Jain Religion

*Jain is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘jin’ which means the
winner. *Founders of Jainism are called ‘Tirthankara’ while
Jain Mahatmas are called ‘Nirgranth’. *Jainism is considered
to have a total of 24 Tirthankars who propagated Jainism from
time to time. They are - 1. Rishabhdev or Adinath 2. Ajitnath,
3. Sambhav-nath, 4. Abhinandan, 5. Sumatinath, 6. Padmaprab-
ha, 7. Suparshvanath, 8. Chandraprabha, 9. Pushpadant (Su-
vidhinath), 10. Sheetalnath, 11. Shreyansa-nath, 12. Vasupujya
13. Vimalnath, 14. Anantnath, 15. Dharmanath, 16 Shantinath,
17. Koonthunath 18. Aranath, 19. Mallinath, 20. Munisuvrata,
21. Naminath, 22. Neminath or Arishtanemi, 23. Parshvanath
and 24. Mahavira Swami. *The first Tirthankara of Jainism
was Rishabhdev. *His other names are Rishabhnath, Adinath
and Vrishabhnath. *Rishabhdev and Arishtanemi are mentioned
in the Rig Veda. *Parshvanath is the as 23rd Tirthankara of
Jainism. *He was born in Kashi (Varanasi). *His father, Ash-
wasen was the king of Kashi. *Parshvnath obtained Kaivalya
(complete knowledge) in Ashrampad Udyan near Varanasi and
he attained Parinirvana on the mount Sammed Shikhar or Sam-
met Shikhar. Parshvanath asked his followers to follow four
restraints. These were - Ahimsa (Non-violence), Aparigraha
(forgoing-possession), Asteya (not-stealing) and Satya (truth).
Mahavira Swami was born in Kundagram near Vaishali about
599 BC. *His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Gyatrik
Kshatriya Sangh. *His mother Trishala orVidehdatta was the
sister of Chetaka, the head of Lichchhavi Republic.* Mahavir
Swamy’s childhood name was Vardhaman. *His wife’s name
was Yashoda (daughter of Kundinya Gotra). They had a daugh-
ter named Anojja (Priyadarshana). She was married to Jamali.
*The word 'Kaivalya' is used for ‘Complete knowledge ‘ in
Jain religion. Mahavira Swami obtained the Kaivalya (complete
knowledge) under a tree of ‘ Sal ‘ on the bank of Rijupalika
river near Jrimbhik village. Therefore he is called Kevalin. After
Kaivalya he was called Kevalin, Arhat (Yogya), Jin (Vijeta)
and Nirgranth (Bandhan Rahit).
*After attaining Kaivalya, Mahavira Swami started propagating
his principles. *Lichchhavi Chief of Vaishali, Chetaka, who
was his uncle, made a major contribution in the promotion of
Jainism. *Makkhali Gosala was a disciple of Mahavira in the
early period, but later he fell-out with of Mahavira due to the
difference of opinion and founded his own creed “Ajivaka.”.
The belief of the sect is known as ‘Niyatiwad’ according
to which every matter in the world is being controlled and
operated by destiny (fate).
*In Jain philosophy, the people (e.g. monks) are very keen
to uplift their souls and hence they sacrifice all worldly
enjoyments and adopt five great ‘Vratas’ (vows) – Ahimsa,
Satya, Brahmacharya, Asteya and Aparigraha. *These
Mahavrata’s are diffi cult to practice by average human
beings. So they follow Anuvratas i.e. Ahimsa Anuvrat,
Satya Anuvrat, Brahmacharya Anuvrat, Asteya Anuvrat,
and Aparigraha Anuvrat.
*Mahavira Swami was the 24 and the last Tirthankara of Jain
religion. He denied the unmanliness of Vedas and opposed
related social-cultural traditions. By leaving the exclusive
belief of selfish and atheists, he accepted the middle path
known as ‘Syadvad’. Syadvad is also known as the name
of Saptabhangi Naya, which means knowledge is relative.

Three means are said to be important for attaining ‘ Moksha

‘ in Jain philosophy : Right Belief, Right Conduct and Right
knowledge. These three are also called ‘Ratnatraya’ in Jain
Religion. Freedom from the bondage and effect of evil omens
called Sanvar Tattva to make the spirit free from the bondage
of all. The destruction of Karma is the Nirjara element. *When
the remains of karma in the life are exhausted, then it attains
‘Moksha’. *‘Anant Chattushtya’ in Jainism is ‘Anant Gyan’
(infinite knowledge), ‘Anant Darshan’ (infinite perception),
‘Anant Virya’ (infinite power) and ‘Anant Anand’ (infinite
bliss).
*Mahavira Swamy established a Sangh during his
lifetime. *There were 11 major followers in this Sangh. They
were called ‘Ganadhar’. Their names are - Indrabhuti,
Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti (three brothers), Arya Vyakta, Sudharman,
Mandavya, Mauryaputra, Akampana, Achalbhrata, Metarya and
Prabhasa. *After the death of Mahavira, Sudharman became the
first president of Jain Sangha. *After the death of Sudharman,
Jambu remained the president of Sangh for 44 years. *At the
time of the last Nand Ruler, Sambhootvijay and Bhadrabahu
were the presidents of Sangha. These two were the last
person to know about the ancient Jain texts of the 14 Purvas
given by Mahavira. *After Lord Mahavira’s departure, when
Bhadrabahuswami was the head of the religious order and Nand
dynasty was ruling over Magadha, Pataliputra the capital city
became the centre of learning and knowledge. At that time,
there occurred a severe famine that seems to have raged for 12
long years. During that period of shortage and scarcity, it was
hard for Jain monks to observe the code of conduct laid down
by the Lord. Bhadrabahuswami, therefore, decided to migrate
to the South along with many followers. For those who stayed
behind, it was hard to remember accurately whatever they
learnt. Venerable Sthulabhadra and most of those who stayed
in the north used to cover their bodies with a plain, white cloth;
while those who had migrated with Bhadrabahuswami were
mostly unclad. The latter took pride in their being true unclad
followers of the Lord and in due course came to be known as
Digamabars which means skyclad. Those on the other side
came to be known as Shwetambars on account of white cloth
that they wore.
*First Jain Sabha was held in Pataliputra in the fourth century
(310 BC) presided by Sthulbhadra. In this meeting, 12 Angas
of Jainism were compiled. The followers of Bhadrabhu did
not participate in this council. *The second Jain assembly was
held in the sixth century (512 AD) in Vallabhi and presided
by Devardhigan Kshamashraman. In the second Jain Sabha, a
compilation of 12 Angas, 12 Upanga, 10 Prakirna, 6 Chedsutras,
4 Mulsutra, 2 Chulikasutra were compiled.
*Jain literature is called ‘Aagam’(Principle). It consists of 12
Angas, 12 Upanga, 10 Prakiran, 6 Chedsutras, 4 Mulsutra, 2
Chulikasutra. The twelve Angas have an important place in Jain
Agam. These are Acharanga-Sutra, Sutrakrtanga, Sthananga,
Samavayanga, Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti. Jnatrdharmakatha,
Upasakadasah, Antakrddasah, Anuttaraupapatikadasah, Pras-
navyakarana, Vipaksruta and Dristivada. *There is a related
'Upanga' of every 12 Anga. These include the description of
the universe, classification of beings, astronomy, time division,
description of posthumous life etc. *10 Prakirna are the supple-
ment to major texts.
*There are 6 'Chedsutra'. These contains a compilation of
rules of Jain monks. Six Chedsutra are- Jitakalpa, Brihatkalpa,
Nishith, Mahnishith, Vyavhar (Behavior) and Aachar Dasha.
There are four Moolsutra. These contain sermons of Jainism,
life in the forest, duties of the monks, rules of Yam, etc. *The
four Moolsutra are - Dashvaikalik, Utaradhyayan, Avshayak
and Pindniryukti or Pakshik Sutra.
*The two Chulikasutras (Nandi-sutra and Anuyogadvara-Sutra)
are independent texts of Jains, which are a kind of encyclopedia
* In these texts moral stories have been written for monks. *In
the Jain literature, the Grandson of Ashoka, Samprati, is de-
scribed as the patron of Jainism. *Ujjain became a major centre
of Jain religion during his rule. *The second major centre of
Jains was Mathura. Many temples, statues, records, etc. have
been found from here.
*Kharwel the Chedhi ruler of Kalinga was the great patron
of Jain religion. *He built Vihars for the residence of Jain
monks by cutting down the hills of Udaygiri and Khandagiri
near Bhubaneswar. *Khajuraho’s temples are related to Hindu
religion and Jainism.
*Dilawara Jain temple of Mount Abu is made of marbles.
Vimal Vasahi is the msot prominent temple among the
magnificant Jain Dilwara temples. *It was built by the
Samanta Vimalshah of Chalukya (Solanki) ruler Bhimdev
I of Gujarat. *Shravanabelgola is situated in the state of
Karnataka. *During the reign of Gang ruler Rachamall IV
(Panchamalla), Prime minister named Chamundaraya built
a huge Jain statue of Bahubali (Gomateshwar) in 981 A.D.
Bahubali, is considered as the son of Rishabhdev, the first
Tirthankar. *Mahamastak-abhishek is an important festival
of Jainism, which is held at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka
State every 12 years.

