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 Hindu Rulers,
Muslim Subjects

The illustrations listed in the Contents page cannot be included for

copyright reasons.
 The ‘Opus1’ Series

This series comprises outstanding first-time academic monographs in the

broad area of South Asian Studies. It is intended as a publishing forum for
the first important books of a younger generation of scholars in the disciplines
of History, Politics, Sociology, Literature, Cinema Studies, and related
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Consulting Editors
Muzaffar Alam • Chris Bayly • Rajeev Bhargava
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Books in the Series

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LANGUAGE POLITICS, ELITES, AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE

CHARU GUPTA
SEXUALITY, OBSCENITY, COMMUNITY

RAMINDER KAUR
PERFORMATIVE POLITICS AND THE CULTURES OF HINDUISM
 MRIDU RAI
HINDU RULERS, MUSLIM SUBJECTS

CHITRALEKHA ZUTSHI
LANGUAGES OF BELONGING

RAJIT K. MAZUMDER
THE INDIAN ARMY AND THE MAKING OF PUNJAB

PRATEEK CHAKRABARTI
WESTERN SCIENCE IN MODERN INDIA (forthcoming)
 Hindu Rulers,
Muslim Subjects
ISLAM, RIGHTS, AND
THE HISTORY OF KASHMIR

MRIDU RAI
Published by
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For My Parents
 Contents

Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
Introduction

1. Territorializing Sovereignty: The Dilemmas of

Control and Collaboration
i. GULAB SINGH: FROM RAJA TO MAHARAJA
ii. A TALE OF TWO TREATIES: SEPARATING JAMMU AND KASHMIR FROM
LAHORE
iii. THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF KASHMIR
iv. THE TREATY OF AMRITSAR AND VACATING POWER IN KASHMIR
v. KASHMIR AS TREASURY, KASHMIR AS WORKSHOP
vi. THE SEARCH FOR LEGITIMACY: GULAB SINGH AS RAJPUT RULER

2. The Consolidation of Dogra Legitimacy in Kashmir:

Hindu Rulers and a Hindu State
i. QUEEN VICTORIA’S PROCLAMATION AND RELIGIOUS FREEDOM IN JAMMU
AND KASHMIR
ii. THE IMPERIAL ASSEMBLAGE OF 1877 AND ‘RELIGIOUS’ PRINCES
iii. MAHARAJA GULAB SINGH AS A ‘HINDU’ RULER
iv. MAHARAJA RANBIR SINGH: THE MAKING OF A ‘HINDU STATE’

3. The Obligations of Rulers and the Rights of Subjects

i. FROM ‘BREAKWATERS IN THE STORM’ TO ‘NATURALIZED’ RULERS
 ii. THE COLONIAL STATE, THE BRITISH RESIDENT AND THE OBLIGATIONS OF
THE DOGRA RULERS
iii. REFORMING THE STATE OR PROTECTING PRIVILEGES?
iv. THE SUBJECTS OF THE STATE: SEPARATE AND UNEQUAL

4. Contested Sites: Religious Shrines and the

Archaeological Mapping of Kashmiri Muslim
Protest
i. THE COLONIAL POLITICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND CONSERVATION IN
BRITISH INDIA
ii. ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE SERVICE OF THE DOGRA-HINDU STATE
iii. ARCHAEOLOGY, KASHMIRI MUSLIM PROTEST AND THE RECLAIMING OF
RELIGIOUS SHRINES

5. Political Mobilization in Kashmir: Religious and

Regional Identities
i. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS: RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND
POLITICAL MOBILIZATION
ii. ‘KASHMIR FOR KASHMIRIS’: THE KASHMIRI PANDITS AND REGIONAL
IDENTITY
iii. REPRESENTING KASHMIRI MUSLIM INTERESTS: REGIONAL OR RELIGIOUS
IDENTITY?
iv. OF LIONS, GOATS, AHMEDIYAS AND AHRARS: INTRA-MUSLIM RIVALRY IN
KASHMIR
v. CONSTRUCTING KASHMIRIYAT: RELIGION AND RIGHTS

