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Liam Fraser's work explores the connections between new atheism and Protestant fundamentalism, arguing that both share a historical origin in the English Reformation and are structured by similar presuppositions regarding Scripture and divine activity. The study reveals that despite their apparent opposition, these two movements exhibit a 'secret sympathy' that leads to inherent instability in their beliefs. Fraser's analysis aims to deepen the understanding of the intellectual and theological roots of both atheism and fundamentalism.

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The English Reformation and The Roots of Atheism and Fundamentalism Liam Fraser Latest PDF 2025

Liam Fraser's work explores the connections between new atheism and Protestant fundamentalism, arguing that both share a historical origin in the English Reformation and are structured by similar presuppositions regarding Scripture and divine activity. The study reveals that despite their apparent opposition, these two movements exhibit a 'secret sympathy' that leads to inherent instability in their beliefs. Fraser's analysis aims to deepen the understanding of the intellectual and theological roots of both atheism and fundamentalism.

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Atheism, Fundamentalism and the Protestant Reformation

This study of new atheism and religious fundamentalism advances two


provocative – and surprising – arguments. Fraser argues that atheism
and Protestant fundamentalism in Britain and America share a common
historical origin in the English Reformation, and the crisis of authority
inaugurated by the Reformers. This common origin generated two
presuppositions crucial for both movements: a literalist understanding
of Scripture, and a disruptive understanding of divine activity in nature.
Through an analysis of contemporary new atheist and Protestant
fundamentalist texts, Fraser shows that these presuppositions continue
to structure both groups, and support a range of shared biblical, scien-
tific, and theological beliefs. Their common origin and intellectual
structure ensures that new atheism and Protestant fundamentalism –
while on the surface irreconcilably opposed – share a secret sympathy
with one another, yet one which leaves them unstable, inconsistent, and
unsustainable.

Rev. Dr. Liam Jerrold Fraser is Church of Scotland Campus Minister at


the University of Edinburgh.
Atheism, Fundamentalism and the
Protestant Reformation
Uncovering the Secret Sympathy

LIAM JERROLD FRASER


University of Edinburgh
University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, ny 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre,
New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.


It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108427982
doi: 10.1017/9781108552141
© Liam Jerrold Fraser 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books, Inc.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
names: Fraser, Liam Jerrold, 1986- author.
title: Atheism, fundamentalism and the Protestant Reformation : uncovering the
secret sympathy / Liam Jerrold Fraser, University of Edinburgh.
description: 1 [edition]. | New York : Cambridge University Press, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
identifiers: lccn 2018006514 | isbn 9781108448611 (pbk.)
subjects: lcsh: Reformation. | Christianity and atheism. | Fundamentalism.
classification: lcc br305.3 .f73 2018 | ddc 270.6–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018006514
isbn 978-1-108-42798-2 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
For Yvonne, Jerrold, Samantha, Theodore and Sebastian
amatus sum ergo sum
Contents

Acknowledgements page ix

Introduction 1
1 The Unfinished Reformation 16
Reformation to Revolution 17
The Civil War 31
Restoration and Restraint 35
Freethought in a Protestant Key 43
Re-Narrating Nature 56
2 Things Fall Apart 67
Dissenters and Evangelicals 69
The Gathering of Infidels 73
Origins and Ends 88
Walking Apart 94
3 An Inductive Theology 111
The Scottish Philosophy 113
An Evangelical Empire 119
The Shock of the New 128
Death in Tennessee 142
4 The Secret Sympathy 149
Contemporary Context 150
The Bible: Literal, Univocal and Perspicuous 159
Divine Activity: Disruptive and Substitutionary 173
Opposites Attract 188

vii
viii Contents

5 A House Divided 205


New Atheists 206
Protestant Fundamentalists 222
Dialectic of Protestantism 230
Conclusion 245

Bibliography 248
Index 266
Acknowledgements

While researching and writing this work, I have been frequently reminded
of the many debts I owe.
First and foremost, I wish to thank Nicholas Adams, David Fergusson,
Iain Torrance and Graham Ward. Nick saw the originality and utility of
this project when it was still in its genesis, and he provided invaluable
comments on a number of early drafts. To David I owe two debts. First,
he offered a number of helpful comments towards the later stages of the
project that saved me from unnecessary errors. Second, David has been a
great supporter ever since my undergraduate days, and it is to him that
I owe many of the opportunities I have been privileged to enjoy. I am also
grateful to Iain and Graham for taking the time to read my work and for
their comments on an earlier instantiation of this book.
I also wish to thank the many other University of Edinburgh staff who,
in different ways, played a role in this work’s development. In particular,
I wish to thank Zenon Bańkowski, Simon Podmore, Paul Nimmo and
Sara Parvis.
This project was made possible by a generous Arts and Humanities
Research Council award, which augmented my slender Church of Scot-
land stipend, and enabled my family and me to live comfortably during
the course of my research. For the provision of these public funds
I express my sincere gratitude.
For their support for this book, and for editorial and technical
guidance during its production, I also wish to express my gratitude to
Cambridge University Press, and especially to Beatrice Rehl and Margaret
Puskar-Pasewicz.

