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EDINBURGH LEVENTIS STUDIES 3
 Previously published

Edinburgh Leventis Studies 1

Word and Image in Ancient Greece
Edited by N. Keith Rutter and Brian A. Sparkes

Edinburgh Leventis Studies 2

Envy, Spite and Jealousy: The Rivalrous Emotions in Ancient Greece
Edited by David Konstan and N. Keith Rutter
 EDINBURGH LEVENTIS STUDIES 3

ANCIENT GREECE: FROM THE

MYCENAEAN PALACES TO THE
AGE OF HOMER

Edited by
Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos

Edinburgh University Press

 © editorial matter and organisation,
Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos, 2006
© the chapters their authors, 2006

Edinburgh University Press Ltd

22 George Square, Edinburgh

Typeset in 11 on 13pt Times NR MT

by Servis Filmsetting Limited, Manchester, and
printed and bound in Great Britain by
Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wilts

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-10 0 7486 1889 9 (hardback)

ISBN-13 978 0 7486 1889 7 (hardback)

The right of the contributors

to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
 CONTENTS

Contributors and Editors viii

Abbreviations xv
Introduction 1

Part I Political and Social Structures

1 The formation of the Mycenaean palace 7
James C. Wright
2 Wanaks and related power terms in Mycenaean and later Greek 53
Thomas G. Palaima
3 Mycenaean palatial administration 73
Cynthia W. Shelmerdine
4 The subjects of the wanax: aspects of Mycenaean social structure 87
John T. Killen
5 ¶
Anax and basileu/ß in the Homeric poems 101
Pierre Carlier
6 Kin-groups in the Homeric epics (Summary) 111
Walter Donlan

Part II Continuity – Discontinuity – Transformation

7 The Mycenaean heritage of Early Iron Age Greece 115
Oliver Dickinson
8 Coming to terms with the past: ideology and power in Late
Helladic IIIC 123
Joseph Maran
9 Late Mycenaean warrior tombs 151
Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy
vi 

10 The archaeology of basileis 181

Alexander Mazarakis Ainian
11 From Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age copper metallurgy in
mainland Greece and offshore Aegean Islands 213
Maria Kayafa
12 Ethne in the Peloponnese and central Greece 233
Catherine Morgan

Part III International and Inter-Regional Relations

13 Gift Exchange: modern theories and ancient attitudes 257
Beate Wagner-Hasel
14 Basileis at sea: elites and external contacts in the Euboean Gulf
region from the end of the Bronze Age to the beginning of the
Iron Age 271
Jan Paul Crielaard
15 Aspects of the ‘Italian connection’ 299
David Ridgway
16 From the Mycenaean qa-si-re-u to the Cypriote pa-si-le-wo-se:
the basileus in the kingdoms of Cyprus 315
Maria Iacovou
17 Phoenicians in Crete 337
Nicholaos Chr. Stampolidis and Antonios Kotsonas

Part IV Religion and Hero Cult

18 From kings to demigods: epic heroes and social change c. 750–600  363
Hans van Wees
19 Religion, basileis and heroes 381
Carla Antonaccio
20 Cult activity on Crete in the Early Dark Age: Changes, continuities
and the development of a ‘Greek’ cult system 397
Anna Lucia D’Agata

Part V The Homeric Epics and Heroic Poetry

21 The rise and descent of the language of the Homeric poems 417
Michael Meier-Brügger
22 Homer and Oral Poetry 427
Edzard Visser
  vii

23 Some remarks on the semantics of a‡nax in Homer 439

Martin Schmidt
24 Historical approaches to Homer 449
Kurt A. Raaflaub

Part VI The Archaeology of Greek Regions and Beyond

25 The palace of Iolkos and its end 465
Vassiliki Adrimi-Sismani
26 Early Iron Age elite burials in East Lokris 483
Fanouria Dakoronia
27 Athens and Lefkandi: a tale of two sites 505
Irene S. Lemos
28 The Early Iron Age in the Argolid: Some new aspects 531
Alkestis Papadimitriou
29 The world of Telemachus: western Greece 1200–700  549
Birgitta Eder
30 Knossos in Early Greek times 581
J. N. Coldstream
31 Praisos: political evolution and ethnic identity in eastern
Crete c.1400–300  597
James Whitley
32 The gilded cage? Settlement and socioeconomic change after 1200 :
a comparison of Crete and other Aegean regions 619
Saro Wallace
33 Homeric Cyprus 665
Vassos Karageorghis

