Unit-2

History of Forensic Science

Forensic Biology

Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943)

●​ Discovered human blood groups (A, B, AB, O) in 1901.

●​ Laid the foundation for forensic serology (blood typing as an identification tool).

Leone Lattes (1887–1954)

●​ Developed method (1915) to determine blood group of dried bloodstains.

●​ Enhanced forensic blood analysis in crime investigations.

Albrecht H. O. (1928)

●​ Developed Luminol, a chemical that reveals trace bloodstains by

chemiluminescence.
●​ Became a vital tool for crime scene investigation.

Kary B. Mullis (1944–2019)

●​ Invented Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) in 1983.

●​ Allowed amplification of minute or degraded DNA samples, revolutionizing
DNA-based forensics.

Alec Jeffreys (1950–present)

●​ Developed DNA Fingerprinting in 1984.

●​ Enabled individual identification from DNA variations.
●​ Widely used in criminal cases, paternity testing, and immigration disputes.

Forensic chemistry and toxicology

Early Use of Poisons

●​ Common historical poisons: arsenic, nightshade, hemlock, strychnine, curare.

●​ Until early 19th century, detection methods were unreliable → poisoners often
escaped punishment.

19th Century Milestones:

James Marsh (1836)

●​ Invented the Marsh test for arsenic detection.

●​ First used successfully in a murder trial.
●​ Major foundation of forensic toxicology.
Mathieu Orfila (1787–1853) – “Father of Toxicology”

●​ Advanced forensic toxicology as a field.

●​ Applied microscopy for detection of blood and semen.
●​ Classified chemicals into corrosives, narcotics, astringents, etc.

Jean Stas (1850)

●​ Developed first valid method to detect vegetable alkaloids in tissues.

●​ Successfully convicted Count de Bocarmé for nicotine poisoning.
●​ Expanded protocol to test for caffeine, quinine, morphine, strychnine, atropine,
opium.

Instrumentation Foundations

●​ Joseph von Fraunhofer (early 19th c.) – invented spectroscope.

●​ Robert Bunsen & Gustav Kirchhoff (1859) – applied spectroscopy to identify
substances by unique light spectra.
●​ Mikhail Tsvet (1906) – invented paper chromatography (precursor to TLC), enabling
separation of mixtures.

20th Century Advancements

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

●​ 1930s: early IR spectrometers measured narrow wavelength bands.

●​ Peter Fellgett (1949) – introduced interferometer + Fourier transform (FTIR) → full IR
spectrum analysis.
●​ Advantages: nondestructive, rapid, highly accurate.

Atomic Absorption (AA) Spectroscopy (1955, Alan Walsh)

●​ Detects elements and their concentrations (e.g., arsenic, cadmium).

●​ Important for toxic metal detection.
●​ Chromatography Innovations

Gas Chromatography (GC) – 1953, Anthony James & Archer Martin.

●​ High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) – 1970, Csaba Horváth.

●​ Detects substances in concentrations as low as parts per trillion.

Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

●​ Invented 1955 by Fred McLafferty & Roland Gohlke.

●​ Combines GC separation + MS identification.
●​ Considered the “gold standard” in forensic chemistry.
●​ Extremely sensitive, versatile, and quantitative.
●​ Can trace chemicals to specific manufacturer batches via impurities.

Modern Forensic Chemistry

 ●​ Uses a wide range of spectroscopy, chromatography, and mass spectrometry
techniques.
●​ Enables trace detection of poisons, drugs, explosives, and other unknown materials.
●​ Applications in: crime investigation, drug enforcement, environmental forensics,
counterterrorism.

Forensic anthropology

Origins in Physical Anthropology

●​ Early 20th century – Anthropology in the U.S. emerged as a discipline but struggled
for scientific legitimacy.

Earnest Hooton (1887–1954)

●​ Pioneer of physical anthropology; first full-time teaching position in the U.S.

●​ Committee member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists
(founded by Aleš Hrdlička).
●​ Advocated criminal anthropology (linked physical traits to behavior; later discredited
as pseudoscience).
●​ Helped shape study of skeletal variation → development of anthropometry and
Bertillon method.

Early Contributions

Thomas Wingate Todd (1885–1938)

●​ Established the first large skeletal collection (1912):

●​ 3,300 human skeletons, 600 anthropoid skeletons, 3,000 mammalian skeletons.

Developed methods still influential today:

●​ Suture closure studies (skull).

●​ Teeth eruption timing (mandible).
●​ Age estimation from pubic symphysis (basis for modern standards).
●​ Contributions helped establish physical anthropology as a foundation for forensic
application.

Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914)

●​ Known as the “Father of Criminal Identification And anthropometry”.

●​ Introduced Anthropometry (1879) – a system of body measurements to distinguish
individuals.
●​ First scientific approach to personal identification.

Emergence of Forensic Anthropology

Wilton M. Krogman (1903–1987) – student of Todd.

 ●​ 1940s: First to publicize forensic use of anthropologists.
●​ Published ads in FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin offering expertise in skeletal
identification.
●​ First official FBI collaborations with anthropologists.

1950s (Korean War)

●​ U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps employed forensic anthropologists to identify war

casualties.
●​ Large influx of known-identity skeletons enabled development of accurate formulas
for:

​ •Sex determination

​ •Age estimation

​ •Stature estimation

●​ These formulas, refined in wartime, are still used today.

Professionalization & Growth

1950s–1960s – Field gained legitimacy:

●​ Shift from coroners to medical examiners improved scientific rigor.

●​ Forensic anthropology recognized as a separate discipline within the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS).
●​ William M. Bass established the first Forensic Anthropology Research Facility (“Body
Farm”), aiding decomposition studies.
●​ High-profile cases increased public attention:

Example: Charles Merbs assisted in identifying victims of murderer Ed Gein.

Fingerprints

Antiquity and Medieval Period

●​ Babylon (c. 200 BC): Fingerprints used to sign contracts.

●​ Hammurabi’s reign (1792–1750 BC): Records suggest officials took fingerprints of
arrested persons.
●​ China (Qin dynasty, ~200 BC): Officials recorded handprints, footprints, and
fingerprints as evidence.
●​ Ancient artifacts: Fingerprints found on clay tablets, seals, pottery, tomb walls (Egypt,
Greece, Minoan, China).
●​ 851 CE: Arab merchant Abu Zayd Hasan observed Chinese merchants using
fingerprints to authenticate loans.
●​ 650 CE: Historian Kia Kung-Yen remarked fingerprints could be used for
authentication.
 ●​ 1247–1318 (Rashid-al-Din Hamadani): Iranian physician noted uniqueness of
fingerprints: “no two individuals have fingers exactly alike.”

Europe in the 17th–18th Century

●​ Marcello Malpighi (1686): Identified ridges, spirals, loops in fingerprints.

●​ Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer (1788): First to state that fingerprints are unique to
each individual

19th Century Advances

●​ Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1823): Classified nine fingerprint patterns (e.g., tented
arch, loop, whorl).
●​ Robert Blake Overton (1840): Suggested Scotland Yard check for fingerprints in
murder case of Lord William Russell.
●​ Georg von Meissner (1853): Studied friction ridges.

Sir William James Herschel (1858–1877, India):

●​ Introduced fingerprinting for contracts & pensions to prevent fraud.

●​ One of the earliest officials to apply fingerprints systematically.

Henry Faulds (1880):

●​ Published first paper on forensic use of fingerprints.

●​ Proposed ink method for recording fingerprints.
●​ Suggested uniqueness of fingerprints for identification.

Francis Galton (1892):

●​ Published Finger Prints – statistical model proving uniqueness.

●​ Calculated probability of false match ≈ 1 in 64 billion.

Juan Vucetich (1892, Argentina):

●​ Developed first systematic fingerprint filing method.

●​ Solved Francisca Rojas case – first murder solved using fingerprints.

1897 (India): First Fingerprint Bureau established (Calcutta).

●​ Developed classification system (Azizul Haque & Hem Chandra Bose, under E.R.
Henry → Henry System).

20th Century Developments

●​ Paul-Jean Coulier (1901): Developed iodine fuming method for latent fingerprints.
●​ 1901: Scotland Yard adopted fingerprint identification (replacing Bertillon system).
●​ 1902 (Scheffer Case): First conviction using fingerprint evidence in court (France).
●​ 1910: Edmond Locard established first forensic lab in France; emphasized fingerprint
evidence.
 ●​ 1928 (USA): Routine fingerprinting of clerical employees by LAPD.
●​ 1930s onwards: Fingerprints became standard in global law enforcement.

Modern Era

●​ FBI (USA): Developed IAFIS (Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification

System) – holds 51M+ criminal and 1.5M+ civil fingerprint records.
●​ OBIM / IDENT (2004): Largest U.S. biometric repository (260M+ identities),
transitioned to ten-print system (2005–2009).
●​ Glove prints: Even gloves can leave unique patterns traceable to specific gloves.
Wearing gloves during crimes can itself be an offense.