Shaiva, Bhagavata Religion

*According to the cosmogony related beliefs in ancient India,
the four epochs are as follows – Krita, Treta, Dvapara and
Kaliyuga. *Vaishnava Religion was developed from Bhagwat
Religion. Lord Krishna has been described as the son of Devaki
in the Chhandogya Upanishad.

*In the Rig Veda, Vishnu is mentioned as the God of the sky.
There were three major Gods of later Vedic period - Prajapati,
Rudra and Vishnu. *Vishnu is considered to be the guardian
and protector of the people. Patanjali has described Vasudev
as the form of Vishnu. In Vishnu Puran, Vasudev was also a
name of Vishnu. Thus, when Krishna-Vishnu relation was estab-
lished with Narayana, then Vaishnavism became ‘Pancharatra
Dharma’. *Maharishi Panini has mentioned the worship of Va-
sudev and Bhagwat Dharma. He named Vasudev worshipers as
‘Vasudevak’. *This religion was initially prevalent in Mathura
and surrounding areas. According to Greek ambassador Mega-
sthenes, the people of Sursen (Mathura) were worshipers of
‘Heracles’. ‘Heracles’ is related to Vasudeva Krishna. *The
religion gradually spread to the other parts of India. *The first
available stone monument associated with Bhagwat Dharma
was the Garuda pillar of Vidisha (Besanagar). It shows that
Heliodoras, the Greek Ambassador of Taxila, accepted Bhagvat
Religion and established this pillar. In the engraved article on
this, Heliodorus was called ‘Bhagwat’ and Vasudev was called
‘Devdevas’ or God of the Gods.
*The Bhagavata or Vaishnava religion reached at its peak in
the reign of Gupta kings. Gupta kings were the follower of
Vaishnava religion and they made it a religion of the state.
Most of the Gupta rulers hold the title of ‘ Parambhagavata.
Garuda, of Lord Vishnu, became the state symbol of Guptas.
*The Mehrauli Pillar mentions that Chandra who has been
identified as Chandragupta- II had established the Vishnu flag
on Vishnupad hill. On the Bhitari Pillar Inscription it is men-
tioned that the statue of Vishnu was established by Skandgupta.
*Amar Singh has described 39 names of Vishnu in his book
Amarkosha. *Chalukya rulers of Eastern Vengi were the
followers of Vaishnavism. ‘Garud’ was their state symbol like
Guptas. *Rashtrakuta king Dantidurg built a famous temple
of Dashavatara in Ellora. The story of ten incarnations of
Vishnu is mentioned in this temple . ‘Dashavatar Charit’ has
been composed by the Kshamendra. *Vaishnav Religion was
propagated in South India by Alvar Saints. The word ‘Alwar’
means - one who is immersed in the experience of God, the
omnipresent mysterious one. The number of Alwar saints is
said to be 12. *Lord Vishnu took the form of Varaha to kill
the king of Giants, Hiranyaksha and released the Earth from
his clutch. In the pictures of the Purana, God Varaha has been
shown balancing the earth on his teeth and arising from the sea.
In this incarnation, the head of Varaha is on the human body
having four arms holding Shankha, Chakra, Gada and Padma
in his hands like God Vishnu fighting with demon Hiranyaksha.
This is the third incarnation in the order of incarnations.
*Jnana, Karma and Bhakti have equal importance in Gita. Lord
Krishna predicted the importance of all three in the following
Shloka of Gita-
Ùes leg meJee&efCe keâcee&efCe ceefÙe mebvÙemÙe celheje:~
DevevÙesvewJe Ùeesiesve ceeb OÙeeÙevle Gheemeles ~~
les<eecenb mecegælee& ce=lÙegmebmeejmeeiejeled~
YeJeeefce veefÛejelheeLe& ceÙÙeeJesefMeleÛeslemeeced ~~
In Advaita Vedanta, Shankaracharya had accepted the Brahma
as the only truth. Both Vedanta and Vishistadvaita Vedanta give
supremacy to Bhakti (devotion toward God). Mimamsa has
only propounded the Karma.
*The Rathyatra is celebrated every year at Puri, Odisha on
dwity of Shukla Paksha of Ashadha month with all due respect
to Lord Jagannath (Krishna), Balram (Balbhadra) and Subhadra.
Religion devoted to Shiva is called ‘Shaiva Dharma’. The
worshipers of Shiva were called ‘Shaiva’. Shaiva is the oldest
religion in India. It is related to the prehistoric age. *People
of Indus Valley worshipped Shiva. The proof of this was a seal
from Mohanjodaro, on which there was a figure of the Yogi.
On the head of Yogi there is a Trishul like jewellery and it has
three faces. Marshal related it to Rudra Shiva. *In Rig Veda,
Shiva has been called ‘Rudra’, who was famous for his ferocity.
Rudra has been called the God of the universe in Shatarudriya
Mantra of the Vajasenayi Samhita. In Atharvaveda, he has been
called Pashupati, Bhav, Sarva Bhupati etc. *Mahabhashya
of Patanjali reveals that in the second century BC, Shiva’s idol
was worshipped. Various names of Shiva were mentioned in
Mahabashya.
Some important were - Rudra, Mahadev, Girish, Bhav, Sarva,
Trayambak etc. *On the coins of Kushan rulers, the figures of
Shiva, Vrisabha and Trishul were marked. Udayagiri Guhalekh
shows that Veersen, the prime minister of Chandragupta II had
built a Shaiva cave at Udaygiri hill. In the time of Kumar Gupta,
Shiva Ling was established in Khoh and Karamdanda. *Shiva
temple was built in Bhumara and Parvati temple was built
in Nachanakuthar during the Gupta period. Kalidas praised
Shiva’s glory in Kumarasambhavam. *The famous Kandaria
Mahadev Temple of Khajuraho was built by the Chandel rulers. *During the Rashtrakutas, the
famous Kailash Temple
of Ellora was built. The propagation of Shaiva Religion was
done by Nayanars in South India. 'Nayanar Saints' were 63 in
numbers. The name of Tirugyan, Sundar Murthy, Sambundar
Appar, Manikkavach-agar, etc was remarkable. Chola rulers in
south India were the exclusive worshiper of Shiva. Chola ruler
Rajaraj I built the Brihdeshwar or Raj Rajeshwar temple in
Tanjore.
*Kulotung-I was a staunch follower of Shaiva Religion. He has
overthrown the statue of Vishnu established at the Chidambaram
temple into the sea due to his reverence for Shiva. *Twelve Jy-
otirlingas related to Shaiva religion are situated in different parts
of the country. These are Somnath, Nageshwar (near Dwarka),
Kedarnath (Uttarakhand), Kashi Vishwanath (Varanasi), Vaidya-
nath (Deogarh, Jharkhand), Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain), Omkaresh-
war (M.P.), Bhimashankar (Pune), Trayambakeshwar (Nashik),
Ghushmeshvar (Rajasthan), Mallikarjuna (Andhra Pradesh),
Rameswaram (TN).
There are four Shaiv sects mentioned in Vaman Purana. These
are Shaiva, Pashupat, Kapalik and Kalamukh. Pashupati
community originated in the second century B.C. According
to Puranas, the sect was founded by a Brahmachari named
Lukulish or Lukuli. The followers of this sect consider
Lakulish as the incarnation of Shiva. The devotees of the
Kapalik sect-worshipped Bhairav as an incarnation of Shiva
and worship him. The followers of this philosophy used to
eat meat, put ashes of the cremations on their body, and wear
the Narmund in hand.
*Vasav is considered the founder of the Lingayat sect of
Shaivism. Nathpanth sect was started by Matsyendra Nath at
the end of the tenth century believing Shiva as Adinath. Baba
Gorakhnath had promoted this sect.

*The people of Shakti sect worshiped goddess Shakti. Shaiva

Dharma has a close relationship with Shakti Dharma. Antiq-
uity of Shakti religion also goes to prehistoric age similar to
Shaivism. The worship of Mother Goddess was very popular
in the Indus civilization. Anumber of the statues of Mother God-
dess have been found in excavation. Vedic literature provides
information about the Goddess like Saraswati Aditi, Usha,
Lakshmi etc. A detailed description of the Goddess Mahatmya
is found in Mahabharata and Puranas.