Index
 CONTRIBUTORS AND EDITORS

Vasiliki Adrimi-Sismani studied at the University of Thessalonica from where she

also received her Ph.D. The title of her thesis was ‘Dimini in the Bronze Age.
1977–97: 20 years of excavation’. She is the Director of the XIII Ephorate of
Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities in Volos and the director of the excavation
at the Mycenaean settlement of Dimini Iolkos. She has published extensively on
Mycenaean Thessaly.
Carla M. Antonaccio is Professor of Classical Studies, Duke University and Co-
Director of the Morgantina Project (Sicily). Author of An Archaeology of
Ancestors: Greek Tomb and Hero Cult in Early Greece (1995), ‘Contesting the
Past: Tomb Cult, Hero Cult, and Epic in Early Greece,’ ‘Lefkandi and Homer’,
‘Warriors, Traders, Ancestors: the “heroes” of Lefkandi’, she is working on two
books: Excavating Colonisation, and Morgantina Studies: The Archaic Settlement
on the Cittadella.
Pierre Carlier is a graduate of the École Normale Supérieure, ‘Docteur-ès-lettres’
and Professor of Greek History at the University of Paris-X Nanterre. His pub-
lications include La Royauté en Grèce avant Alexandre (1984), Démosthène (1990),
Le IVème siècle avant J.-C. (1995), Homère (1999) and many articles in journals
and conference proceedings on Mycenaean and archaic Greece.
J. N. Coldstream, Emeritus Professor of Classical Archaeology at University
College London, is a specialist in the record of the Early Iron Age in Greek lands.
His output includes, as excavator, co-author and editor, the publication of a
Minoan overseas outpost (Kythera, Excavation and Studies, 1973) and of
Classical and Hellenistic sanctuary (Knsossos, Sanctuary of Demeter, 1973). The
main focus of his research, however, has been concentrated on the Geometric
period (900–700 ), and expounded in Greek Geometric Pottery (1968) and
Geometric Greece (2nd edition, 2003). With H. W. Catling he edited Knossos
North Cemetery, Early Greek Tombs (1996).
Jan Paul Crielaard is lecturer in Mediterranean archaeology at the Amsterdam
Free University. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Amsterdam
    ix

(thesis: ‘The Euboeans Overseas: Long-distance Contacts and Colonisation as

Status Activities in Early Iron Age Greece’). Crielaard published extensively on
early Greek exchanges and colonisation. He is also the author of a number of
articles on Homeric archaeology.
Anna Lucia D’Agata is Senior Research Fellow of CNR/Istituto di studi sulle
civiltà dell’Egeo e del Vicino Oriente (Roma), and is co-director of the excava-
tions in the Dark Age, and later, site of Thronos/Kephala (ancient Sybrita) in
central-western Crete. She is author of many articles dealing with cult activity on
Crete in LM III, and of the volume Statuine minoiche e post-minoiche da Haghia
Triada (1999). Currently she is working on diverse projects, also including the
publication of a series of volumes on the results of the excavations carried out at
Thronos/Kephala.
Fanouria Dakoronia is at present Honorary Ephor of Antiquities of Lamia. She
was educated in Athens and has held research positions in Germany, Austria, the
UK and the US. In 1964 she was employed by the Greek Archaeological Service
and since 1977 she has been working at the Ephrorate of Lamia. During her office
she has located and excavated a number of new sites and has founded two archae-
ological Museums (at Lamia and at Atalante). She has published widely on the
archaeology of her region and beyond and she has organised a number of inter-
national conferences including the Periphery of the Mycenaean World in Lamia
1994.
Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy is Professor of Ancient History at the University of
Salzburg, specialising in Aegean Prehistory, Early Greek history and Mycenology.
She also is the director of the Mykenische Kommission at the Austrian Academy
of Sciences at Vienna. She is full member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences,
and corresponding member of the Academy of Athens and of the Academy of
Sciences at Göttingen. She was the Third Leventis Professor at the School of
History and Classics at the University of Edinburgh in 2003. Some of her publi-
cations are: Fremde Zuwanderer im Spätmykenischen Griechenland (1977), E-QE-
TA: Zur Rolle des Gefolgschaftswesens in der Sozialstruktur mykenischer Reiche
(1978), co-author of Die Siegel aus der Nekropole von Elatia-Alonaki (1996). She
has written around 100 articles in journals and conference proceedings on the
interpretation of Linear B texts and on the Mycenaean period and the Dark Ages
of Greece. Her current projects are: the study of the end of the Mycenaean civili-
sation; LH IIIC chronology and synchronisms. She is also publishing the
results of the excavations of the LH IIIC settlement at Aigeira/Achaia and with
F. Dakoronia the excavations at Elateia/central Greece.
Oliver Dickinson is Emeritus Reader in the Department of Classics and Ancient
History, University of Durham, UK. He is author of The Origins of Mycenaean
Civilisation (1977) and The Aegean Bronze Age (1994), and co-author (with R.
Hope Simpson) of A Gazetteer of Aegean Civilisation in the Bronze Age Vol. I: the
x   

