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 Abstract Algebra Applications to Galois Theory Algebraic
Geometry Representation Theory and Cryptography Second
Edition Celine Carstensen-Opitz

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Celine Carstensen-Opitz, Benjamin Fine, Anja Moldenhauer, and
Gerhard Rosenberger
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Celine Carstensen-Opitz, Benjamin Fine,
Anja Moldenhauer, and Gerhard Rosenberger

Abstract Algebra

|
Applications to Galois Theory, Algebraic Geometry,
Representation Theory and Cryptography
Mathematics Subject Classification 2010
Primary: 11-01, 12-01, 13-01, 14-01, 16-01, 20-01, 20C15; Secondary: 01-01, 08-01, 94-01

Authors
Celine Carstensen-Opitz Dr. Anja Moldenhauer
Dortmund Hamburg
Germany Germany
[email protected] [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Benjamin Fine Prof Dr. Gerhard Rosenberger

Fairfield University University of Hamburg
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
1073 North Benson Road Bundesstr. 55, 20146 Hamburg
Fairfield, CT 06430 Germany
USA [email protected]
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-060393-4
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-060399-6
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-060525-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019938926

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: Stephen Barnes / iStock / Getty Images
Typesetting: VTeX UAB, Lithuania
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface
Traditionally, mathematics has been separated into three main areas: algebra, anal-
ysis, and geometry. Of course, there is a great deal of overlap between these areas.
For example, topology, which is geometric in nature, owes its origins and problems
as much to analysis as to geometry. Furthermore, the basic techniques in studying
topology are predominantly algebraic. In general, algebraic methods and symbolism
pervade all of mathematics, and it is essential for anyone learning any advanced math-
ematics to be familiar with the concepts and methods in abstract algebra.
This is an introductory text on abstract algebra. It grew out of courses given to
advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students in the United States, and
to mathematics students and teachers in Germany. We assume that the students are
familiar with calculus and with some linear algebra, primarily matrix algebra and the
basic concepts of vector spaces, bases, and dimensions. All other necessary material
is introduced and explained in the book. We assume, however, that the students have
some, but not a great deal, of mathematical sophistication. Our experience is that the
material in this text can be completed in a full years course. We presented the material
sequentially, so that polynomials and field extensions preceded an in-depth look at
group theory. We feel that a student who goes through the material in these notes
will attain a solid background in abstract algebra, and be able to move on to more
advanced topics.
The centerpiece of these notes is the development of Galois theory and its impor-
tant applications, especially the insolvability of the quintic polynomial. After intro-
ducing the basic algebraic structures, groups, rings, and fields, we begin the theory
of polynomials and polynomial equations over fields. We then develop the main ideas
of field extensions and adjoining elements to fields. After this, we present the nec-
essary material from group theory needed to complete both the insolvability of the
quintic polynomial and solvability by radicals in general. Hence, the middle part of
the book, Chapters 9 through 14, are concerned with group theory, including permu-
tation groups, solvable groups, abelian groups, and group actions. Chapter 14 is some-
what off to the side of the main theme of the book. Here, we give a brief introduction
to free groups, group presentations and combinatorial group theory. With the group
theory material, we return to Galois theory and study general normal and separable
extensions and the fundamental theorem of Galois theory. Using this approach, we
present several major applications of the theory, including solvability by radicals and
the insolvability of the quintic, the fundamental theorem of algebra, the construction
of regular n-gons and the famous impossibilities; squaring the circling, doubling the
cube, and trisecting an angle. We finish in a slightly different direction, giving an in-
troduction to algebraic and group-based cryptography.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110603996-201
VI | Preface

October 2010 Celine Carstensen

Benjamin Fine
Gerhard Rosenberger
Preface to the second edition
We were very pleased with the response to the first edition of this book, and we were
very happy to do a second edition. In this second edition, we cleaned up various ty-
pos pointed out by readers, and have added some new material suggested by them.
Here, we have to give a special thank you to Ahmad Mirzay. Mentioning important
results is warranted: We added a new chapter, Chapter 22, on algebras and group rep-
resentations. This can be included in a year-long course. In Chapter 7, we added some
material on skew field extensions of ℂ and Frobenius’s theorem, and, in Chapter 17, on
solvability of polynomial equations. In the bibliography we choose to mention some
interesting books and papers which are not used explicitely in our exposition but are
very much related to the topics of the present book and could be helpful for addi-
tional readings. As before, we would like to thank the many people who read or used
the first edition and made suggestions. We would also especially like to thank Anja
Rosenberger, who helped tremendously with editing and LATEX, and made some in-
valuable suggestions about contents. Also we would like to thank Annika Schürenberg
and Leonard Wienke for the careful reading of the new edition.
Last but not least, we thank de Gruyter for publishing our book.