Questioned Document Examination

Early Development and Pioneers

18th Century:​
The practice of allowing specially qualified witnesses to testify based on direct comparison of
disputed documents to known standards was first recorded in England in 1792.

Daniel T. Ames:​
An early examiner of contested handwriting and penmanship teacher, he wrote Ames on
Forgery in 1901, advocating for a scientific approach.

Albert S. Osborn (1855–1946):​

Widely recognized as the "Father of Questioned Document Examination" in North America.
​ Scientific Approach: He established a systematic and scientific methodology for
forensic examination
​ Questioned Documents : His landmark book, published in 1910 and updated in 1929,
became the foundational text for the field. Professionalization: He was instrumental in
forming the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners (ASQDE) in 1942,
serving as its first president.

Albert D. Osborn:​
Albert S. Osborn's son, who continued his father's work and co-authored the influential
second edition of Questioned Documents.

Evolution and Techniques

Side-by-Side Comparison:​
Osborn and Ames established the practice of comparing questioned documents with known
standards using appropriate lighting and magnification, a technique still used today.

Comprehensive Analysis:​
The field expanded to include the examination of various aspects of a document, such as:
●​ Handwriting analysis
●​ Paper type
●​ Ink composition
 ●​ Printing methods

Technological Integration:​
The field has adapted to writing tool changes and the rise of the electronic age, using
specialized equipment to analyze physical evidence.

Demonstrative Science:​
The goal is to make opinions and findings clearly demonstrable to a court, reflecting the
influence of pioneers like Ames and Osborn

Forensic Ballistics

Origins of Ballistics (Before Forensics):

●​ 14th century – The first firearms were developed in Europe and China. Basic study of
how projectiles move (external ballistics) began with early gunners and military
engineers.
●​ 16th–17th centuries – Mathematicians and scientists such as Galileo Galilei and
Isaac Newton studied projectile motion, laying the groundwork for modern ballistics.

Early Forensic Applications (19th Century)

1835 – Henry Goddard (London, UK)

●​ First documented case of using a bullet to solve a crime.

●​ Matched a bullet with a visible flaw to the mold used by the suspect to cast it.

1863 – Dr. Alexander Lacassagne (France)

●​ One of the first scientists to study bullet markings.

●​ Demonstrated that rifling inside a gun barrel leaves unique marks on bullets.

Foundation of Forensic Ballistics (Early 20th Century)

Calvin Goddard (USA, 1891–1955) – Considered the “Father of Forensic Ballistics.”

●​ Developed the comparison microscope (with Phillip O. Gravelle, 1925), allowing

side-by-side examination of bullets and cartridge cases.
●​ Investigated the famous St. Valentine’s Day Massacre (1929), proving which guns
were used.
●​ Standardized firearm identification procedures.

Victor Balthazard (France, 1852–1950)

●​ Expert in forensic medicine.

●​ Studied gunshot residues and probability of random matching in bullet grooves.
 ●​ His work established that the chance of two guns leaving the exact same markings is
extremely low.

Modern Development (Mid 20th Century – Present)

Advancements in microscopy – Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and other

high-resolution imaging improved firearm analysis.

Gunshot Residue (GSR) tests – Chemical analysis (e.g., sodium rhodizonate test, atomic
absorption spectrometry) developed in the mid-20th century.

Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS, 1990s, Canada) – A computerized system

for comparing bullets and cartridge cases across large databases.

National Integrated Ballistic Information Network (NIBIN, USA, 1999) – FBI and ATF initiative
to track and compare firearm evidence nationally.

Digital and Cyber Forensics

Early Foundations of Digital Forensics

1960s–1970s:

●​ Computers were first being used by governments and large corporations. Cybercrime
was rare, but electronic data was already becoming evidence.

Pioneers:

●​ Hans Gross (not in cyber, but known as the father of criminalistics) indirectly
influenced forensic methodology.
●​ Peter Sommer (UK) and Clifford Stoll (US) were among the first to highlight computer
misuse and hacking investigations.

1980s:

●​ Rise of personal computers → evidence in digital form started appearing in crimes.

●​ First instances of computer crime laws being drafted (e.g., the US Computer Fraud
and Abuse Act of 1986).
●​ Case Example: The “Hannover Hackers” case (1986) in Germany, investigated by
Clifford Stoll, one of the earliest famous cyber espionage cases.

Birth of Computer Forensics

●​ 1990: Law enforcement agencies recognized the need for specialized digital
evidence handling.
●​ 1992: International Association of Computer Investigative Specialists (IACIS)
established.
●​ 1995: FBI created the Computer Analysis and Response Team (CART).
Specialized tools emerged (EnCase, FTK)

Pioneers:

●​ Clifford Stoll – exposed Cold War cyber espionage.