Sixth century B.C.E -

Political Condition
*Buddhist literature, Anguttaranikaya, is sufficient to con-
clude that before the birth of Gautama Buddha, ancient India
was divided into 16 major states. They were called ‘Sixteen
(Shodasha) Mahajanapadas’. The names of these sixteen Ma-
hajanapadas were Koshal, Kashi, Magadha, Anga, Vajji, Chedi,
Malla, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchal, Matsya, Surasena, Kamboja,
Avanti, Assaka (Ashmaka) and Gandhar. In the Jain literature
‘Bhagwatisutra’ also, names of these 16 Mahajanapadas are
mentioned with some different names in it. The names of six-
teen Mahajanapadas mentioned here are: Anga, Banga, Malay,
acha, Vacha (Vatsa), Magah (Magadha), Malav, Koch, Ladh,
Moli (Malla), Koshal, Kashi, Padh, Sammutar, Avaha and Va-
jji. *22 Mahajanapadas are mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.
*The present part of Bihar known as Bhagalpur and Munger
district were part of the Anga Mahajanapada. Its capital city
was Champa. In Mahabharata and Puranas, its ancient name
‘Malini’is mentioned. Champa was considered to be among the
six metros of India during Buddha’s period. The names of these
six metropolia are described in Mahaparinirvan-sutra. These
are – Champa, Rajgriha, Benaras, Saket, Kaushambi and
Shravasti. *Lichhavi’s of Vaishali founded the world’s first
republic. Vaishali has been called ‘Magadhham Puram’ in suttanipata

*Vaishali was the largest and most powerful republic of the

Buddha period. According to Puranas, the first dynasty to rule
Magadha’s was ‘Brihadratha’. The son of the first king of
this dynasty was Jarasandha, who made Girivraj (Rajgriha)
his capital. The Rajgriha has been described as the capital
of Jarasangha in the Van Parva of Mahabharata. According
to Buddhist texts, the first great ruler of Magadha was Bim-
bisara. He was related to Haryanka dynasty. *The famous
historical physician Jivaka, contemporary of Lord Buddha
was related to the court of Bimbisara. Bimbisara sent Jivaka
to the state of Avanti’s king Chandapradyota for medicinal
service. *Bimbisara is said to be the first and most powerful
emperor of Haryanka dynasty who was also the real founder
of Magadha Empire.
*The ruler of Magadha, Ajatashatru (492-460 BC) killed his
father Bimbisara, the founder of Haryanka dynasty and sat on
the throne. He was also killed by his son Udayin (different
from the king Udayan of Vatsa) for the same reason.
*Pataliputra was founded by Ajatshatru. *Udayin shifted the
capital of Magadha Empire from Rajgriha to Pataliputra. It
was also the capital of Sishunaga dynasty, Nanda dynasty, and
Maurya dynasty. Here Maurya Emperor Ashok organised the
Third Buddhist Council (247 B.C) which was presided over
by Moggaliputta Tissa. The first Jain convention was held
here too. *Megasthenese in his book named ‘Indica’ has
described the prosperity and the ruling system in the period of
Chandragupta Maurya. Pataliputra became the prime centre for
Buddhists during the Gupta period. But the importance of this
city started declining from later Gupta Period.
*Kasi was the most powerful city in the early 6th century B.C.
It was one of the richest and most prosperous Mahajanapadas.
Kashi had the long rivalry with Kosala, Anga and Magadha.
They always struggled for the supremacy.
*In sixth century BC, Chedi Mahajanapada was located in
modern Bundelkhand and its adjacent parts. Its capital was
‘Sotthivati’ which is known as ‘Suktimati’ of Mahabharata.
*Kharvel was the most important emperor of Chedi dynasty
of Kalinga. His Hathigumpha inscription is the major source
of information. The engraving of canals in Kalinga by King
Mahapadmananda is encrypted in this inscription. It is also
the first inscription which tells about the engraving of canals.
It describes the donation of villages to Jain monks. This
inscription also shows that Kharvel defeated the three states
Chola, Chera, and Pandyas of the South.
*The town Kalpi is situated in the Jalaun district of Uttar
Pradesh on the bank of river Yamuna. During the ancient period,
it was famous as 'Kalpriya' which was later known as Kalpi. It
was built during 4 century B.C. by King Vasudeva.
*Kuru Mahajanpad was located in the areas of Meerut, Delhi
and Thaneswar. Hastinapur city of Mahabharata was located
in this state. *The Panchala Mahajanapada was made up
of modern Ruhelkhand areas of Bareilly, Badaun and Far-
rukhabad districts. Initially, there were two parts - the capital
of North Panchal was Ahichchhatra and the South Panchal
was Kampilya. The famous city of Kanyakubja was located in
Panchala Mahajanpada. The boundaries of the Panchal ranges
from the foothills of the Himalayas to Chambal River in the
south, Koshal in the east and Kuru in the west. Panchal was
originally a monarchy, but it appears that by the time of Kautilya
it became a republic.

*Surashen Mahajanapada was founded in the modern Braja

mandal. Its capital was Mathura. Ancient Greek writers called
this state ‘Surasenoi’ and its capital as ‘Mathora’. According to
the Buddhist text ‘Anguttara Nikaya’ and Jain text ‘Bhagvati
Sutra,’the ‘Assaka’ or ‘Ashmaka’ was located in between Go-
davari and Narmada River during the 6th century whose capital
was Paithan/Potan or Potali (Ancient name Prathisthana).
*Avanti Mahajanapada was found in the area of western and
central Malwa. There were two parts of this Mahajanapada -
the capital of Northern Avanti was Ujjayini and the capital of
Southern Avanti was Mahishmati. *Ujjayini was the capital of
Avanti during the Buddha period. The legend of Udayan-Va-
savadatta is related to Ujjain. Great poet Bhaas has described
this story in his drama ‘Svapnavasvadattam’, the love story
of Vatsa king Udayan and Vasvadatta, the daughter of Avanti
King Pradyot. *In the north-western part of ancient India,
which was also called Uttarapatha, there were two Janapadas.
These were - Gandhara and Kamboj. Gandhar Mahajanpada
was extended from western part of Pakistan to eastern part of
Afghanistan. It is known from Ramayana that Takshshila Nagar
was founded by Taksha, the son of Bharat. *Four of the sixteen
Mahajanpadas - Koshal, Magadha, Vatsas and Avanti were very
powerful. Out of the sixteen Mahajanpadas, eight were present
in Uttar Pradesh. These were Mahajanpadas - Kashi, Koshal,
Vatsa, Malla, Kuru, Panchal, Suresen and Chedi.
*Bimbisara died in 492 BC. After the Bimbisara, his son
‘Kunika’ Ajatshatru (is about 492-460 BC) became the ruler
of Magadha. He was an imperialist like his father. The struggle
between Magadha and Kosala kingdom started in the early
years of his rule. But later, there was a treaty between the ruler
of Magadha Ajatashatru and Koshal King Prasenjit. Prasenjit
married his daughter, Wajira, to Ajatshatru and again accepted
his right over Kashi.

According to Puranas, the founder of Nanda dynasty,

Mahapadmananda was a Shudra ruler. He assumed the title of
'Ekrata' *Chandragupta Maurya had established the Mauryan
empire after defeating the last Nanda ruler Dhanananda with
the help of his preceptor Chanakya. *The Shunga dynasty was
founded by Mauryan commander Pushyamitra Shunga after
killing the last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha in 184 BC.
*Nanda dynasty of Magadha was founded after ending
Shishunaga dynasty. There were 9 kings in Nanda dynasty-
(1) Ugrasen, called Mahapadma in Puranas (2) Panduk (3)
Pandugati (4) Bhootpal (5) Rastrapal (6) Govishanak (7)
Dashasiddhak (8) Kaivart (9) Dhanananda. During last years
of Nanda dynasty, the kingdom witnessed turbulence because
of extortion and imposition of heavy taxes on small items.
Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya with the help
of Chanakya killed Dhananand and established Maurya Empire.

*Aahat coins or Punch marked coins were the earliest extant

coins in India made of silver. The marks on them were made by
the stamp, so they were called as Aahat coins or Punch marked
coins. These coins were found in circulation between 7th-6th
century B.C and the Mauryan period.
*Panini was known for his Sanskrit grammar. He was born in
Pushkalavati, Gandhara. The Ashtadhayi is one of the earliest
known grammars of Sanskrit. The Ashtadhyai consist of 4000
sutras or rules distributed among (eight chapters) which are
each sub-divided into four sections of padas. Panini mentioned
as many as 22 different Janapadas but also mentions 3 most
important provinces viz. Magadha, Ashmak and Kamboj.
*Nanyadev was the founder of Karnata dynasty. He was a
great warrior. The capital of Karnata dynasty was Simraon. The
period of Karnata dynasty (1097 AD - 1324 AD) was known
as the golden period of Mithila.
*The last ruler of Karnata Dynasty was Harisimha Dev. He
was a great patron of art and literature. He was the pro founder
of Panji system.