Conclusion
Glossary
Bibliography

ILLUSTRATIONS
 1. ‘View of the City and Jummu Musjedd (in Srinuggur)’ by J. Needham,
after drawings by Mrs H. Clark, 1858, P2441.
2. Maharaja Gulab Singh, Add.Or.707.
3. Maharaja Ranbir Singh, Add.Or.3003.
4. ‘Hindu Festival, Cashmere’, P1363.
5. ‘Priest and Worshippers at the Shiva Temple, Srinagar’, a Kashmiri
Artist, c. 1850–60, Add.Or.1745.
6. ‘Preacher and Worshippers at the Wooden Mosque of Shah Hamdan,
Srinagar’, a Kashmiri Artist, c. 1850–60, Add.Or. 1744.
7. ‘Muslim Procession “To Ward Off Sudden Misfortune” ’, a Kashmiri
Artist, c. 1850–60, Add.Or. 1664.
 Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude for the assistance I have received from
various people and institutions in researching and writing this book.
Since this work has grown out of a dissertation I wrote at Columbia
University, I am grateful first of all to my supervisor there, Professor Ayesha
Jalal. I thank her for her unflagging encouragement and inspiration. She
taught me the importance of speaking from a position of intellectual
honesty, particularly on a subject of sensitivity such as this book addresses. I
hope it does some justice to that lesson. I am grateful also to Professor
Sugata Bose, who has been unstintingly supportive of the project from its
earliest hiccups as a rough grant proposal to its present form. My gratitude is
owed also to Professors David Armitage, David Cannadine and Leonard
Gordon, each of whom I had the privilege of working with and learning
from at Columbia University.
My heartfelt thanks to Professor Barbara N. Ramusack who made it
possible for me to start on this endeavour in the first place: she shared with
me, a treasure trove of her own notes on Kashmir from the India Office
Library while I was still only writing a seminar paper in my first year of the
graduate programme.
The research for the book was conducted, in large part, in Jammu and
Kashmir, and in years when life was, to put it as euphemistically as a friend
once did, 'uneasy'. Therefore I cannot emphasize enough that my work
would have been simply impossible without the help of friends in the field.
My thanks, first of all, to Parvez Dewan, who literally opened up the Jammu
and Kashmir Archives for me, consented to holding interminably probing
conversations—educated beyond any enquirer's dreams—and provided the
hospitality of his home. I thank him for all this and above all for his
friendship. In Jammu, I would like to thank Shri Kirpal Singh, a friend and a
prince among archivists.
For making possible my first research trip to Srinagar in 1995, I owe my
thanks to Mrs. Farida Khan who introduced me to her mother and brother:
Mrs. Mohammed Abdulla and Afzal Abdulla. My gratitude to them not only
for the comforts of their beautiful home and for the luxury of coming back
to stimulating conversation, but also for divine kahwa and delectable
Kashmiri food. I am equally indebted to Shujaat Bukhari and to Khursheed-
ul-Islam for their friendship, good humour, contacts and safe trips across
town.
Writing this book has made me more keenly aware of the many
friendships, both within and outside the academy, that I have relied on so
heavily over the last few years. My heartfelt thanks to Nausheen Anwar,
Vijay Dhawan, Suzanne Globetti, Marc Hetherington, Heige Kim, Fred Lee,
Nomi Levy, Lara Merlin, Farina Mir, Sanjay Muttoo, Kirsten Olsen, Patrick
Rael, Nerina Rustomji, Aradhana Sharma and Tasneem Suhrawardy. I am
truly grateful to them for the many neces-sary moments of hilarity, for
lending me their ears as I 'kvetched', and for the funds of inspiration I
derived from each of them.
I also thank most sincerely Mahesh Rangarajan not only for volunteering
to read a draft of this book but also for offering his many perspicacious and
invaluable comments. Many thanks, of course, to Rukun Advani at
Permanent Black for trusting in this book and also for the painstaking
editing that makes it easier on the eye than it might otherwise be.
I wish to record my gratitude for the help I received from the staff of the
following institutions: the National Archives of India, New Delhi; the Nehru
Memorial Museum and Library; the Jammu and Kashmir State Archives; the
India Office Library and Records. I am indebted to the British Library for
permission to reproduce the images that appear in this book.
I thank Columbia University for giving me a Travelling Fellowship for
1994-5 and the Taraknath Das Foundation for providing me with funding
with which to finish up writing. I also thank the Freeman Foundation at
Bowdoin College for giving me a Summer Fellowship that allowed me to
return to Kashmir and Delhi in 2000.
However, none of this would have been possible without the support of
my family. My love and thanks to my parents, Rajendra and Rani Rai, and
my brother, Animesh, for their encouragement, under-standing, indulgences
and confidence in me.
 Abbreviations