ix
x Acknowledgements

My final note of thanks is to my family, and in particular to my wife


Samantha, for all their love, care and support over the years. The path of
research can be a lonely one, and Samantha had to suffer many evenings
without her husband. This work stands as a testament to her forbearance.

Liam Jerrold Fraser


Holy Week 2017
Introduction

This is a story about Protestantism. It is a story about the attempt to find a


new foundation for the Christian faith apart from the authority and
tradition of the Roman Catholic Church, and the instabilities and contra-
dictions that arose from it. The thesis of this work is that these tensions and
contradictions gave rise – in the fullness of time – to two opposing, yet
related, forms of thought: Protestant fundamentalism and new atheism.
This work began as an attempt to determine whether comparisons
between fundamentalism and new atheism were cogent. Investigation
revealed that these comparisons, far from being superficial, arose from
deep similarities in structure between the two groups. Yet investigation
also revealed that these similarities rest upon two shared presuppositions,
presuppositions whose intellectual and social genealogy stretches back to
the Reformation in England. In order to provide a complete answer to the
question of the relation of fundamentalism to new atheism, then, it
became necessary to integrate analysis of their contemporary structure
with a genealogy of the presuppositions that gave rise to it. The two
related questions that this work attempts to answer, therefore, are these:
first, what common historical and theological root do new atheist and
Protestant fundamentalist thought come from, and, second, how does this
common root, and the presuppositions that arise from it, structure their
thought? In answering these questions, the following argument will be
advanced: that new atheist and Protestant fundamentalist thought is
structured by the presupposition of a literal, univocal and perspicuous
Scripture, and the presupposition that divine activity disrupts and substi-
tutes for natural causation, beliefs that have arisen from a common
historical root.

1
2 Atheism, Fundamentalism and the Protestant Reformation

A number of commentators have made comparisons between new


atheism and fundamentalism. Armstrong, Beattie, de Botton, Vernon,
Cunningham, Robertson and Eagleton, inter alia, have all noted resem-
blances between the two groups.1 Nevertheless, the existing literature on
the subject of new atheism and fundamentalism suffers from three related
failures. First, the majority of these remarks are made in polemical and
popular works directed to attacking the social and intellectual standing of
new atheism. For this reason, comparisons with fundamentalism could be
rejected outright as being little more than insults. This failing is joined by
a second, the occasional nature of the existing literature. Most of these
comparisons are made in passing, and when more detail is given, it is
generally not supported with sustained argument. These problems are
compounded by a third factor, the serious neglect of atheism as a subject
for theological investigation. Although the profile of atheism in the public
life of Britain and America is greater than ever, and the publishing
opportunities available for atheist and anti-atheist writers unparalleled,
the majority of academic engagements with atheism are in the form of
polemical works written by academic theologians.2 This has two unfor-
tunate consequences. First, it represents a failure of academic theology to
fully address a serious social, political and intellectual challenge to the
Church and the Christian faith, as polemical works are not suitable for
the detail and depth of analysis necessary to critique the origins, structure
and arguments of new atheism. As Hyman notes, the lack of serious
research into the origins and structure of atheism mean that its nature
and true significance are apt to be misunderstood.3 The polemical nature
of the existing theological engagement with atheism leads, second, to the
impression that atheism is merely a ‘popular’ subject, and beneath the

1
Alain De Botton, Religion for Atheists (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2012), 12; Mark
Vernon, After Atheism (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 4, 7, 55–6; David Bentley
Hart, Atheist Delusions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 4, 231–2; David
Robertson, The Dawkins Letters (Ross-shire: Christian Focus, 2010), 78–83; Karen
Armstrong, The Case for God (London: Vintage Books, 2010), 290; Terry Eagleton,
God, Faith, and Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 53; Conor
Cunningham, Darwin’s Pious Idea (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 2010), xi;
Tina Beattie, The New Atheists (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 2007), 4;
Stephen LeDrew, The Evolution of Atheism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 2.
2
E.g. Alister McGrath and Joanna Collicutt McGrath, The Dawkins Delusion? (London:
SPCK, 2007); Keith Ward, Why There Almost Certainly Is a God (Oxford: Lion Books,
2008); John F. Haught, God and the New Atheism (Louisville: Westminster John Knox
Press, 2008). Also see John Hughes ed., The Unknown God (Eugene: Cascade Books,
2013).
3
Gavin Hyman, A Short History of Atheism (London: I. B. Tauris, 2010), ix–x.
Introduction 3