Maurya Empire
*Chandragupta Maurya is considered as one of the greatest
emperors of India. He was the first emperor who brought
together the small fragmented kingdoms of the country and
combined them into a single vast empire. He expanded his
empire to the edge of what is now known as Iran. He was the one
who first unified India politically. Kautilya had an exceptional
contribution to the establishment of Mauryan dynasty. He
was well known as ‘Vishnugupta’ and ‘Chanakya.’ When
Chandragupta Maurya had the responsibility of united Indian
empire as emperor, Kautilya served as prime minister, advisor
and chief priest. He was the pioneer scholar of political science
and also known for his famous book ‘‘Arthashastra”. This is
one of the oldest book which is based on the political condition
of India. *In the Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman
of 150 A.D., there is a description of the construction of
sudarshan lake for irrigation by ‘Pushyagupta’, a provincial
governor of Chandragupta Maurya, in the state of Anarta and
Saurashtra (Gujarat). It proves that this part of western India
was included in the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta defeated
the invading army of the ruler of the Eastern part of Alexander's
empire Seleucus, in 305 BC. *Mudrarakshasa authored by
Vishakhdatta provides the various information about the reign
of Chandragupta Maurya. Dhundiraja had written a commentary
on Mudhrarakshasa. In this drama, Chandragupta is described
as the son of Nandraja. This book depicts Chandragupta as
"Vrishal" and "Kulheen". Besides Mudrarakshasa, two other
works of Vishakhadatta are - Devichandraguptam and Abhisari
Kavanchitakataken or Abhisarika- bandhitkam (unfounded).
*William Jones was the first scholar who recognized
Sandrokottos as Chandra Gupta Maurya. *Aerian and Plutarch
also described him as Androkottus. Justin, a Greek writer,
described the meeting of Sandrokottos and Alexander the Great.
*Greek writers have addressed Bindusara as ‘Amitrochates’,
as per the scholars - the Sanskrit form of Amitrochates is
Amitraghat (killer of enemies). Jain texts call him ‘Sim-
hasena’. In Jain texts, the name of the mother of Bindusara was
‘Durdhara’. According to Divyavadana, there was a revolt in
Taxila(Takshashila) in the time of Bindusara, for which he sent
his son Ashoka to suppress it. *According to Strabo, Antiochus
I Soter sent Deimachus as an ambassador to Bindusara’s court.
*According to Pliny, King of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphus
sent Dionysus as an ambassador to Mauryan’s court. Bindusara
demanded three items from the ruler of Syria. These items were
- sweet wines, dry figs and philosopher. Antiochus I Soter sent
all the other things except philosophers to Bindusara.
According to Buddhist evidence, Ashoka was appointed as
the viceroy of Avanti during his father’s reign. *Except As-
sam and Deep South, entire India was under Ashoka’s empire.
*Ashoka's coronation on the throne of Magadha took place in
269B.C. *In his inscriptions everywhere he is called ‘Deva-
nampiya’, ‘Devanapiyadasi’, which means 'Beloved of the
Gods'. Ashoka announced the logical and practical ‘Dhamma
Niti’to be followed by his pupils easily. *Ashoka’s ‘Dhamma’
is based on ethical principles which were not related to any
community but declared for the welfare of humanity. *Accord-
ing to Sinhalese folklore – “Dipavamsa” and “Mahavamsa”,
the Third Buddhist Council was held in “Pataliputra” during
the reign of Ashoka. The chairperson of this Buddhist Council
was Moggaliputta Tissa, the famous Buddhist mendicant.
*Ashokan inscriptions describe the history of Ashoka properly.
The inscription can be divided into three classes;
(1) Rock inscription/petrograph
(2) Column inscription
(3) Cave inscription
Rock inscription is the group of 14 various inscriptions which
were found at different places – Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra,
Kalsi, Girnar, Dhauli, Jaugada, Yerraguddi and Sopara. *Most
of the inscriptions of Ashoka are written in Prakrit language
and Brahmi script, only two inscriptions, Shahbajgarhi and
Mansehra are in Kharoshti script. *One ruined inscription,
written in Aramaic script is found from Taxila. Shar-i-Kuna
(Kandhar Inscription) is in the bilingual (Greek and Aramaic)
script.
*Ashoka built the first hospital and herbal garden in India.
He established hospitals, public gardens, and gardens for the
growing of medicinal herbs. He also organized digging of wells
and planting of a tree for shades.
*Sri Lanka was not the part of Ashoka’s territory. The second
inscription of Ashoka clarifies that Chola, Pandayas,
Sattiyaputta, Keralaputta and Tamraparni (Sri Lanka) were
not the part of Mauryan reign. That’s why they were called
edge states. Some of the names of officials were found from
the edicts of Ashoka, which are mentioned below –
YUKTA – These were the district offi cials who used to
collect revenue.
RAJJUKA –Rajjuka was a category of officials in the rural area
which worked as surveyors combined with judicial functions
with assessment duties.

PRADESHIKA – It was a top official of the division. It can

be compared with the current divisional commissioner. They
used to perform judicial work also.
*The head of convoy of merchants was called as Sarthwah
which is described in “Arthashastra” by Kautilya.
*Sarnath Pillar was constructed by Ashoka. On top of this
pillar, the shape of the lion is built which is the symbol of
power. This replica is taken by the Indian government as its
national emblem. These pillars are the best example of Mauryan
architecture. * James Prinsep became the first scholar who
deciphered Ashoka’s inscription (Brahmi script). The edicts in
Brahmi script mentioned a King Devanampiya Piyadassi which
Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan King. Later, the fact
was revealed that according to Singhali legends, Dipvamsa
and Mahavamsha, the sobriquet was used for Ashoka. At last
in 1915, Maski inscription (Karnataka) finalised the name of
‘Ashoka.’ *Kharoshti script was written from right to left in
ancient India. It is mainly the script of north-west India.
*Ashoka visited Lumbini after 20th year of his coronation. To
mark the birthplace of Buddha, the pillar at Rummindei was
erected along with some sacred stone structure. He exempted
Bali tax on Lumbini as it was the birthplace of Buddha and
reduced the rate of land revenue from 1/6 to 1/8.
The name of Ashoka is mentioned in Gujjara minor rock
edict located in Datia district, Madhya Pradesh. It was laid at
the main road through Ujjain to Bharuch.
*Victory in Kalinga war was the greatest event of Ashoka’s
reign. The 13th rock edict provides clear evidence of Kalinga
war. It says King Piyadasi (Ashoka) conquered Kalinga, eight
years after his coronation, i.e. in 261 BC. He felt deep remorse
for having conquered Kalinga. The reasons which prompted
Ashoka to invade Kalinga were both political and economical.
The territory of Kalinga was like a bridge between north and
south. People of Kalinga dominated the Indian Ocean and
controlled the overseas trade. Their supremacy on the eastern
sea-coast virtually closed the sea routes in the east for the
Magadhan merchants. Similarly, the land routes for internal
trade from the Gangetic valley toward Deccan were also
controlled by Kalinga. If Kalinga remained independent, the
overseas and land trades of Magadha would be affected. That is
why it was necessary to invade Kalinga for Mauryan dynasty.
*In the first rock edict, Ashok inscribed as- "here no living
beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice". Formerly
in the kitchen of King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of
animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with
the writing of this Dhamma edict, only three animals, two
peacocks, and a deer are killed and even the deer not always.
And in future, not even these three creatures will be killed.”
*The second rock edict of Ashoka tells us about the South Indian
Kingdom of Chola, Pandya, Satiyaputta and Kerelaputta and
Tamraparni (Sri Lanka). Apart from this, 13th rock inscription
also mention chola, Pandya & Tamraparni. 13thinscription of
Ashoka provides information that he had a cordial relation with
five Greek kings namely- Antiok (Antiochus II Theos – the ruler
of Syria), Turmaya or Turamaya (Ptolemy II Philadelphus –
The ruler of Egypt), Antakini or Anikini (Antigonus Gonatas
– The ruler of Macedonia), Mag, Makmaas or Megaras (The
ruler of Cyrene), Alik Sundar or Aliero Sentro (Alexander
Epirus or the king of Epirus). *The earliest known copper
plate, known as Sohgaura (Gorakhpur, U.P.) is a Mauryan
record that mentions earliest royal order to preserve the
food-grains to be utilized during the famine in the country.
*The other, the Mahasthan inscription of Bogura district of
Bangladesh also describes the relief measures adopted during
a famine in the region. The earliest epigraphic record of
land grants on the basis of religion in India is found in the
inscription of Satavahana. Mauryan emperors did not grant any
land on religious basis.
*From the perspective of architecture, the Stupa of Sanchi
is considered as best. Sanchi is located in Raisen district of
Madhya Pradesh. This stupa was built by Ashoka. *The stupa
of Bharhut is situated in Satna district of Madhya Pradesh,
which is dated approx 3rd century B.C. Bharhut stupa was
discovered by Alexander Cunningham. *Amravati Stupa is
located on the right bank of Krishna river in the Palnadu district
of Andhra Pradesh. Major Colin Mackenzie traced this Stupa
in 1797 A.D. *Dhamekh Stupa of Varanasi is related with
Gupta period. Bhabru inscription proves Ashoka as Buddhist.
In the same inscription, he referred to himself as ‘Piyadasi
Raja’ Magadha, i.e. the king of Magadha. After accepting
the Buddhist religion, Ashoka stopped hunting and started
pilgrimage trips. First, he visited Bodhgaya. The sequence of
his religious trip is- Lumbini, Kapilvastu, Bodhgaya, Sarnath,
Kushingara, Shravasti.*The name of the five provinces of the
Mauryan Empire is found on the Ashokan inscriptions –
*Megasthenese was a Greek historian who came to India
in the fourth century B.C. as a representative or ambassador
of Seleucus Nicator. He lived in the court of Chandragupta
Maurya for five years. He has written about contemporary
India and also about Chandragupta's reign in his book entitled
“Indica.” *Municipal administration of Pataliputra town is
described in Magesthense’s ‘Indica.’ *According to this book,
Pataliputra was governed by a 30 member municipal council.
It was divided into six main committees which had fi ve
members each. The 6th board was responsible for the collection
of sales tax. This board made sure that every citizen must pay
one-tenth of their earning as sales taxes to the government.
The culprits were punished with a death sentence. He called
the town officials as 'Astynomoi'.
*Megasthenese divided Mauryan society into seven categories
which are as follows :
(1) Philosophers (2) Farmers (3) Herdsmen (4) Artisans (5)
Military (Soldier) (6) Overseers or Spies (7) Councillors and
Assessors. Megasthenese does not mention slavery in India.
According to him, no one could marry outside his caste, and
no one could take to an occupation other than the one fixed
for his caste.
*Mauryan emperors played a major role in the development
of culture, art and literature. Chandragupta’s empire spread
over from Iran in the north-west to present north Karnataka in
the south. “Bhaga” and “Bali” were the sources of revenue
in ancient India. According to Arthashastra, King was the
owner of the land. He had a share in produce from the land.
This tax was known as ‘Bhaga’ whereas ‘Bali was also a
source of revenue.
*Agronomoi was known as district officers. Shulkadhyaksha
used to collect various trade and service tax and Akradhyaksha
controlled mines. The maintenance of crown land was done
by Sitadhyaksha in Mauryan period. Revenue collected
through this tax was known as 'Sita'. *Revenue collection
was regulated by Samaharta in Mauryan ministerial council.
*Antapal looked after border forts while the Pradeshtha
was an administrator of commissionaries. *Mauryan officer
Pautavadhyaksha was in charge of weights and measures
while Panyadhyaksha was the in charge of the Commerce
Department, and Sunadhyaksha was the chief of the
slaughterhouse. *‘Pankodakasannirodhe’ was the penalty
in Mauryan administration for throwing dirt or causing mud
and water to collect on the roads. *The Arthashastra mentions
two types of courts:
*Dharmasthiya which is analogous with modern civil
courts and Kantakshodhana which is analogous to modern
criminal courts.
*The town administration was governed by municipalities
during the Mauryan period, whose chief was ‘Nagrak’ or
"Purmukhya". *Megasthenese mentioned six committees
of five members municipal council of Pataliputra. Its third
committee maintained the record of registration of birth
and death certifi cates. This job is still carried out by
municipal administration. *Arthashastra allows the divorce
to a wife deserted by her husband. Divorce was prevalent in
the Mauryan period. Wife had the right to divorce on the basis
of long abroad stay off her husband and being physically
handicapped. Similarly, the husband had also the right to
leave his wife for being barren or adulteress. *The system
to govern villages through autonomous elected panchayats
was evolved by Cholas. This custom was the base of village
administration during that time. Village Assembly was
independent to take any decision regarding any matter related
to the village in the Mauryan period.
*It is mentioned clearly in Manusmriti that a widower, whose
wife is dead, could remarry but a widow whose husband is
dead, was not permitted for remarriage.
The foreign invaders who did not follow priestly customs or
local traditions (Shakas, Kushans, Hunas, Pratihar) were stated
as ‘Fallen Kshatriyas’ in Manusmriti.
*Last Mauryan emperor was Brihadratha. Brihadratha was
assassinated by his commander/lieutenant Pushyamitra
Shunga in 184 B.C. Pushyamitra Shunga established a new
dynasty which is known as Shunga Dynasty. Pushyamitra
Shunga was a fanatic Brahmin. He completed two Ashwamedh
Yajnas. These two events were organised in the supervision of
Patanjali, who wrote Mahabhashya.
*The last king of Shunga dynasty, Devabhuti was killed
by a conspiracy of his ‘Amatya’ Vasudeva. According to
Vayupurana, the last ruler of the Kanva dynasty, Susharma
was deposed by his Andhrian servant Simuk.

