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CRITICAL SECURITY STUDIES
IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH
SERIES EDITORS: PINAR BILGIN · MONICA HERZ

Border Crises and

Human Mobility in the
Mediterranean Global South
Challenges to Expanding Borders

Edited by
Stefania Panebianco
 Critical Security Studies in the Global South

Series Editors
Pinar Bilgin, Department of International Relations, Bilkent University,
Ankara, Turkey
Monica Herz, Institute of International Relations, PUC-Rio, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
Critical approaches to security have made significant inroads into the
study of world politics in the past 30 years. Drawing from a broad range
of critical approaches to world politics (including Frankfurt School Crit-
ical Theory, Poststructuralism, Gramscian approaches and Postcolonial
Studies), critical approaches to security have inspired students of inter-
national relations to think broadly and deeply about the security dynamic
in world politics, multiple aspects of insecurities and how insecurities are
produced as we seek to address them. This series, given its focus on the
study of security in and of the Global South, will bring to the debate new
spheres of empirical research both in terms of themes and social locations,
as well as develop new interconnection between security and other related
subfields.

More information about this series at

https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15576
 Stefania Panebianco
Editor

Border Crises
and Human Mobility
in the Mediterranean
Global South
Challenges to Expanding Borders
Editor
Stefania Panebianco
Department of Political and Social
Sciences
University of Catania
Catania, Italy

Critical Security Studies in the Global South

ISBN 978-3-030-90294-0 ISBN 978-3-030-90295-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90295-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Lia Lopes

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I extend my warmest thanks to the eight authors

who have contributed to this volume with their research, analyses, and
provoking thoughts. They have been deeply dedicated and committed to
this publication project over the last couple of years, writing, revising, and
finalising the lectures they have delivered at the EUMedEA Crash Course
‘Managing Crises at the EU (Med) Borders’ in the years 2016–2018.
Our volume is the final result of the research activities related to
the Jean Monnet Chair EUMedEA (EU MEDiterranean border crises
and European External Action), project number 565729-EPP-1-2015-
1-IT-EPPJMO-CHAIR, supported by the Erasmus+ programme of the
European Union. The content reflects the author’s views only and in no
way the European Commission can be held responsible for any use of the
information contained therein.
If the Jean Monnet Chair EUMedEA has conducted successful activ-
ities, the merit goes also to the dozens of colleagues, Ph.D. and Master
students who have attended. They have been inspiring with their active
participation in class activities, practitioners’ training seminars, and on-site
visits. At a time when we took for granted that we could share views and
ideas while having a drink.
The two series editors, Pinar Bilgin and Monika Herz, deserve a special
word, since they have put me through critical security studies and the
Global South, implicitly suggesting me that the Mediterranean represents
a crucial example of Global South deserving further investigation.

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My special thanks go to Iole, whose help was precious in the final stage
of the book editing.
My love goes to my family, for spending with me another working
summer.
Finally, the book is dedicated to all those who are embedded in crises
at the Mediterranean borders and cannot make a safe journey to Europe.

Trecastagni Stefania Panebianco

September 2021 Jean Monnet Chair
 Contents

1 Introduction: Conceptualizing the Mediterranean

Global South to Understand Border Crises
and Human Mobility Across Borders 1
Stefania Panebianco

Part I Critical Security Approaches to the Mediterranean

Global South
2 Mediterranean Security and the World Policies. The
Overlooked Link 21
Fulvio Attinà
3 Security in Crisis? The Cultural Production
of the 2015 ‘Mediterranean Immigrant Crisis’ 43
Pinar Bilgin

Part II Actors and Practices in Border Crises and

Migration
4 Power and Security in the Mediterranean Global
South and at the Eastern EU Borders: Russia in Syria
and Ukraine 67
Maria Raquel Freire

vii
viii CONTENTS

5 The EU and the Politics of Migration

in the Mediterranean: From Crisis Management
to Management in Crisis 91
Iole Fontana
6 The Changing Policies of International Institutions:
Human Mobility in the Mediterranean 119
Rosa Rossi

Part III Contemporary Insecurities Across the Borders

7 Climate Change Migration Enters the Agenda
of the Wider Mediterranean: The Long Way Towards
Global Governance 145
Stefania Panebianco
8 Syrians in Turkey: A Case for Human Security
and State Capacity 177
Kıvanç Ulusoy and Özgür Uzelakçil
9 Migration of Unaccompanied Children: Is the EU Up
to the Challenge? A Legal Perspective of the Southern
Mediterranean 203
Susana Sanz Caballero
10 Conclusion: Looking Ahead, Setting the Future
Agenda to Address Border Insecurities and Human
Mobility in the Mediterranean Global South 235
Stefania Panebianco