●​ Eugene H. Spafford – major contributor to computer security and forensics
education.
●​ Peter Sommer – early researcher in computer misuse and forensic evidence.

Expansion into Cyber Forensics

2000s:

●​ Explosion of the internet, mobile devices, and cybercrimes.

●​ Shift from computer forensics (PCs, servers) → digital forensics (all devices) → cyber
forensics (online activities, hacking, malware).

Development of forensic standards:

●​ ISO/IEC 27037 (2012) – guidelines for handling digital evidence.

●​ SWGDE (Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence) set best practices.

Notable Cases:

●​ BTK Killer (2005) – caught partly via metadata from a floppy disk.
●​ Silk Road Investigation (2013) – dark web drug marketplace shut down using
advanced cyber forensics

Forensic Audio analysis

Early Foundations (Pre-20th Century)

Although dedicated forensic audio analysis did not emerge until the mid-20th century, its
foundations are tied to the general evolution of forensic science and the recognition of
physical and recorded traces as evidence.

General Forensic Principles:

●​ Edmond Locard (France, 1877–1966) – Established the world’s first forensic

laboratory in Lyon (1910) and formulated the Locard’s Exchange Principle: “Every
contact leaves a trace.”
●​ This principle later extended to audio, as voices, recordings, and even background
sounds became forms of trace evidence in investigations.

Scientific Evidence and Documentation:

 ●​ Albert S. Osborn (USA, 1858–1946) – Developed the fundamental principles of
questioned document examination, emphasizing the evidentiary value of physical
traces and recorded material.
●​ His work parallels the future recognition of recorded audio as valid, examinable
evidence in courts.

Development of Forensic Audio (Mid-20th Century Onwards)

Technological Advancements:

●​ The invention and widespread adoption of magnetic tape (1940s–1950s)

revolutionized audio recording.
●​ Audio recordings began to appear in criminal trials, intelligence gathering, and police
investigations, creating demand for methods to authenticate and interpret them.

Establishment of the Field:

Forensic audio analysis became a specialized discipline as courts required:

●​ Authentication – verifying whether recordings were original or tampered with.

●​ Enhancement – clarifying speech or reducing noise in poor-quality recordings.
●​ Speaker Identification – comparing voices to determine whether a suspect spoke on
a recording.

The sound spectrograph (developed at Bell Labs in the 1940s) provided the first reliable
method of visualizing speech, paving the way for systematic audio analysis.

Modern Pioneers and Influences:

●​ While forensic audio has no single “founding father,” several fields and individuals
shaped its growth:
●​ Dr. Lawrence Kersta (USA) – Promoted the idea of “voiceprints” in the 1960s,
sparking debate and pushing forensic audio into the courtroom.
●​ Jan Svartvik (Sweden) and Roger Shuy (USA) – Pioneers of forensic linguistics,
whose work on language in legal contexts paralleled and complemented the scientific
analysis of spoken evidence.
●​ Collective Professional Efforts – Audio engineers, acousticians, forensic scientists,
and legal experts collaboratively developed the methods and standards that define
modern forensic audio analysis.

Forensic Psychology

Pioneers of Forensic Psychology and Their Contributions

Wilhelm Wundt (1879)

●​ Founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

 ●​ Though not a forensic psychologist, his emphasis on experimental methods laid the
foundation for applying psychology to legal contexts.

James McKeen Cattell (1895)

●​ Conducted one of the first experiments on eyewitness testimony at Columbia

University.
●​ Demonstrated that confidence does not equal accuracy in witness reports.

Albert von Schrenck-Notzing (1896)

●​ A German physician who studied the effect of pretrial publicity on memory.

●​ Showed that witnesses could confuse actual memories with media coverage,
influencing trial outcomes.

Hugo Münsterberg (1908)

●​ Known as the “Father of Applied Psychology.”

●​ Published On the Witness Stand, which argued for applying psychology to courtroom
procedures.
●​ Highlighted the fallibility of eyewitness memory, lie detection, and jury
decision-making.

William Stern (1901–1910)

●​ Conducted the “reality experiment” (staged crimes observed by participants).

●​ Found that strong emotional arousal reduced accuracy in eyewitness testimony.
●​ Introduced the idea of “false memories.”

William Marston (1917)

●​ Invented the first lie detector (polygraph) based on blood pressure changes.
●​ His method was presented in Frye v. United States (1923), leading to the “Frye
Standard” for admissibility of scientific evidence.

Historical Development of Forensic Psychology

Foundations (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)

●​ Rooted in experimental psychology (Wundt, Cattell, Stern).

