touched as fast a possible. This will capture the high spots and
provide reference information for the tool room. Without this approach, it is difficult to know just what
the die shape is when it is hot.

Good die maintenance is critical for minimal flash; and it is imperative that some action be taken when
flash first appears. To continue to run when flash accumulates just guarantees that the die face will be
indented and that there will always be flash on that die. If the engineering was done correctly, then
there should be some appropriate action available when flash starts. That is, if the design is correct but
flash still starts to build up, then there must be some operational factor that needs to be corrected, and
the problem is not with the die.

One of the die design issues is the location of the center of the opening force when the die is on the
machine. This opening force should be centered on the machine so that the opening force generated
by the metal pressure in the die is as centered as possible on the machine. This makes the tie bar load
even and is key to preventing flash. The tie bar load should be calculated before the location of the
parts in the die is established. If this is done, it will also confirm whether the die will run properly on the
selected machine.

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Flash chapter 17

17

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 Chapter 18
Stained Castings
DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Castings that are stained or discolored are usually castings with black or dark gray stains. Figure 18-1
shows a typical stained casting.

Fig. 18.1 Typical stained casting. 18

This problem almost always involves the application of die or plunger lubricant. The usual stained or
discolored casting has had too much lubricant or the wrong kind of lubricant applied.

It should not be assumed that someone is carelessly applying too much lubricant (although this can be
the case), there is usually a reason for the excess. Often it is a casting that sticks from a worn or heat
checked section in the die; which should be fixed.

In aluminum, an additional problem is the use of plunger lubricant. Too much lubricant will usually
stain the castings, regardless of the type of lubricant. Using too much lubricant is usually a sign that the
plunger life is being stretched further than it should be. If this is happening, then there are certain to be
other problems from the lack of pressure by the plunger.

The actions suggested would be as follows:

• Review amount of die lubricant being applied, keep this to a minimum as required for good release
and die temperature control, check for uneven lubricating practices (i.e., one shift applies lubricant
heavy, and the other don’t)
• If necessary, review the type of lubricant being used. The die lubricant should match the die
operating temperatures - measure the die temperatures and obtain the correct lubricant. Heavy
application of a lubricant intended for a hot die on a cold die will only result in stained castings
and extra porosity, and the lubricant will not do the job properly.
• Check the lubricant mixing ratio, make sure it is consistent from shift to shift. An automatic mixer is
by far the best.

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Stained Castings chapter 18

• Check the procedures for applying plunger lubricant, look for the practice of trying to extend tip
life by using excessive lubricant - try to minimize this practice by changing tip or sleeve design or just
changing tips as needed
• Check for other material in the metal, possibly dirty scrap. If this is the case, there are likely other
metal handling problems also existing

18

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 Chapter 19
Waves and Lakes
DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Waves and lakes are a problem in decorative finishes, usually in zinc castings but it can also occur in
aluminum castings. Waves and lakes are two common names, but these types of defects have several
names; however, they are generally have similar causes, and so they will be treated the same here.
Figure 19-1 shows some typical waves and lakes.

The cause is usually a metal flow problem, and it is very similar to those issues discussed earlier in
surface defects, only these defects are much more sensitive to small metal flow issues.

Generally, waves are caused by an initial metal flow that has been cooled extremely quickly by the
die; after which another metal flow arrives and covers the first flow. The second flow freezes at a much
slower rate than the first flow. The two flows do not mix but there is enough re-melting to cause the
second flow to attach to the first flow. Sometimes there is some gas porosity trapped between the two
metal flows.

19

Fig. 19.1 Typical wave or lake appearance after polishing, the defect was not apparent in the as cast condition.

Fig. 19.2 Microstructure of a cross section at the arrow in Fig. 19.1 This shows the different structure that represents the
different cooling rates for the two metal flows, and shows that the intial squirt solidified very quickly.