Index 249
 Notes on Contributors

Fulvio Attinà Emeritus Professor of Political Science at the Univer-

sity of Catania, is the author and editor of books of world politics,
Mediterranean, and European Union politics. The Global Political System,
Palgrave, 2011, has been published also in Italian, Spanish, and Russian
language. His most recent editorship is the book World Order Transition
and the Atlantic Area, Springer, 2021. He has served as the Chair of the
Italian Association of Political Science (SISP) and in the governing body
of the European Consortium for Political Research, and the International
Studies Association.
Pınar Bilgin is Professor of International Relations at Bilkent Univer-
sity, Ankara. She holds a Ph.D. in International Politics (2000) and M.Sc.
in Strategic Studies (1996) from Aberystwyth University. She specialises
in Critical Security Studies and is the author of Regional Security in
the Middle East: A Critical Perspective (2005; 2nd ed. 2019) and The
International in Security, Security in the International (2016) and co-
editor of Routledge Handbook of International Political Sociology (with
Xavier Guillaume, 2017) and Asia in International Relations: Unthinking
Imperial Power Relations (with L.H.M. Ling, 2017).
Susana Sanz Caballero is Chair Professor of Public International Law at
the University CEU Cardenal Herrera (Valencia) and Jean Monnet Chair
(obtained in 2004 and 2017). She is vice-president of the Association of
members of the International Institute of Human Rights and in 2019 she

ix
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

was listed as ad hoc judge of the European Court of Human Rights. She
worked for the European Parliament as a Robert Schuman grant recip-
ient and at the Registrar of the European Court of Human Rights. In
2016 she was appointed as the senior expert of the EU in the Commis-
sion’s sectorial dialogues on human rights in Brazil. She was selected as
NATO civil expert in 2014. She takes part in the training courses of the
Headquarters NATO Rapid Deployable Corps—Spain. Her main lines
of research cover European and International Human Rights Law, the
protection of family and of vulnerable groups, women rights, the powers
of the Secretary General of the United Nations, and international peace
operations.
Iole Fontana is Adjunct Professor of European Politics at the School
of International Studies of Trento University (2020–2021), and senior
Research Fellow at the Department of Political and Social Sciences of
the University of Catania, where she works for the H2020 project
PROTECT: ‘The Right to International Protection: a pendulum between
globalization and nativization?’ She is the author of EU Neighbourhood
Policy in the Maghreb (Routledge, 2017). Her research focuses on EU
politics and asylum and migration in the Mediterranean. Her articles have
appeared on Contemporary Italian Politics, South European Society and
Politics, International Politics, Third World Quarterly, and Global Affairs.
Maria Raquel Freire is Professor in International Relations at the Faculty
of Economics of the University of Coimbra, in Portugal, and researcher
at the Centre for Social Studies, at the same University. She is the coordi-
nator of the Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence PRONE at the University
of Coimbra. Her research interests include peace studies, foreign policy,
international security, EU, Russia, and the post-Soviet space.
Stefania Panebianco, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Political Science,
University of Catania and Holder of the Jean Monnet Chair EUMedEA.
Teaches Mediterranean Politics and Institutions of Global Trade at the
University of Catania; Migration Politics in the Mediterranean at LUISS-
Rome. Visiting at IBEI, University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, 2019.
Co-editor of Global Affairs. Published in Third World Quarterly, Inter-
national Politics, Geopolitics, Contemporary Italian Politics, Journal of
Ethnic and Migration Studies, The International Spectator. Authored
monographic books (Giuffré, EGEA, CASS) and edited books (Palgrave,
Rubbettino). Researcher of the H2020 research project PROTECT. Main
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

research interests: migration in the Mediterranean, EU foreign policies,

EU–MENA relations. In the last 10 years, she served for ECPR-SGIR,
EISA, SISP and is one of the EISA founding members.
Rosa Rossi is Assistant Professor at the Department of Political Sciences
and International Relations of the University of Palermo. She holds
a Ph.D. in International Relations. Her teaching experience includes
International Relations, International Security, Political Science, Public
Administration, and European Political System. She has taken part in a
number of multi-partner research projects on Peace Operations, Migra-
tion, and EU Foreign Policy. She has published on Migration, NGOs,
EU security policies, Western Balkans, and Mediterranean Countries.
Kıvanç Ulusoy is currently Professor of Political Science at Istanbul
University. He was previously a Fulbright Fellow at the Harvard
Kennedy School (2012–2013), a Jean Monnet Fellow at the Robert
Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies at the European University Insti-
tute in Florence (2003–2004), and a fellow at the Madrid Diplomatic
School (1996–1997). His areas of research include regime change and
democratisation, Turkish politics, and Turkey–EU relations. Dr. Ulusoy
has conducted studies at the Departments of Political Science and Inter-
national Relations in various universities such as the Middle East Technical
University, Bogazici University and Sabanci University in Turkey, Granada
University in Spain, Stockholm University in Sweden, and Tsukuba
University in Japan.
Özgür Uzelakcil graduated from Mersin University, Faculty of
Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Admin-
istration in 2003. He completed his master’s degree in 2007 with the
thesis titled “Postmodern Planning in Turkey” at the Institute of Social
Sciences of the Mersin University. In 2015, he started his Ph.D. program
at Istanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences. He completed his
doctorate in November 2020 with the thesis titled “Policies towards
Syrian Migrants in Turkey: State Capacity and Legitimacy Issue”. Dr.
Uzelakcil focuses on state theories, public administration, and migration.
Since 2011, he has been working as a Revenue Specialist at the Ministry
of Finance Adana Tax Office.
 List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 A comparison of arrivals to the EU across the three main