January 2019 Celine Carstensen-Opitz

Benjamin Fine
Anja Moldenhauer
Gerhard Rosenberger

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110603996-202
Contents
Preface | V

Preface to the second edition | VII

1 Groups, rings and fields | 1

1.1 Abstract algebra | 1
1.2 Rings | 2
1.3 Integral domains and fields | 3
1.4 Subrings and ideals | 6
1.5 Factor rings and ring homomorphisms | 9
1.6 Fields of fractions | 13
1.7 Characteristic and prime rings | 14
1.8 Groups | 16
1.9 Exercises | 19

2 Maximal and prime ideals | 21

2.1 Maximal and prime ideals | 21
2.2 Prime ideals and integral domains | 22
2.3 Maximal ideals and fields | 24
2.4 The existence of maximal ideals | 25
2.5 Principal ideals and principal ideal domains | 26
2.6 Exercises | 28

3 Prime elements and unique factorization domains | 29

3.1 The fundamental theorem of arithmetic | 29
3.2 Prime elements, units and irreducibles | 34
3.3 Unique factorization domains | 38
3.4 Principal ideal domains and unique factorization | 41
3.5 Euclidean domains | 44
3.6 Overview of integral domains | 50
3.7 Exercises | 50

4 Polynomials and polynomial rings | 53

4.1 Polynomials and polynomial rings | 53
4.2 Polynomial rings over fields | 55
4.3 Polynomial rings over integral domains | 57
4.4 Polynomial rings over unique factorization domains | 59
4.5 Exercises | 65
X | Contents

5 Field extensions | 67
5.1 Extension fields and finite extensions | 67
5.2 Finite and algebraic extensions | 70
5.3 Minimal polynomials and simple extensions | 71
5.4 Algebraic closures | 74
5.5 Algebraic and transcendental numbers | 75
5.6 Exercises | 78

6 Field extensions and compass and straightedge constructions | 81

6.1 Geometric constructions | 81
6.2 Constructible numbers and field extensions | 81
6.3 Four classical construction problems | 84
6.3.1 Squaring the circle | 84
6.3.2 The doubling of the cube | 84
6.3.3 The trisection of an angle | 84
6.3.4 Construction of a regular n-gon | 85
6.4 Exercises | 89

7 Kronecker’s theorem and algebraic closures | 93

7.1 Kronecker’s theorem | 93
7.2 Algebraic closures and algebraically closed fields | 96
7.3 The fundamental theorem of algebra | 101
7.3.1 Splitting fields | 101
7.3.2 Permutations and symmetric polynomials | 102
7.4 The fundamental theorem of algebra | 106
7.5 The fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials | 109
7.6 Skew field extensions of ℂ and Frobenius’s theorem | 112
7.7 Exercises | 116

8 Splitting fields and normal extensions | 119

8.1 Splitting fields | 119
8.2 Normal extensions | 121
8.3 Exercises | 124

9 Groups, subgroups, and examples | 125

9.1 Groups, subgroups, and isomorphisms | 125
9.2 Examples of groups | 127
9.3 Permutation groups | 130
9.4 Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem | 133
9.5 Generators and cyclic groups | 138
9.6 Exercises | 144
 Contents | XI

10 Normal subgroups, factor groups, and direct products | 147

10.1 Normal subgroups and factor groups | 147
10.2 The group isomorphism theorems | 151
10.3 Direct products of groups | 155
10.4 Finite Abelian groups | 157
10.5 Some properties of finite groups | 161
10.6 Automorphisms of a group | 165
10.7 Exercises | 167

11 Symmetric and alternating groups | 169

11.1 Symmetric groups and cycle decomposition | 169
11.2 Parity and the alternating groups | 172
11.3 Conjugation in Sn | 174
11.4 The simplicity of An | 175
11.5 Exercises | 178