Post-Mauryan Period
*The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman (130-150 A.D.)
has been found at Girnar Hills in Gujarat. Rudradaman’s
inscription written in Brahmi script was the earliest ever
inscription written in perfect Sanskrit language. The earliest
specimen of “Kavya” style is found in this inscription. Kushan
emperor Vima Kadphisesintroduced gold coins for regular use
in India. He is known as the first kushan king, who introduced
gold coins, while Kujula Kadphises circulated copper coins.
There are several varieties of Yaudheya copper coins depicting
a standing figure of God Kartikeya along with peacock on the
right, found during the reign of the Kushan ruler. The evidence
of Yaudheya coins is found from the Puranas, Ashtadhyayi,
etc. The circulation of golden coins in north-western India
was introduced by Indo-Greek kings. The wide circulation of
these coins was promoted by the Kushana Emperors. Kushana
emperors promoted gold and copper coins on a wider scale.
*The year of Buddha inscription of Sarnath which belongs
to Kanishka is 81 AD. This inscription was established after
three years of Kanishka’s coronation. *The date of Kanishka’s
coronation is very controversial. Considering this problem,
two International conventions were held in London in 1913
and 1960. In the second convention, a common consent was
made for 78 AD. This is also known as the beginning of the
Saka Samvat. *According to the Jain texts, the successor of
Vikramaditya (57 BC) was defeated by the Saka in 135 Vikrama
Samvat. To celebrate this victory, Saka started a new calendar
called Saka Samvat. Hence, it begins from 135-57 = 78 AD.
Most of the historians believe that the Kushan ruler- Kanishka
was its originator.
Currently, for date and year, the Gregorian calendar is being
used which is internationally used public calendar. In order to
get Vikram Samvat (57 B.C.), 57 is to be added in the current
calendar and to get the Saka Samvat (78 A.D.), 78 is to be
subtracted from the current calendar. *Chaitra is the first month
of Indian national calendar. The dates of national calendar match
with Gregorian calendar prominently. Generally, Chaitra starts
from 22nd March while from 21st March in a leap year.
*Ashvaghosha was the poet laureate of Kanishka whose
major compositions were Saundaranand, Buddhacharita and
Sariputraprakaran. Vasumitra was also a dependent poet of
Kanishka, who headed the fourth Buddhist Council. *Parsva,
Ashvaghosa, Nagarjuna and Charaka were the scholars in the
Court of Kanishka. Charaka is known as the Court physician of
Kanishka. *Maharshi Patanjali belonged to Shunga period and
was the author of Mahabhasya. *The border of the empire of
Kushana Dynasty was spread outside of India. Kanishka was a
great ruler of Kushan the dynasty whose empire was expanded
over northern Turpan of China and Kashmir to Vindhya hill
(south) and Northern Afghanistan (west) to eastern U.P and
Bihar. *A lot of evidence regarding ports and trading centres has
been found from the excavations of Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea and Arikamedu which proves that Kushan’s trade was
operated through Persian Bay and the Red Sea. But none of the
evidence described the naval forces of Kushans. *According
to Chinese texts, Kanishka requested to marry Princess Han
but was denied. In retaliation, they marched on Pan Chao in
86 A.D. with a force of 70,000 but were defeated by a smaller
Chinese force.
*The Gandhara School of Art was developed during the
Kushan period. It was based on Gandhara and Mathura style.
They were provided adequate encouragement and protection
from Kanishka. Gandhara art was influenced by Greek art.
*The practice of child marriage started in Kushan Period.
Abolition of ‘Upanayana’ in females and the custom of child
marriage brought them to the lowest stage of society.
*Concerning the invaders in ancient India, the correct
chronological order is Greeks (326 BC; Alexander) – Sakas
(Ceythians - 1st century BC) – Kushans (1st century AD).
*Persian ruler, Darius-I (522-486 BC) was the first ruler who
invaded some parts of India. According to Herodotus, Darius
conquered the lands surrounding the Indus river and to the
desert. of Rajputana and parts of Punjab. *Strato - II issued
the lead coins. The tenure of this Indo-Greek ruler is considered
from 25 BC to 10 AD.
*Pushyamitra Sunga was the commander of last Mauryan
ruler Brihadratha. He founded the Shunga dynasty killing
Brihadrath in 184 B.C. Ayodhya inscription gives the in-
formation that two Ashwamedha Yajnas were performed by
the King Pushyamitra Shunga. *Satvahana dynasty was the
most powerful after Mauryas in South. According to Puranas,
Sindhuk, Simuka or Shiprak established the Satvahana dynasty
after the assassination of Kanva king Susharma. *There are 30
Satavahana rulers mentioned in Matsya Puranas *The actual
capital of Satavahanas was located at Paithan or Pratisthan,
although their initial capital is believed to be Amravati. Su-
sharma conquered the region around Krishna was brother of
Simuk (Sisuk) of Satvahanas I. *The son of Krishna and suc-
cessor Satakarni-I was the first to hold the title of ‘Satakarni.’
We get important information about his governance through the
inscriptions of ‘Nanaghat.’
*Gautamiputra Satakarni was a patron of Brahmanism. He
did not permit inter-caste marriage among the people of the
established ‘Four Varnas’. That is why he is called as the
protector of the Varna System.
*Kharavela of Chedi dynasty was the king of Kalinga (present-
day in Odisha) India. Much of the available information
about Kharavela comes from the undated and partially
damaged Hathigumpha inscription, plus a few other minor
inscriptions found in Udayagiri Caves, in current Odisha. *The
Hathigumpha inscription records Kharavela’s 13 years of reign.
This is the only known source of Kharavela inscriptions. *The
Kharavela is believed to be a follower of Jainism.