Mediterranean routes 102
Fig. 5.2 Number of sea arrivals and asylum application in Italy
and Greece (2014–2020) 104
Fig. 5.3 The effectivenness of the hotspot approach. Number
of people irregularly moving from Italy to other member
states (2013–2019) 108

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 5.1 Number of sea arrivals to the EU through

the Mediterranean (2010–2020) 97
Table 5.2 Comparing number of deaths in the Mediterranean
and in selected armed conflicts 97
Table 7.1 Largest disaster displacement events in Middle East,
North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa in 2020 159

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Conceptualizing
the Mediterranean Global South
to Understand Border Crises and Human
Mobility Across Borders

Stefania Panebianco

Introduction
This introductory chapter provides the reader with the lexicon used by
the contributors to this volume and anticipates most of the concepts used
and addressed in the chapters that follow. First of all, it contributes to the
International Relations (IR) debate on the definition of ‘Mediterranean’
by providing a new conceptualization drawn from the observation that
the Mediterranean is a critical junction between Global North and Global
South, it is an intertwined area at the borders of the European Union
(EU) where a variety of actors are engaged with transboundary crises.
Then, it addresses the issue of borders, border crises and border security.

S. Panebianco (B)
Department of Political and Social Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
S. Panebianco (ed.), Border Crises and Human Mobility in the Mediter-
ranean Global South, Critical Security Studies in the Global South,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90295-7_1
2 S. PANEBIANCO

Finally, it investigates crucial issues related to human mobility illustrating

that human security is at stake when crossing the borders, with migrants
blocked at sea or entrapped at the EU borders. The main assumption
that lays at the basis of this volume is that states’ security and migrants’
security are not necessarily contradictory and mutually exclusive; on the
contrary, as long as human security is provided, also state- security is guar-
anteed. Therefore, these authors struggle to assess the linkage between
Mediterranean borders’ security and human security.
During the 1990s, Mediterranean Politics scholars have focused
primarily on a multi-dimensional framework to conceptualize regional
security and explain the region-building processes going on in the
Mediterranean. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP), launched in
November 1995, when the EU member states (EUMS) and 12 Mediter-
ranean partner countries adopted the Barcelona Declaration, represented
an EU-led multi-dimensional cooperation framework aiming at creating
an area of peace and stability in the Mediterranean, an area of prosperity
based upon a Mediterranean free trade area, a democratic and multicul-
tural area. Within a decade the EU revised the EMP and created new
cooperation platforms in the Mediterranean. In 2004 the EU launched
the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), relying primarily upon the
bilateral cooperation between EU and Mediterranean and Eastern Neigh-
bours, and in 2008 it fostered intergovernmental cooperation within the
Union for the Mediterranean (UfM). The creation of the UfM marked
the passing from a comprehensive cooperation framework to a selective
neo-functionalist approach focusing on specific issues (Panebianco 2010).
The Routledge Handbook on Mediterranean Politics edited by Gillespie
and Volpi (2018) explored this variety of regional cooperation processes
to conceptualize the Mediterranean, and security in the Mediterranean,
via several theoretical lenses, including regionalism and international prac-
tices. We suggest to move further and identify a new analytical prism to
better understand Euro-Mediterranean relations.
Rethinking security, borders and human mobility helps to conceptu-
alize the Mediterranean Global South to explain where power resides,
looking at those actors that play crucial functions in the provision of
solutions to complex security issues, states and non-state actors such as
International Organizations (IOs), EU and EUMS, regional and global
powers. We suggest moving beyond cores of power to zoom instead on
actual roles and peripheries to explore diffusion of power and power shifts
within this complex area assumed as an intersection, a critical junction
 1 INTRODUCTION: CONCEPTUALIZING THE MEDITERRANEAN … 3