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Waves and Lakes chapter 19

The different freezing rates cause a different microstructure, and hence a slightly different appearance.
This is not important for most functional castings, where it is suspected that it is a common occurrence,
but it is noticeable in decorative castings and is a defect that needs attention.

To correct the problem, the metal flow questions need to be addressed. The biggest issue is to determine
where the initial flow originated and to eliminate it. This flow can be thought of as a squirt, or a splash,
into the cavity ahead of the main metal flow. This may happen only a few milliseconds ahead of the
main metal flow, but that is all that is required to freeze a thin splash of metal.

Figure 19-3 The microstructure of two metal flows on an aluminum casting. The different structure cause
enough appearance difference that the casting was not acceptable after sanding. The first flow was
from starting the fast shot late to avoid flash, and the correction was starting the plunger at the correct
calculated time. 200x (courtesy OSU)

It will be difficult to judge whether an action is successful from a few castings, and usually it is not
possible to see the defect easily on the raw castings, so the operators may have to accept some
settings without being able to verify from the casting appearance at the die casting machine. It will
often take some time to find a good solution.

19 Fig. 19.3 The microstructure of two metal flows on an aluminum casting. The different structure cause enough appearance
difference that the casting was not acceptable after sanding. The first flow was from starting the fast shot late to avoid flash, and
the correction was starting the plunger at the correct calculated time. 200x (Courtesy OSU)

The following are suggested actions that can be taken.

• Make sure the plunger is accelerated before the metal arrives at the gate. Some machines are
very slow in accelerating, and will not be at atomized flow speed before the metal is at the gate,
consequently, the first metal flow is more of a splatter than a spray.
(Note: operators often delay the onset of fast shot a little to reduce the flashing; if this is the
case, the flashing should be addressed another way and the fast shot started early to correct
this defect problem)
• If a slow shot is used (especially in cold chamber machines) be sure the fast shot is accelerated
early enough so the metal is accelerated before it hits the gate.
• A poor gate and runner design will cause a leading squirt to hit the gate before the rest of the
metal. This is especially true with fan gates, and much less a problem with tangential gates (if
they have proper shock absorbers). Square runner turns instead of smooth round turns will add
considerably to the problem.
• Multi-cavity runners with a long “tree” shape will cause unbalanced flow, allowing flow to start
is some cavities several milliseconds before it starts in others. This initial flow will tend to be more
of a splatter instead of a full flow, and will be accentuated with older and slower accelerating
machines.
• Poor flow pattern design along with slow acceleration and poor gate location can lead to splatters
as the metal first starts to flow.

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Waves and Lakes chapter 19

• An area of the die that is colder than the rest could accentuate the problem, heating the die in the
area of the problem will help (this may mean reducing the spray).
• Cold metal in the initial flow from a cold nozzle (especially during start up) can also accentuate
the problem.
• Good metal temperature control is essential to help control this problem

19

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Waves and Lakes chapter 19

19

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 Chapter 20
Drags
DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

Drags are very similar to solder, except that they can be caused by other die surface conditions. The
die surface can have undercuts or surface roughness that will cause some of the cast metal to stick to
part of the die, and this will cause some deformation of the casting as it is ejected. Figure 20-1 shows
some typical drag marks.

The most common situation is an undercut in the die. This can be a tool making error, or more commonly, a
section of the die that is eroded from the action of the flowing metal (this is especially severe in aluminum).

Another cause can be solder or carbon build up on the die causing drags on the surface of the casting.
See the defects listed under these headings for corrections for these problems.

20
Fig. 20.1 Typical drag situation

Actions that should be considered:

• If it is a new die that hasn’t been run before (or hasn’t been run very long), look carefully for
undercuts or tool marks that can initiate a build up and cause drags.
• If a new die, check draft angles to be sure they meet NADCA criteria; especially for short walls.
• If the die has been run for some time, then look for heat checking that starts the drag.
• If the die has been run for some time, then check for erosion or corrosion that is causing an undercut.
• Look for die opening or ejection problems - see corrective actions under bending or cracks for a list
of corrections that would apply here also. Look especially for worn ejector guide systems.
• If the problem is associated with a core, it is possible that the core has been mushroomed on the
end, and is now dragging when the casting is ejected. This can be checked on the machine.
• If the problem is associated with a slide action, it is possible that the slide has flash under it or has
worn enough so it can shift out of line under the force of the metal pressure, and cause drags when
it withdraws.
• For correction or a long standing drag problem, investigate lowering the temperature at the point
where the drags occur with spray, water cooling, or high heat transfer material.