Gupta and Post-Gupta Period

*Gupta dynasty ruled during 275-550 AD. This dynasty
was established by King Srigupta around 275 AD, but the
first powerful ruler of Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta
I who ruled during 319-335 AD. He held the title of
‘Maharajadhiraja’ (in contradiction to his predecessors)
to show his importance. *Gupta Samvat was started by
Chandragupta-I during 319 A.D.
*Historian V.A. Smith in his composition ‘The Early History
of India’ called Samudragupta (335-375 A.D.) of Gupta
dynasty as ‘Napoleon of India’ for his great military conquests.
The Ashoka pillar inscription of Allahabad (Prayagraj) is
associated with Samudragupta (335-375 AD). It is considered
to be the most important historical document of the classical
Gupta age in excellent Sanskrit written by Harisena. It is also
known as ‘Prayag Prashasti’. *The inscription is a panegyric
(tribute) praising Samudragupta and lists the political and
military achievements of his reign including his expeditions
to the south. Built by Ashoka, originally it was situated in
Kaushambi, which was later shifted to Allahabad (Prayagraj)
by Akbar. The name of Jahangir and Birbal is also mentioned
there.
*Prayag Prashasti is on Ashokan Pillar but has 4 different
inscriptions:
(1) Ashokan inscription in Brahmi script
(2) Queen edict regarding the charitable deed of Ashoka’s wife,
Karuvaki.
(3) Samudragupta inscription written by Harisena in Sanskrit
language and Brahmi script.
(4) Jahangir inscription in Persian.
*Another name of Gupta ruler Chandragupta –II
‘Vikramaditya’ (375-415 AD) is found as Devgupta. Its
evidence has been obtained from Sanchi and Vakataka
inscriptions. Apart from the above-mentioned names, he is also
known as Devraja and Devashri.
*According to Mehrauli inscription the king Chandra was
devoted to Vishnu and set up the Vishnu dhvaja (Flagpole in
honour of Vishnu) as a standard of that God on a hill called
Vishnupada. *‘Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription’ acquired from
Mehrauli in Delhi is located in the centre of the courtyard of
Quwwat-ul-islam mosque near Qutub Minar at present.
*Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II ‘Vikramaditya’was known as the
‘Saka Conqueror’ as he admonished Saka power by defeating
last Saka king of western India Rudrasimha-III. He adopted the
title of ‘Sakari’ after this victory. He launched silver coins on
this occasion. They were called ‘Rupaka’ in Gupta rule. The
Nine Gems of Chandragupta II were (1) Kalidas (Poet), (2)
Dhanvantari (Physician), (3) Varahamihira (Astronomer),
(4) Amar Singh (Lexicographer), (5) Shanku (Architect) (6)
Kshapanak (Astrologer), (7) Vararuchi (Grammarian), (8)
Vetala Bhatta (Magician) (9) Ghata Karpara (Diplomat).
*Kumaragupta I ‘ Mahendraditya’ ( 415-455 AD) was the
son born to Dhruvadevi, wife of Chandragupta II. *The first
invasion of Hunas took place during the reign of Skandagutpta
(455-467 AD) and Hunas were comprehensively defeated by
him. This invasion was just like a raid without any lasting impact
on India, but this invasion hastened the decline of the Gupta
Empire. Hunas annexed many regions of the north-west in the
transition period of 5th-6th centuries after the death of Skandagupta.
*Bhitari Pillar inscription is found from a place named as
Bhitari in Saidpur tehsil of district Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh.
The description of the war between Skandagupta and Hunas
is mentioned in Bhitari Pillar inscription. It is noteworthy that
the first Indian invasion of Hunas took place during the reign of
Skandagupta (455-467 AD) in which Hunas were badly defeated
by Skandagupta. When the Huna invasion ended the Roman
Empire in 3rd century AD., the Indian merchants relied more and
more on the South East Asian trade.
*Tormad was the leader of the second Huna attack on India.
*Mihirakula was a central Asian Huna origin, who was one of
the most important Hephthalite Emperor. The Gwalior inscription
showed his territory which included Gwalior. Mihirkula suffered
a defeat by the Aulikara king Yasodharman of Malwa in 528 AD.
or some other sources 495 A.D.
*The Tamralipti port in Bengal was a prominent port during
Gupta period from where trade was conducted with south-east
Asia, China, Lanka, Java, Sumatra as well as northern India.
Western coast had an important port of BhriguKachchha
(Bharuch) from where Gupta rulers used to trade with western
countries. *Guilds were very important in the economy of ancient
India. These organizations were established by merchants for the
proper regulation of their trade. Guilds had the judicial power of
their members and also had the power to ensure the salary, rules
of job, standards and prices. Every guild had its head without any
intervention by the kingdom. It was also important for governing
the local bodies.
*Gujarat, Bengal, Deccan and Tamil Nadu were famous for the
production of the garments in the Gupta period. The garment industry
was the principal industry of the Gupta period. During the Gupta
period, the main centres of international trade were Tamralipti, Bhrigu
Kachchha, Arikamedu, Kaveripattanam, Muziris, Pratishthana,
Sopara, Barberikam.
*Dhanvantari was one of the Navratnas of Chandragupta II. He
was a master in Ayurveda. Bhaskara I was Gupta contemporary.
He wrote Mahabhaskariya & Laghubhaskariya.Bhaskaracharya
(Bhaskara II)was a great astronomer and mathematician. He
composed ‘Siddhanta Shiromani’ and ‘Lilavati’ based on
astronomy and mathematics. He was not contemporary of Guptas.
He belonged to 12th centuray.
*Development in mathematics is notable in the Gupta period.
Sine, Cosine, and Inverse sine were known in 5Th Century.
These are mentioned in ‘Surya Siddhanta’ and ‘Aryabhatiya’.
Brahmagupta described cyclic quadrilateral.
We find six types of gold currencies during the reign
of Samudragupta. They were Garuda, Archer, Parashu,
Ashvamedha, Vaghra- Prakramah, Veena Type. According to
the Chinese traveller Fa-Hien, people used clamshell in routine
trading activities. Coins of Gupta rulers were found in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa
(Odisha). The most famous place where coins were found in
Bayana (Bharatpur, Rajasthan). Coins issued by them were
known as Rupaka and the gold currencies were called Dinara.
*The first evidence of ‘Sati Practice’ in India is mentioned
in the inscription Eran. This inscription belongs to 510 AD
in which practice of Satipratha has been mentioned for a lady
who was the wife of war commander named ‘Gopraj’. *During
Gupta period, towns declined gradually. All the towns which
were prosperous in the valley, most of them had declined in
that age. Amajor city, Pataliputra became village when Hiuen-
Tsang came to India. Mathura, Sonpur, Sohgaura- all major
cities provided evidence of a decline in this age.
*Gupta period in ancient India is considered as the golden age
due to the excellent development in the field of art and culture.
*The ruler of Gupta dynasty donated a maximum number of
villages to temples and Brahmins. Also, the income generated
from the land of the village used to be given to the owner of
the land. A person who used to cultivate on the official land of
the ruler had to pay a part of crop-products as tax in the Gupta
period which was the sixth portion (1/6) of the production.
*Land revenue is known as ‘Udrang’ and “Bhag” in Gupta
inscriptions. *In ancient India, the irrigation tax was known
as ‘Udakabhog.’ *Hiranya was the cash tax in Mauryan
period. The land tax was called Udrang in Gupta inscriptions.
‘Uparnika’ was the tax on farmers living on the border land.
*In Sanskrit plays, written during Gupta period, women and
Sudra spoke in Prakrit language while upper varnas (class)
person used Sanskrit to speak. *Except for Vedic age, the
situation of women was never good in ancient India. In the age
of Gupta, Maurya and Chola, the evidence of inferior situation
of women has been found. Thus, situation of women with men
cannot be compared to any age. ‘Mrichchhakatika’ written by
Sudraka tells about the change in society and administration
system during the Gupta period. This text deals with the love
story of Charudatta (Carudatta), a rich merchant with the
Vasantasena, a daughter of a courtesan.
*The rule of the Gupta Empire was monarchical. Unlike other
rulers, the Gupta rulers believed in their divine origin. The Gupta