●​ Münsterberg’s On the Witness Stand (1908) marked a turning point by directly
connecting psychology to the courtroom.

Growth in the 20th Century

●​ Technological innovation: Marston’s lie detector (1917).

Legal recognition of psychology:

●​ Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – Psychological evidence (e.g., the “doll studies”
by Kenneth and Mamie Clark) demonstrated the harmful effects of segregation.
 ●​ Jenkins v. United States (1962) – Court ruled that properly trained psychologists
could provide expert testimony on mental health issues (previously restricted to
psychiatrists).

Modern Development (Late 20th Century – Present)

Professional recognition:

●​ 1969 – Founding of the American Psychology–Law Society (AP-LS).

●​ 2001 – APA recognized forensic psychology as a specialty field.

Current scope includes:

●​ Criminal (eyewitness testimony, offender profiling, competency to stand trial).

●​ Civil (child custody, personal injury, workplace disputes).
●​ Correctional (rehabilitation, risk of reoffending).

Contribution of Sir Edgar Hoover through the FBI.

J. Edgar Hoover's tenure as director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1924
to 1972 is remembered for both his instrumental role in modernizing the organization and his
controversial abuse of power. His lasting legacy is defined by the contrast between his
professional contributions to law enforcement and his secretive, illegal tactics.

Professional contributions :
Hoover transformed the FBI into a formidable law enforcement agency by introducing
sweeping reforms and new capabilities.
●​ Professionalized hiring: He established rigorous standards for FBI agents, which
included background checks, interviews, and physical fitness tests. He required
agents to have legal or accounting backgrounds, which helped professionalize the
investigative work of the bureau.
●​ Centralized fingerprint files: Hoover created a massive national fingerprint database,
which became a vital tool for identifying criminals and assisting local police
departments.
●​ Established the FBI Laboratory: The forensic lab, founded in 1932, provided scientific
crime-fighting resources to state and municipal law enforcement agencies at no cost.
●​ Developed the FBI National Academy: This training academy, established in 1935,
provided advanced training to police executives and instructors across the country.
●​ Tackled organized crime: During the "public enemy" era of the 1930s, Hoover led the
FBI in high-profile battles against infamous bank robbers and gangsters like John
Dillinger and Alvin Karpis, helping to broaden the bureau's powers.
●​ Expanded counterintelligence: Starting in the late 1930s, Hoover directed the FBI's
counterespionage efforts during World War II, arresting German saboteurs and
investigating foreign spies.
●​ Increased jurisdiction: Hoover successfully lobbied Congress to pass new laws that
expanded the FBI's authority over federal crimes, including bank robbery and
kidnapping
.
Abuses of power and secret programs:

Hoover also exploited his position to amass immense personal power and surveil political
targets, creating a legacy of controversy that led Congress to limit the terms of future FBI
directors.
●​ COINTELPRO: In 1956, he formalized a covert "dirty tricks" program that used illegal
tactics like infiltration, wiretapping, and planting forged documents to disrupt and
discredit domestic political groups, including the Communist Party and civil rights
organizations.
●​ Targeting civil rights leaders: Hoover obsessively targeted Martin Luther King Jr.,
attempting to undermine his reputation and leadership through illegal surveillance
and blackmail.
●​ Secret files: He maintained secret files containing potentially embarrassing
information on powerful politicians and public figures. He reportedly used these files
to protect his position and intimidate opponents, fearing political reprisal if he was
ever fired.
●​ Illegal surveillance: Hoover authorized widespread illegal wiretapping and other
surveillance on individuals and groups he deemed "subversive," including actors,
writers, and journalists.
●​ Ignoring organized crime: For decades, Hoover refused to acknowledge the
existence of the American Mafia. Some sources allege this was due to blackmail and
potential scandal. The FBI only launched a concerted effort against the Mafia after
public criticism following a 1957 meeting of crime bosses.

Broader impact:
Hoover's legacy is a contradictory mix of legitimate achievements and authoritarian
overreach.
●​ Modernization and professionalism: The crime-fighting techniques and professional
standards he implemented remain foundational to the FBI and modern law
enforcement.
●​ Lasting controversy: The discovery of Hoover's illegal surveillance programs, misuse
of power, and efforts to discredit political opponents permanently stained his
reputation and led to reforms intended to prevent future abuses.
●​ Normalization of state power: As author Lerone Martin argues, Hoover also helped
normalize a form of "white Christian nationalism" by framing his law enforcement as a
moral crusade, weaponizing traditional rhetoric against perceived ideological
enemies.