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Drags chapter 20

20

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 Chapter 21
Pushed Ejector Pins
DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

This problem occurs when a the force required for ejection causes a casting to deform around the
ejector pins as they force the casting away from the die.

Often a lot of force is required to eject the casting because the casting has contracted against the
cores or other features in the die. The force by the ejector pins is applied when the casting is at a high
temperature, typically about 600 °F (315 °C), the casting is still soft at this temperature. The result is the
ejector pins can sometimes deform the casting.

One problem is that the hold (or dwell) time may not be correct. There can be problems in setting the
correct dwell time because the casting may crack or seize strongly on the die if it is held too long, and
this will cause pins to push into the heavier and hotter sections at ejection. If it is held for too short a
time, then the casting can be soft and the pins deform the casting.

Fig. 21.1 Example of ejector marks. 21

In this situation, the dwell time is very sensitive to casting and die temperatures. The process must be
maintained in a very stable condition so as to hold consistent temperatures and keep the dwell time
correct. Adding thermocouples that will control the dwell time based on die temperature has been
done quite successfully (note: a minimum dwell must be maintained for safety purposes).

Some other factors and corrections to consider for this problem include the following:

• Check for undercuts and drags that might be holding the casting in the die. See also the ejection
problems under bending or crack defects.
• Poor design, with too few ejector pins
• Pins in the wrong locations, use ribs or other natural features to spread the force from ejector pins
• Ejector pins too small

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Pushed Ejector Pins chapter 21

21

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 Chapter 22
Cold Flakes
DESCRIPTION OF THE DEFECT AND THE PROBLEMS IT CAUSES

Cold flakes occur in cold chamber machines when a skin of aluminum is solidified on the bottom of the
shot sleeve after the metal is poured into the sleeve. This skin is then chipped off in small chunks (cold
flakes)by the plunger as it moves forward, and these chips are pushed into the runner and the casting.

These flakes will have a characteristic appearance in the casting and in the runner because they will have
one straight side that is coated with lubricant, and the other side will be irregular in shape and partially
bonded with the rest of the alloy. The straight side will not bond with the rest of the alloy because of the
coating of lubricant, and will form a crack that can cause leaks or be the location of a fracture.

Cold flakes will be concentrated in the runner, but there will be some cold flakes in the casting, especially
just past the gate; depending on the geometry of the runner and the gate. Figure 22.1 shows some cold
flakes in a runner section, and 22.2 and 22.3 show photomicrographs of typical cold flakes in a runner.

Cold flakes can cause several types of defects; probably the most common is an irregular break out
at the gate. This happens when a cold flake lodges in the gate and the gate is then broken off. The
fracture line through the cold flake will follow the straight side of the cold flake, which usually means
that there will be a break into the casting at the gate. This is often undesirable. Figure 22.2 shows an
uneven gate break caused by cold flakes.

Another problem caused by cold flakes is a partial blocking of the gate. This can happen with thin gates
when the cold flake sticks in the gate and diverts the metal flow. This can cause surface or flow defects.

They can also be a leak path or a location that will cause cracks. This is a bigger problem in thin wall
castings with leak test requirements.

22

Fig. 22.1 Cold flakes in the center of a runner. Note the typical straight sided structure.

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Cold Flakes chapter 22

Fig. 22.2 Cold flakes in a runner chosen at random from a typical production run.

Fig. 22.3 Close up of the cold flakes from Fig. 22.2, showing the typical straight side and the lack of integration of this side
with the rest of the casting.