BL British Library, London

CRR Crown Representative’s Records, Political Department

IOL India Office Library and Records, London

JKA Jammu and Kashmir State Archives

NAI National Archives of India, New Delhi

OER Old English Records

 Introduction
Who has not heard of the Vale of Cashmere;
With its roses the brightest that earth ever gave,
Its temples and grottos and fountains as clear
As the love lighted eyes that hang over their wave?
Oh! to see it at sunset,—when warm o'er the Lake,
Its splendour at parting a summer eve throws,
Like a bride full of blushes when lingering to take
A last look of her mirror at night ere she goes!1
—Thomas Moore, 'Lalla Rookh'

T hehistory
idyllic setting of this poem has not been matched by a felicitous
for its inhabitants. One of the most enduring dilemmas for
Kashmiris has been that while 'outsiders' have their breath taken by the
splendour of the landscape, they evince little interest in its people. Thomas
Moore had never actually set eyes on either Kashmir or Kashmiris, but he
was quite right: the fame of the beautiful valley had spread well beyond its
mountain walls, evoked in countless travelogues and histories, and in the
memoirs of vacationing Europeans. His unobserved account slid easily into
becoming a banal stock-in-trade; a convenient substitute for thinking
assessment—based on actual observation—characteristic of many accounts
of Kashmir produced by non-Kashmiris. As a result, despite all the
admiration expressed for the natural beauty of Kashmir, Kashmiris
themselves seemed invariably to be wanting in their appraisement. Henry
Lawrence, agent to the governor-general in Punjab, visiting Kashmir in
1846, found it easy to see much merit in the French traveller Victor
Jacquemont's description of it as 'an ugly picture in a magnificent frame'.2 A
sense of paradise lost and bestowed on the wrong people became prevalent
in European writing. Most travel accounts opening with the panoramic
perspective eventually zoomed in on the details; the houses, the culture, the
society, in short on what the inhabitants had made of their surroundings.
Here, and almost invariably, Kashmir and the Kashmiris seemed absurdly
mismatched. The latter were described as lying, 'despicable creature[s]',3
prone to 'a whining and cringing manner',4 who had generally made a mess
of the paradise they had been blessed with. This, in turn, provided the
justification for turning the gaze away from Kashmiris and focusing once
more on the landscape of Kashmir, which was God-given and majestic, and
for which its people needed to be given no credit.
European travellers were in this respect continuing an older tradition,
prevalent since Mughal times, of effacing Kashmiris from depictions of
Kashmir. In Mughal mythic geography, the realm of culture belonged to the
city, while Kashmir could at best hope to graduate, through their
intervention, from a wilderness to the nurtured and controlled garden.
Kashmir was 'raw' nature to be 'cooked' suitably for more discriminating
Mughlai palates. Therefore, in Mughal miniatures, Kashmir put in an
appearance either in the form of manicured gardens or of scenery glimpsed
incidentally through a window in what was otherwise predominantly the
architecture of the Mughal city. Kashmiris were barely deemed worth the
waste of paint.5 What is clear from these portrayals is that it has been easier
to depict or speak about Kashmir than Kashmiris.
The treatment of Kashmir as a landscape without people and the converse
move by Kashmiris to reinsert themselves into their 'magnificent frame' lie
at the heart of this book. At issue is the legitimacy of a political enterprise,
begun by the British in 1846, that placed an 'alien' Dogra Hindu ruling
house over Kashmir without consideration for the wishes or interests of the
vast majority of its people. Of course, the pre-colonial Mughal, Afghan, and
Sikh rulers of Kashmir were no more interested in consulting Kashmiris to
determine the latter's acquiescence or otherwise in their own rule. However,
the Dogra period ushered in a critical break—in terms of a vital change in
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