mainland and islands (1979), and is currently completing a book on the transition
from Bronze Age to Iron Age in the Aegean.
Walter Donlan is Professor Emeritus of Classics at the University of California,
Irvine. His main research interests are on early Greek literature and Greek social
history. He has published: The Aristocratic Ideal and Selected Papers (1999), and
(jointly) A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society, and Culture (2004).
Birgitta Eder currently holds a research position at the Mykenische Kommission
of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Her main fields of research include the
Greek Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages as well as Homer, and she is currently
preparing a major work on the so-called western and northern peripheries of the
Mycenaean world. She has published Mycenaean and Early Iron Age materials
from the region of Elis and in particular from Olympia.
Maria Iacovou is Associate Professor of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology
at the University of Cyprus. She is the author of The Eleventh Century BC Pictorial
Pottery of Cyprus (1988). She co-edited (with D. Michaelides) Cyprus: The
Historicity of the Geometric Horizon (1999). Recently, she edited Archaeological
Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials (BSA Studies 11, 2004).
Vassos Karageorghis was educated in the UK (Ph.D. University of London,
1957). He served in the Department of Antiquities from 1952–1989 (Director of
the Department from 1963–1989). He excavated extensively in Cyprus. He was the
first Professor of Archaeology at the University of Cyprus (1992–1996) and
created its Archaeological Research Unit. Since 1990 he has been the director of
the Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation (Cyprus). He is the author of many books
and articles and has organised numerous conferences on Cypriote archaeology in
Cyprus and abroad. He has received many academic honours from various uni-
versities and academies.
Maria Kayafa studied Archaeology at the University of Birmingham where she
obtained her Ph.D. in 2000. Her thesis is entitled ‘Bronze Age Metallurgy in the
Peloponnese, Greece’ and deals with the consumption, technology and exchange
of metals. She has participated in a number of archaeological conferences and she
is currently working as a teacher in Athens.
J. T. Killen is Emeritus Professor of Mycenaean Greek and Fellow of Jesus
College, University of Cambridge; and Fellow of the British Academy. His pub-
lications include: (jointly) Corpus of Mycenaean Inscriptions from Knossos (4 vols
1986–98); (jointly) The Knossos Tablets: A Transliteration (third, fourth, and fifth
editions, 1964–89); articles in journals and conference proceedings on the inter-
pretation of Linear B texts and on Mycenaean economy.
Antonios Kotsonas completed his doctoral thesis on pottery from the Iron Age
cemetery of Eleutherna at the University of Edinburgh, under the supervision
    xi

of Dr Irene Lemos. He has published on the archaeology of Early Iron Age

Crete.
Irene S. Lemos is the Reader in Classical Archaeology and a Fellow of Merton
College, Oxford. She has published, The Protogeometric Aegean, the Archaeology
of the late eleventh and tenth centuries BC (2002). She is the director of the exca-
vations on Xeropolis at Lefkandi.
Joseph Maran is professor of Pre- and Protohistory at Heidelberg University,
from which he also received his Ph.D. He finished his habilitation at Bonn
University. His research focuses on Aegean Archaeology and on the prehistory of
the Balkans. Since 1994 he has been the director of the Tiryns excavation of the
German Archaeological Institute, and from 1998 to 2002 he co-directed an inter-
disciplinary project combining an intensive survey and geoarchaeological
research in the Basin of Phlious (Corinthia).
Alexander Mazarakis-Ainian is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the
University of Thessaly (Volos). His main field of specialisation is the archaeology
and architecture of Early Iron Age and archaic Greece on which he has published
widely in journals, and conferences. His monograph From Rulers’ Dwellings to
Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in Early Iron Age Greece (1100–700
B.C.) (1997) is considered the main study of early Greek architecture. He is
directing a number of archaeological surveys and excavations: Kythnos, Skala
Oropou, in northern Attica, and at Soros (ancient Amphanai), in Thessaly.
Michael Meier-Brügger is Professor in Indo-European Linguistics at Freie
Universität Berlin. He is the editor of the Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos
(Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, Universität Hamburg). His main interests are:
Greek linguistics; Greek vocabulary; Indo-European Linguistics of the Classical
triad Greek, Latin, Indoiranian; Anatolian languages of the first millennium 
of Asia Minor (specially Carian). Some of his publications are: Griechische
Sprachwissenschaft (1992); Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft, (first published
2000, 2nd edition 2002, English edition 2003).
Catherine Morgan is Professor in Classical Archaeology at King’s College
London. Her publications on the Greek Early Iron Age include Athletes and
Oracles (1990), Isthmia VIII (1999) and Early Greek States beyond the Polis
(2003). She also works in the Black Sea, and is currently co-directing the Stavros
Valley Project in northern Ithaca.
Thomas G. Palaima is Dickson Centennial Professor of Classics and Director of
the Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory. His research interests include
Mycenaean and Minoan society (especially ethnicity, kingship, religion,
economy, record-keeping and warfare); decipherment techniques and history of
scholarship relating to the Ventris decipherment; textual and sealing adminis-
tration (sphragistics); and the development and uses of Aegean writing. He
xii   