Fig. 22.4 Cold flakes in a gate that cause irregular break outs at the gate.

22 Cold flakes are probably impossible to eliminate, but they can be reduced to some extent by careful
process management and good consistent operation. Some of the actions that can be taken include:

• Minimize the dwell time in the sleeve as much as possible; note that this will be difficult when trying
to utilize the proper acceleration schedule to minimize trapped air during the slow speed plunger
acceleration phase.
• Keep the percentage fill on the sleeve as high as possible (Note: computer simulation studies
suggest that the percent fill does not make much difference in the thickness of the skin, but this
remains to be proven at this time)
• Keep the sleeve temperature as high as possible, (but not so high that it will cause rapid erosion
under the pour hole).

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Cold Flakes chapter 22

• If at all possible, do not utilize very low metal pour temperatures (1200 °F or 650 °C), keep the
metal temperature in the 1250 °F (675 °C) range.
• Do not run very small biscuits, keep the biscuit size comfortably above the minimum (this will keep
some of the cold flakes in the biscuit instead of in the runner or casting)
• Use a trim to shear the runner off instead of breaking it off.
• Pre-heat the sleeve with electric heaters or shots; for sensitive castings, it may be necessary to scrap
castings until the sleeve is up to temperature (about 650 °F or 350 °C).

All of these actions require more detailed control of some of the variations in the process (biscuit
thickness, sleeve temperature) than is customary, and this will not be necessary for all castings; but
some castings will be sensitive to this phenomenon. For example, a casting with a gate on a thin wall
that is subject to leak testing would be sensitive to the location of cold flakes.

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Cold Flakes chapter 22

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 Chapter 23
Excessive Flux
DESCRIPTION OF THE DEFECT

This is a problem for aluminum die casting that involves the use of too much flux and the associated
casting defect problems. When too much flux is used in the metal cleaning process, it can stay in the
liquid metal as a liquid; and wind up in the die castings.

In the casting, the flux will tend to remain as a liquid even in the solid parts. This means the flux may be
able to migrate in the solid part through the loose dendritic areas if there is an attraction for it. Since
most fluxes are salts, they are attracted to moisture, and when a casting gets wet, some of the trapped
flux may be able to migrate out through the casting where the die was hot and the shrinkage porosity
is close to the surface. Figure 23.1 shows the result of leaving two castings in city water over night. One
had excess flux and one did not.

Fig. 23.1 Identical castings left in city water overnight, one had excess flux and one did not.

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Fig. 23.2 This shows a white eggshell shape of flux around some shrinkage porosity.

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Excessive Flux chapter 23

Thus one way to check for excess flux is to drop a casting in clean water over night. If there is excess
flux, there will be a light coating of a white crystalline material (flux) on the surface the next day. If
there is no excess flux, the casting will not change.

THE PROBLEMS IT CAUSES

The excess flux causes problems where this white layer on the surface of the casting is objectionable, and
when the flux on the casting may interfere with some surface treatments such as anodizing or alodining.

The flux inside the casting is associated with porosity, and may be part of the cause of some porosity,
although this is not certain. In any case, it can be found where there is porosity. Figure 23.2 shows an
example of this.

CORRECTIONS

The most important step to use flux correctly is to develop written procedures for the use of flux, and
then train all concerned and use the procedures.

Fig. 23.3 A 443 alloy casting where the machined surface has exposed many craters or air holes lined with gamma AL O.
Black area in some are shrinkage voids.

The most important correction for this problem is to maintain the correct ratio of flux to melt, and to
apply it correctly. The furnace tender who cleans the furnace and applies the flux should be well
trained; probably the flux supplier will provide the proper training if asked.

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126
 NORTH AMERICAN DIE CASTING ASSOCIATION

3250 N. Arlington Heights Rd., Ste. 101

Arlington Heights, IL 60004
P: 847.279.0001 • F: 847.279.0002
www.diecasting.org