rulers expanded the tradition of donation of land. The nature of
the Gupta administration was not centralized and conservative;
the Gupta king was the king of many smaller kingdoms. The
feudal and provincial rulers experienced absolute independence
in their respective areas. *The game of chess originated in
India during Gupta period, known as ‘Chaturanga.’It reached
to Iran and then Europe from India. Praverasena I (275-335
AD) the Rular of Vakataka dynasty, was the first Vakataka
ruler who called himself a Samrat. Vakataka ruler Praverasen
I conducted four Ashvamedha Yajnas. Along with this, he also
made many Vedic sacrifices. Emperor Pravarasena II of the
same dynasty was interested in literature; he composed a treatise
called ‘Setubandha’. *Hindu philosophy refers to a group of
darshans (philosophies, worldview, teachings) that emerged in
ancient India. The mainstream Hindu philosophy includes six
systems (Saddarsana) Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Mimansa, and Vedanta.
*Sankhya Darshan is one of the most ancient philosophical
schools of India. Maharshi Kapila is known as the ‘Acharya’
of Sankhya Darshan. He composed ‘Sankhya Sutra’ and
Tatvasamas. *Sankhya philosophy accepts the theory of rebirth
or transmigration of the soul. Nescience is the cause of
sorrow and self-enlightenment by knowledge is the solution of
liberation from them. Sankhya held that it is the self-knowledge
that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent.
*Maharshi Patanjali is known as the founder of ‘Yoga
Darshan.’ The description about yoga is found in Upanishad,
Mahabharat, Bhagwat Geeta, Jain and Buddha texts. Maharshi
Patanjali explained it as a compact philosophical theory. So it
is called as 'Patanjali Darshan’. Ashtanga Yoga means “eight-
limbed yoga” as outlined by the sage Patanjali in the Yog Sutras.
It consists of eight spiritual practices. Yama, Niyama, Asana,
Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharna, Dhyana and Samadhi. Patanjali
was contemporary to Pushyamitra Shunga (184-148 BC).
*‘Nyaya Darshan’ was propagated by Gautama who is also
known as ‘Akshapada’. The word ‘Nyaya’means decision or
logic. Nyaya Darshan recognizes the existence of 16 substances
or logic. The original text of Nyaya Darshan is ‘Nyayasutra’
which is the masterpiece of Gautama.
*The theory of karma is related to ‘Mimansa’ philosophy. It is
also known as Karma Mimansa, Poorva Mimansa or Dharma
Mimansa. *‘Mimansa’ philosophy accepts that Vedas contain
the eternal truth. Poorva Mimansa tells about ‘Karmakanda’
while Uttar Mimansa tells about ‘Gyankand’.
*Vedanta philosophy is considered to be the culmination of
Indian ideology. Vedanta literally means - ‘The end of the
Vedas’ or ‘the climax of Vedic ideology’. Vedanta philosophy
has three bases - Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Bhagvad
Gita. They are called the ‘Prasthanatrayi’.
*Maharshi Kanad was the founder of Vaisheshika School
of Indian philosophy. He propounded atom theory and called
as the founder of Indian Atomism. According to this theory
material, subjects are made up of atoms. The Vaisheshika thus
marked the beginning of physics in India. Kanad was first to
prove that atom is the smallest unit of any matter. Atom cannot
be seen through naked eyes and cannot be further divided.
*The Vaisheshika school gives importance to the discussion of
material elements or dravya. Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Sky,
when combine give rise to new objects.
*According to Puranas, Chandravansh (or Somvansha) was
one of the prime dynasties of the Kshatriya varna. The prime
place of the Chandravansha’s ruler was Prayag but after a
natural calamity, Dwapar Yug Chandravanshi king Samvaram
established his capital in Pratishthanpur (present Jhunsi,
Prayagraj). *Agnikula was the most famous Pratihara dynasty
of the Rajputs. Due to being related to the branch of Gurjars,
it is known as the Gurjara- Pratihara dynasty in history. *The
first description of the Gurjara caste is in the Aihole text of
Pulakeshin II. Gurjars are mentioned in the Harshacharita of
Banabhatta. The founder of the Gurjara-Pratihar dynasty was
Nagabhata I (730 - 756 AD). The Gwalior inscription shows
that he had destroyed the large army of Mlechcha king, which
was probably the Arab ruler of Sindh.
*The Rashtrakuta dynasty was established in 736 AD by
Dantidurga. He made the Manyakheta as his capital. About
Dantidurga, it is said that in Ujjaini, he conducted a Hiranyagarbha
(Mahadan) Yajna. *Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I was born
in 800 AD in the military camp of Sribhavan, on the banks
of river Narmada. At this time, his father, Rashtrakuta King
Govind III was returning after successful campaigns of North
India.
Maukhari were the feud of the Guptas, who were originally
resident of Gaya. The rulers of the Maukhari dynasty made
Kannauj their capital. Hari Varma, AdityaVarma, Ishvara-
Varma, Sharva-Varma and Graha-Varma were the main rules
of this dynasty.
*Detailed information regarding Harsha is obtained from
Harshacharita, which was composed by author Banabhatta.
Some information regarding him is also available from
Rajatarangini written by Kalhana. *Chinese sources revealed
that Harsha and Rajyashri ruled together over Kannauj.
Harsha shifted his capital to Kannauj from Thaneshwar to help
his sister Rajyashri in the proper administration of Kannauj.
Harsha held a massive council of various religions and sects
in Kannauj. According to the Chinese evidence, rulers of
20 countries along with their eminent Brahmins, shramads,
courtiers, etc. arrived there. This meet was presided over by
Hiuen Tsang. A function used to be held at Sangam region
of Prayag every fifth year of Harsha’s rule, which is stated as
‘Mahamoksha council.’Hiuen Tsang himself attended the 6th
function which was attended by 18 rulers of various countries.
*Emperor Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the
Narmada River by Pulkesin-II. Pulkesin-II also wanted to
expand the state towards the north, in such a situation the
war was inevitable between the two. Actually, there was a
war between the two, at the bank of the Narmada, in which
Pulkesin-II defeated Harsha. This incident is mentioned in
Aihole inscription of Pulkesin-II and description of Hiuen
Tsang. *The arrival of Hiuen Tsang was the most important
event of Harsha’s period. He departed for India in 629 AD from
Changan, the capital of Tang ruler. He wrote a book on his tour
to India named 'Sei-Yu-Kei'.
*Hiuen Tsang went to Nalanda University in 637 AD. Acharya
Sheelbhadra was the vice-chancellor of Nalanda University at
that time. According to Hiuen Tsang, Mathura was famous for
the production of cotton textiles at that time, while, Varanasi
was famous for the silk textiles. Hiuen Tsang says that the main
reason for the prosperity of Thaneshwar was the trade there.
*Kannauj became the centre of attraction of various powers
after Harsha’s death. It has been expressed by the names
‘Mahodaya’, ‘Mahodayashri’ etc. There was a triangular
struggle between the three great powers of the 8th century-
Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta for the control of
Kannauj which is the most important event in the history of
North India in the 8th-9th Century. In this struggle, ultimately,
the Pratiharas got success.
*The Chinese traveller Itsing with 37 Buddhist associates
decided to travel to western countries in 671 or 672 AD.
He came to India through western sea route and returned to
China in 693 - 94 AD via Sumatra. In ancient days, Chinese
writers mentioned India by the name of ‘Yin-tu’ and ‘Thian-
tu’. Nalanda University was ransacked and destroyed by the
army of Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193 AD. It was the final blow to
Buddhism in India and set it on the path of decline.
*Shankaracharya is also known as Shankar, Shree
Shankaracharya etc. He was born in Kaladi, a small village in
Kerala in the 8th century. His philosophy is known as ‘Advaita
Vedanta’. The religious centres established by him are – (1)
Sringeri (Karnataka) in south, (2) Dwarka (Gujarat) in west,
(3) Puri (Odisha) – in the east and (4) Jyotirmath (Joshimath,
Uttarakhand) - in the north. Badrinath, Dwarka, Puri and
Rameswaram are Chardham, while Gangotri, Yamunotri,
Kedarnath and Badrinath are the Chota (lesser) Dhaam located
in Uttarakhand