12 Solvable groups | 179

12.1 Solvability and solvable groups | 179
12.2 Solvable groups | 179
12.3 The derived series | 183
12.4 Composition series and the Jordan–Hölder theorem | 185
12.5 Exercises | 186

13 Groups actions and the Sylow theorems | 189

13.1 Group actions | 189
13.2 Conjugacy classes and the class equation | 190
13.3 The Sylow theorems | 192
13.4 Some applications of the Sylow theorems | 196
13.5 Exercises | 200

14 Free groups and group presentations | 201

14.1 Group presentations and combinatorial group theory | 201
14.2 Free groups | 202
14.3 Group presentations | 207
14.3.1 The modular group | 209
14.4 Presentations of subgroups | 215
14.5 Geometric interpretation | 218
14.6 Presentations of factor groups | 221
14.7 Group presentations and decision problems | 222
14.8 Group amalgams: free products and direct products | 223
14.9 Exercises | 225
XII | Contents

15 Finite Galois extensions | 227

15.1 Galois theory and the solvability of polynomial equations | 227
15.2 Automorphism groups of field extensions | 228
15.3 Finite Galois extensions | 230
15.4 The fundamental theorem of Galois theory | 231
15.5 Exercises | 240

16 Separable field extensions | 243

16.1 Separability of fields and polynomials | 243
16.2 Perfect fields | 244
16.3 Finite fields | 246
16.4 Separable extensions | 247
16.5 Separability and Galois extensions | 250
16.6 The primitive element theorem | 254
16.7 Exercises | 256

17 Applications of Galois theory | 257

17.1 Applications of Galois theory | 257
17.2 Field extensions by radicals | 257
17.3 Cyclotomic extensions | 261
17.4 Solvability and Galois extensions | 262
17.5 The insolvability of the quintic polynomial | 263
17.6 Constructibility of regular n-gons | 269
17.7 The fundamental theorem of algebra | 271
17.8 Exercises | 273

18 The theory of modules | 275

18.1 Modules over rings | 275
18.2 Annihilators and torsion | 279
18.3 Direct products and direct sums of modules | 280
18.4 Free modules | 282
18.5 Modules over principal ideal domains | 285
18.6 The fundamental theorem for finitely generated modules | 288
18.7 Exercises | 292

19 Finitely generated Abelian groups | 293

19.1 Finite Abelian groups | 293
19.2 The fundamental theorem: p-primary components | 294
19.3 The fundamental theorem: elementary divisors | 295
19.4 Exercises | 301

20 Integral and transcendental extensions | 303

 Contents | XIII

20.1 The ring of algebraic integers | 303

20.2 Integral ring extensions | 305
20.3 Transcendental field extensions | 310
20.4 The transcendence of e and π | 315
20.5 Exercises | 318

21 The Hilbert basis theorem and the nullstellensatz | 319

21.1 Algebraic geometry | 319
21.2 Algebraic varieties and radicals | 319
21.3 The Hilbert basis theorem | 321
21.4 The Hilbert nullstellensatz | 322
21.5 Applications and consequences of Hilbert’s theorems | 323
21.6 Dimensions | 326
21.7 Exercises | 330

22 Algebras and group representations | 333

22.1 Group representations | 333
22.2 Representations and modules | 334
22.3 Semisimple algebras and Wedderburn’s theorem | 342
22.4 Ordinary representations, characters and character theory | 351
22.5 Burnside’s theorem | 358
22.6 Exercises | 362

23 Algebraic cryptography | 365

23.1 Basic cryptography | 365
23.2 Encryption and number theory | 370
23.3 Public key cryptography | 375
23.3.1 The Diffie–Hellman protocol | 376
23.3.2 The RSA algorithm | 377
23.3.3 The El-Gamal protocol | 379
23.3.4 Elliptic curves and elliptic curve methods | 381
23.4 Noncommutative-group-based cryptography | 382
23.4.1 Free group cryptosystems | 384
23.5 Ko–Lee and Anshel–Anshel–Goldfeld methods | 389
23.5.1 The Ko–Lee protocol | 389
23.5.2 The Anshel–Anshel–Goldfeld protocol | 390
23.6 Platform groups and braid group cryptography | 391
23.7 Exercises | 395

Bibliography | 399

Index | 403
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