between Global North and Global South. The Mediterranean is an area

where things happen, where the EU flounders (Fontana), while the global
powers, the United States, China and Russia (Attinà and Freire in this
volume) face regional powers such as Turkey, Iran and Saudi Arabia.
Some International Relations’ (IR) scholars apply complexity theory to
address the problems of order transition (Charalampaki 2021; Rossi).
Ongoing conflicts and clashes, existing threats and human mobility crises
(Bilgin) indicate that the Mediterranean is a relevant area in this complex
picture. Coordination is required, even (more) in times of liberal inter-
nationalism, ‘[c]oordination counts in international relations especially
in times of turbulence, declining order, and weakening world policies’
(Attinà 2021: 33). Problems on the agenda of the world political system,
such as climate change (Panebianco), maritime security and energy supply,
require common action. This regional politics’ analysis provides substance
to ongoing debates on world politics drawing lessons from security and
human flows at the EU borders (Ulusoy and Uzelakçil, Sanz Caballero).

Conceptualizing the Mediterranean Global South

What does globalization tell us concerning the Mediterranean? How
has the global transformation (Buzan and Lawson 2013) involved the
Mediterranean? Where does the Mediterranean stand in debates on
regional (dis)order (Attinà 2021)? Which are the main features of the
Mediterranean Global South in the twenty-first century? Following the
end of the Cold War, the Global South concept entered the IR schol-
arly debate to reflect global transformations and change (Korany 1994;
Acharya 2014). Overcoming traditional cleavages such as the North–
South divide and the East–West cleavage, referring to Global South marks
a shift from a development or cultural focus to embrace more compre-
hensive geopolitical power relations. The term is now widely used in
the literature and several scholars apply it to regions outside Europe
and North America, in Latin America, Asia, Africa or Oceania, without
devoting though much attention to definitions. We seek, instead, to
(re)conceptualize the Global South adding a Mediterranean dimension,
replacing obsolete concepts such as third world or under-developed poor
South, focusing on transboundary issues such as migration or climate
change, alongside security and human security.
The definition of ‘Mediterranean’, ‘region’ and ‘security’ represent a
starting point to conceptualize the Mediterranean Global South. The
4 S. PANEBIANCO

concept ‘Mediterranean’ has been defined in overabundant literature;

history and geography as well as IR have a long tradition in the concep-
tualization of Mediterranean region/area/space, etc. IR scholars have
often dwelled in a dichotomy vision of the Mediterranean: peace vs war,
instability vs stability, conflict vs cooperation, prosperity vs poverty, unity
vs fragmentation. However, a dichotomy approach does not bring any
further in the understanding of the current Mediterranean scenario. Over
the years, images of bridges, or conversely of walls, have been adopted to
explain the contradictions of this area. Following a Braudelian approach,
scholars investigated the common features of the Mediterranean; with
Samuel Huntington, instead, the concept of wall emerged as the main
consequence of a ‘civilization clash’ (Huntington 1993). Assuming, on
the one hand, the Mediterranean as the ‘cradle of civilizations’ following
the Braudelian unitary vision that stems from a geographical explanation,
and, on the other, the Huntingtonian culturalist vision of the Mediter-
ranean as the product of a ‘clash of civilizations’ (Huntington 1993)
does not help the conceptualization of current Euro-Mediterranean rela-
tions. The search for unity in the Mediterranean that has characterized
regional analyses of Braudelian inspiration, seems inadequate to grasp the
complexity of the Mediterranean because the Mediterranean encompasses
also several sources of regional instability. The Mediterranean is a frag-
mented area, characterized by richness and variety. It is not a region of
peace, nor a region of conflict, it can be both. Thus, Federica Bicchi
(2018) suggests to overcome a dichotomy vision of the Mediterranean
because the Mediterranean lays ‘between unity and fault line’ in a sort of
grey area in-between, and ‘[t]he essence of the Mediterranean […] seems
to be this “in-between-ness” […]’ (Bicchi 2018: 337). Also Daniel Meier
(2020) focuses on ‘in-between’ border spaces in the Mediterranean,
specifically in the Levant.
There is no need to invest in the unicity of this area to explain the
main features of the Mare Nostrum. In the Mediterranean, as elsewhere,
new and old challenges to security require common policies and actions
(Attinà 2011). The Mediterranean can be assumed as a micro-cosmos of
what happens in world politics. The Mediterranean Global South expe-
riences regional, intra-EU and intra-neighbours’ tensions. Security and
insecurity play a crucial role in Mediterranean Politics research and the
regional impact of the Libyan or Syrian conflicts is one of the most promi-
nent issues in the research agenda. However, security challenges stem
from a wider Mediterranean region, with the Sahel and sub-Saharan Africa
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