attention of serious theologians. This is doubly unfortunate, for not only


does it further stigmatise theological investigation of a prevalent intellec-
tual, political and pastoral issue, but, as the present work shall reveal,
prohibits investigation of the serious tensions and contradictions within
Protestant theology which gave, and continue to give rise, to atheism.
There are, however, exceptions to this judgement. Michael Buckley’s
At the Origins of Modern Atheism began the contemporary academic
study of atheism, arguing that atheism, contrary to popular opinion, did
not arise from an independent, non-Christian source, but from within
Christianity itself, and the natural-theological arguments advanced by the
Church to defend its core doctrines.4 The thesis of a theological origin for
atheism was continued by Alan Kors in Atheism in France 1650–1729:
The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief, which demonstrated how intra-
ecclesial debates concerning natural theology and philosophy generated
arguments later used by atheists.5 A similar story was told by Turner,
who in Without God, Without Creed charted the way in which American
Christianity became assimilated to secular forms of thought, and became
alienated from its own distinctive beliefs and patterns of reasoning.6
Drawing upon the dependence thesis concerning the theological origins
of atheism, yet focusing upon the doctrine of God, Gavin Hyman has
recently advanced the argument that changes in late medieval theology
laid the foundations for atheism by endangering God’s transcendence,
and re-conceptualising God’s being as merely the highest among other
beings.7 Reduced to an object within the universe, it was then easy for
science to reject God’s existence. This ‘modern’ conception of God is
passing away, however, and Hyman foresees a corresponding change in
the nature of Western atheism. Another recent academic work that has
engaged seriously with atheism, while also making connections between it
and fundamentalism, is Conor Cunningham’s Darwin’s Pious Idea. Cun-
ningham’s work uncovers the agreement between ultra-Darwinists and
creationists on the anti-religious import of evolution, yet argues that their
shared conception of evolution is faulty, and that a correct conception of
evolution by natural selection is compatible with faith.

4
Michael J. Buckley, At the Origins of Modern Atheism (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1987).
5
Alan C. Kors, Atheism in France 1650–1729 (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1990).
6
James Turner, Without God, Without Creed (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1985).
7
Hyman, Short History, 47–80.
4 Atheism, Fundamentalism and the Protestant Reformation

In the last few years, two other works exploring the theological impli-
cations of unbelief have also appeared. Although not an academic work –
and hence not explicitly addressing the existing literature – Nick Spencer’s
Atheists: The Origin of the Species offered a partial history of the devel-
opment of British atheism from the late seventeenth century to the twen-
tieth, and offers a number of important insights that parallel my own
conclusions.8 Dominic Erdozain’s The Soul of Doubt is similar to the
works listed previously in arguing for a religious origin for atheism, yet
traces this origin less to specific ideas than the inculcation of conscience
among European thinkers, a development that led increasing numbers of
educated people to question biblical morality, and reject the faith.9
The present work draws upon this earlier research by defending the
argument that atheism in Britain and America had a theological origin,
yet differs from it by proceeding with an alternative methodology, and a
different estimation of the factors involved. First, one feature of all of
these works is the relative absence of discussion concerning the import-
ance of biblical hermeneutics. The overwhelming emphasis is on natural
theology and science, which, while of the upmost importance, cannot
fully be separated from the scriptural interpretations they were tasked
with explicating and protecting. This oversight is related to a second issue,
the relative absence of discussion concerning the Reformation and its
aftermath. While Turner undertakes discussion of Reformed theology,
its focus is more upon New England puritanism than the salient theo-
logical changes that made puritanism possible. Turner’s work also suffers
from a certain diffuseness, as his – relatively short – history attempts to
outline every reason for American unbelief. The third difference between
this and earlier works comes in the relation of history to our contempor-
ary context. All of the foregoing works, with the exception of Hyman’s
introductory text, focus on either history or the contemporary debate, so
that the insights from one area of enquiry are not brought to bear upon
the other.
This work remedies these oversights in a number of ways. First, it
focuses on both biblical hermeneutics and science and natural theology,
and stresses their interrelatedness. Second, it pushes back the origins of
British and American atheism to the English Reformation. Third, it relates
the historical to the contemporary, stressing the continuities between

8
Nick Spencer, Atheists: The Origin of the Species (London: Bloomsbury Continuum,
2014).
9
Dominic Erdozain, The Soul of Doubt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
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