delivered the 2004 annual Leventis lecture: The Triple Invention of Writing in
Cyprus and Written Sources for Cypriote History (2005).
Alkestis Papadimitriou graduated from the History and Archaeology department
of the University of Athens; she was awarded her doctorate from the Albert
Ludwig University of Freiburg, Germany. She was research assistant to the late
Klaus Kilian in the German Archaeological Institute’s excavations of Tiryns. In
1991 she joined the Archaeological Service of the Greek Ministry of Culture, and
was appointed to the IV Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities in the
Agrolid. She is in charge of the archaeological sites of Tiryns, Argos and
Hermione. She was member of the Committee for the organisation of the new
archaeological museum at Mycenae and she was in charge of the proceedings
which led to inscribe Mycenae and Tiryns in the World Cultural Heritage List of
UNESCO. She is supervising the restoration program of the citadel of Tiryns
funded by the European Union. She is currently the elected Secretary of the
Union of Greek Archaeologists
Kurt A. Raaflaub is David Herlihy University Professor and Professor of Classics
and History as well as Director of the Program in Ancient Studies at Brown
University, Providence RI, USA. His main interests cover the social, political, and
intellectual history of archaic and classical Greece and the Roman republic, and
the comparative history of the ancient world. Recent (co-)authored or (co-)edited
books include Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens (1998);
War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds (1999); The Discovery of
Freedom in Ancient Greece (2004); Social Struggles in Archaic Rome (2nd edition
2005), and Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece (2006).
David Ridgway taught European and Mediterranean archaeology at Edinburgh
University from 1968 until his retirement in 2003. His books include Italy before
the Romans (1979), edited with Francesca R. Serra Ridgway; The First Western
Greeks (1992, and in Italian, Greek, French and Spanish editions); Pithekoussai
I (with Giorgio Buchner, 1993); The World of the Early Etruscans (2002). He was
Jerome Lecturer (Ann Arbor and Rome) in 1990–1991, Neubergh Lecturer
(Göteborg) in 2000, and is currently working as an Associate Fellow of the
Institute of Classical Studies, University of London.
Martin Schmidt has been a member of the staff of the Lexikon des frühgriechis-
chen Epos (LfgrE) in Hamburg, Germany since 1974. His publications include:
Die Erklärungen zum Weltbild Homers und zur Kultur der Heroenzeit in den bT-
Scholien zur Ilias (Zetemata 62) (1976), many contributions to LfgrE (among
them articles on basileus, demos, dike, Zeus, themis, laos, ieros, xeinos, Olympos,
polis) and other articles in journals and proceedings on Homerica and on ancient
scholarship.
Cynthia W. Shelmerdine is the Robert M. Armstrong Centennial Professor of
Classics at the University of Texas at Austin. Her main research interests are in
    xiii

Aegean Bronze Age archaeology, and Mycenaean Greek language, history and
society. She is currently ceramic expert for the Iklaina Archaeological Project, and
editor of the forthcoming Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Recent
articles include ‘Mycenaean Society’ in Y. Duhoux and A. Morpurgo Davies (eds),
Linear B: A Millennium Survey (forthcoming) and ‘The Southwestern Department
at Pylos,’ in J. Bennet and J. Driessen (eds), A-NO-QO-TA: Studies Presented to
J. T. Killen (Minos 33–34, 1998–1999, published 2002).
Nicholaos Chr. Stampolidis is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University
of Crete (Rethymnon) and Director of the Museum of Cycladic Art (Athens). He
has published The Altar of Dionysus on Cos (1981 and 1987), A New Fragment of
the Mausoleum (1987–1988) and The Sealings of Delos (1992). He is the director of
the excavations at Eleutherna (1985 onwards, related publication: Reprisals, 1996).
He has organised a number of conferences and exhibitions, as well as editing and
publishing catalogues: Eastern Mediterranean 16th–6th c. B.C. (1998, with V.
Karageorghis), The City beneath the City (2000, with L. Parlama), Cremation in the
BA and EIA in the Aegean (2001), Interconnections in the Mediterranean (2002),
Ploes, From Sidon to Huelva, Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th
c. B.C. (2003) and Magna Graecia: Athletics and the Olympic Spirit in the Periphery
of the Greek world (2004, with G. Tassoulas).
Edzard Visser is Professor of Classical Philology at the University of Basel. His
main research interests are: Homer (especially the technique of oral verse-
making), Athens in the fifth century and Plato’s philosophy. His Ph.D. thesis on
Homerische Versifikationstechnik was published in 1986; he has also published,
Homers Katalog der Schiffe (1997).
Beate Wagner-Hasel is Professor for Ancient History at the University of
Hannover and co-editor of the journal Historische Anthropologi. Her recent pub-
lications include Der Stoff der Gaben: Kultur und Politik des Schenkens und
Tauschens im archaischen Griechenland (2000); Streit um Troia: Eine wirtschaft-
santhropologische Sicht (in Historische Anthropologie 11/2, 2003); Le regard de
Karl Bücher sur l’économie antique et le débat sur théorie économique et histoire,
in H. Bruhns (ed.), L’histoire et l’économie politique en Allemagne autour de 1900
(2003). Work in progress: Social history of old age in antiquity; Karl Bücher and
ancient economy.
Saro Wallace received her Ph.D. in Classical Archaeology from Edinburgh
University in 2001. She has published articles on EIA economy and society in
Crete and is working on a monograph provisionally entitled Early Iron Age Crete
and the Aegean: A Sociocultural History, on new plans and studies of the Early
Iron Age site at Karfi, Crete, and on the preparation of a body of surface ceramic
material from Late Minoan IIIC–Archaic sites in Crete for publication in the next
several years. She has taught at Bristol and Cardiff and from 2006 she will be a
Lecturer in Archaeology at Reading University.
xiv   

Hans van Wees is Reader in Ancient History at University College London. He is

the author of Status Warriors: War, Violence, and Society in Homer and History
(1992); co- editor (with N. Fisher) of Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New
Evidence (1998); editor of War and Violence in Ancient Greece (2000); and author
of Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities (2004).
James Whitley is an archaeologist specialising in Early Iron Age and archaic
Greece, and is currently Director of the British School at Athens. Publications
include Style and Society in Dark Age Greece (1991) and The Archaeology of
Ancient Greece (2001), which won the Runciman prize for 2002. He has partici-
pated in fieldwork in Britain, Greece and Italy, and since 1992 he has been direct-
ing a survey in and around the site of Praisos in eastern Crete.
James C. Wright is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Classical and
Near Eastern Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College. His main research interests are
in the Pre- and Proto-historic Aegean and in Greek architecture and urbanism;
land-use and settlement; method and theory, GIS and cultural geography. He has
published widely on such subjects and edited and contributed to The Mycenaean
Feast (2004).
 ABBREVIATIONS

1. Contributed Works
Aegean and the Orient
Cline, E. H. and Harris-Cline, D. (eds) (1998), The Aegean and the Orient in the
Second Millennium BC: Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Symposium,
Cincinnati, 18–20 April 1997 (Aegaeum 18), Liège and Austin: Université de
Liège and University of Texas at Austin.
Ages of Homer
Carter, J. B. and Morris, S. P. (eds) (1995), The Ages of Homer: A Tribute to Emily
Townsend Vermeule, Austin: University of Texas Press.
A-NA-QO-TA
Bennet, J. and Driessen, J. (eds) (1998–99), A-NA-QO-TA: Studies Presented to
J. T. Killen (Minos 33–34), Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca.
Archaic Greece
Fisher, N. and van Wees, H. (eds) (1998), Archaic Greece: New Approaches and
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