Architecture in Ancient India

*Khajuraho temple evidences the excellence of Chandela
architecture. These temples are located in Chhattarpur district
of Madhya Pradesh. They were built between 10th - 12th century.
Kandariya Mahadev Temple may be built by Vidhyadhar (11th
Century) is the best among these temples. There is a description
of the construction of 85 temples in Khajuraho. *These temples
are related to the Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta and Jainism in an-
cient India. *Matangesvara temple of Khajuraho is dedicated
to Lord Shiva. This temple was built during King Dhanga’s
empire. These temples were constructed in Nagara Chhatrapati
Sambhaji Nagar. *Parshvanath temple is famous among Jain
temples. The other temples here are -Chausath Yogini, Brahma,
Lalguan Mahadev, Lakshmana, Vishvanath Temple, etc. *Kha-
juraho temples, Bhimbetka rock shelters and Sanchi Stupa
are listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India.
*Ajanta and Bagh caves are the example of cave paintings
during Gupta period. Ajanta Caves are located in Chhatrapati
Sambhaji Nagar district of Maharashtra. An earlier group of
these caves were built during the Satavahana period and later a
major part of the caves were made during the Vakataka period.
*The stone carvings are seen as a work of masterpiece in India.
*Cave 16 has an important painted theme depicted and cave 17
had a well-preserved painting of Vakataka age that includes a
huge gigantic wheel representing the “Wheel of Life.”
*The paintings of Bodhisattva Padampani are one of the
most famous art structures in the cave I of Ajanta. Padampani
in Sanskrit literally translates into "one who holds the lotus".
The Bodhisattva Padmapani sits among a crowd of devotees,
both princesses and commoners with long, dark hair flowing
down below a jewelled crown. He stands holding his attribute,
a blue lotus flower in his right hand.
* Vimal Vasahi temple, most famous among Dilwara Jain
temple of Mount Abu was built by Vimal Shah who was the
feud of Chalukya (Solanki) ruler Bheemdev -I.This Jain temple
is famous for its extraordinary architecture and marvellous
marble stone carvings. *The Palitana temple of Jainism is lo-
cated on Shatrunjaya hill near the city of Palitana in Bhavnagar
district, Gujarat.
*Elephanta caves are believed to have been built by the Rash-
trakuta dynasty. This island consists of two groups of caves
– the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second one
includes a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The caves
are considered to be of 5th to 6th century AD. *The statue of the
famous Trinity Shiva is obtained from here.
*Ellora is located in Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar district of
Maharashtra. This is world-famous for rock cave temples. There
are total of 34 rock caves here. These caves belong to different
periods and among them, 1 to 12 belongs to Buddhists and 13 to
29 to Hindus and 30 to 34 to Jains, which were made at some
years apart from one another. *Kailasa temple of Ellora is an
example of rock-cut architecture. Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna-I
built this temple in Dravidian style. *Nasik caves of Nasik are
also known as ‘Pandavleni’.
*Rashtrakuta kings also patronized followers of
the Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta faiths but they were
inclined towards Jainism since many of the scholars who
flourished in their courts and wrote in Sanskrit, Kannada and
a few in Apabhramsha and in Prakrit were Jains. *King
Amoghavarsha - I was the disciple of the Jain Acharya
Jinasena, the author of Adipurana.
*Konark Sun Temple is a 13th Century Sun Temple in Odisha,
built by King Narasimhadeva –I. It was conceived as a huge
solar chariot with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamental
wheels dragged by seven rearing horses. The monument is
also called as Black Pagoda.
*Lingaraj Temple is one of the most popular temples of
Odisha. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva who is also
known as Lingaraj. *Lingaraj temple is approximately 180 ft.
in height and enshrines a huge statue of Lord Shiva. This temple
is one of the finest examples of Nagara architecture. *Jagan-
nath Temple is located in Puri district of Odisha State. This
temple is made in Nagara style. *Sun Temple of Modhera
is located in Gujarat. It was constructed by King Bhimdev-I
of Solanki dynasty.
*Angkor Wat is a temple complex in south-east Asian na-
tion Kampuchea (Now Combodia) built by Khmer King
Suryavarman-II in the beginning of 12th Century in his capital
Yashodhara Pura (Present Angkor). Devoted to Lord Vishnu, it
is the largest group of Hindu temples built in Khmer Style Archi-
tecture. *Borobudur’sfamous stupa is located on the Java island
of Indonesia. It is a World Heritage Site declared by UNESCO.
*Temples were built in Dravidian style during the reign of Pan-
dyas. In this period, the temples were small but ramparts were
made around their premises. These ramparts were common, but
their gateways which were called ‘Gopurams’, were elegant and
spacious and were embellished with abundant craftsmanship.
*Narasimha Varman-I (Mahamalla) (640-674 AD) was one
of the most famous Pallava kings and Mamallan style was
developed during his tenure. Narasimha was a good wrestler.
The city of Mamallapuram was named after him. Seven Ratha
Temple was built by Narshimha Varman-I which is adorned
with seven rock-cut pagodas.
*Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is situated on the seashore
about 55 km south of Chennai, is well known for its architectural
beauty and is recognized as a world heritage monument by
the UNESCO. Shore Temple, Rathas (Chariots) carved out
of a single rock, Arjuna's penance and other cave temples are
some of the famous wonders. Mahabalipuram was a place of
pilgrimage even before the Pallava period. Mahabalipuram was
a famous centre of Pallava art and architecture. *Draupadi
Rath is the smallest rath in monolithic temples or rath
constructed in Mamallya style in Pallava period. There is no
ornamentation found. It is pinned over lions and elephant-like
sculptures.
*The Korangnath Temple of Srinivasanallur was built during
the period of Chola ruler Parantaka- I. *Construction of Ra-
jarajeshwara and Brihadisvara Temple in Tanjore was done
during the era of Raja Raja- I. Granite stones have been used in
its construction. *During the reign of Rajaraja’s son Rajendra
Chola, the temple was constructed at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
*Sonagiri is located 15km away from Datia (M.P). Sonagiri
is a sacred place popular among Digamber Jain devotees and
ascetic to practice for self- discipline, austerity and to attain
Nirvana. There are 103 Jain temples with sky-high spires.
Temple No.57 is main among them which is related to Lord
Chandraprabhu. *The Virupaksha temple is located at Hampi
of Karnataka State. This temple is named after Lord Shiva,
known as Virupaksha here.
*The Nagara, Dravida and Vesara are the three main styles
of temple architecture. Nagara style is prevalent throughout
North India.The temples of Odisha are purely of this style.
*The Dravidian style was spread in South India, especially
in the between Krishna River and Cape Camorin (Tamil
Nadu). *The development of a Vesara happened from the
mixture of Nagara and Dravidian styles. This style is also
called the Chalukya style due to being used by the last Cha-
lukya rulers.
*The famous Naimisharanya is located in Sitapur district of
Uttar Pradesh. It is believed that Sage Dadhichi gladly gave
up his bones to the Gods here.The bone of Sage Dadhichi was
used to make the weapon (Vajra). This weapon was then used
by Lord Indra to defeat the Asuras.

South India (Chola, Chalukya,

Pallava and Sangam Period)
*According to the Sangam text the terms Kon, Ko and
Mannan, were attributed to the King. Sangam is defined as
‘Conference of Poets’or ‘Forum of Scholars.’Literature written
by scholars during this conference is mentioned as ‘Sangam
Literature.’ *Three Sangams were held under the patronage of
Pandya kings in the south
*Agastya was the sage who is credited to have Aryanised south
India. He was born in Kashi and it is believed that he travelled
south from Kasi on request of Gods and later resided in the
south. He is also known as “Father of Tamil Literature.”
Tolkappiyam is not only the residual text of 2nd Sangam era
but also most ancient available text of Tamil literature. Author
Tolkappiyar was one among the 12 disciples of saint Agastya.
It is a treatise on grammar and poetry. It has been written in
formula style. *The author of Tamil Literature Silappadikaram
was Ilango Adigal, grandson of Chola King Karikal. The
epic narrates the tragic and poignant story of Kannagi and
her husband, Kovalan. *Kural is considered as the Bible and
Laghuveda of Tamil literature. It is also known as ‘Muppal’.
It was written by the famous poet Tiruvalluvar. *Ramavtaram
which is Tamil Ramayanam was authored by Kamban.
*The history of early Cholas of Sangam literature, the
interregnum between fall of Sangam Chola and the rise of
Medieval Chola under Vijayalaya (850-871 AD.) in the 9th
century. *Chola dynasty was established by Vijayalay-I
in Southern India. Parantak - I defeated Madura King and
assumed the title of “Madurai-Kond.” *Rajaraja-I defeated
Cheras naval army in Kandalloor and then Rajaraja-I and his
son Rajendra-I sent an expedition against Sailendra empire of
South East Asia and conquered some of the areas as they were
facing difficulty in a trade with China.
*A special feature of the Chola dynasty was the autonomy
of village administration which was a speciality of them.
The Chola village administration was very systematic and
well developed. In fact, the autonomous administration was
implemented in the village only during the Chola era. *A
detailed description of the working system of the executive
committee of Gram Sabha (village assembly) in Chola
village administration has been archived from Uttaramerur
inscription, which states that every village had its own
committee called 'Sabha' which was usually independent of
Central command and independently administered the village
administration. *A working committee which supervised
the activities of Chola era villages was known as Variyam.
*Thotta Variyam looked after Horticulture Board while
Samvatsara Variyam was annual committee; Eri Variyam
was in charge of tanks (Lakes) and water supply and Pon
Variyam was related to gold/finance committee.
*Brihadeeshwara temple is an excellent piece of Dravidian
style temple of Chola-Style, which was constructed in the
reign of Rajraja-I. It is considered as the biggest and tallest
temple of India. *There are two idols of ‘Dwarpals’ around
the main shrine. Gigantic 'Nandi' (carved out of single rock)
is situated in the exterior of sacrarium which is believed to be
the tallest Nandi idol of India.
*Chola Kings maintained massive consolidated troops with a
proficient naval power wing. The Chola navy played a vital role
in the expansion of the Chola Empire including the conquests
of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) islands and naval raids on Srivijaya,
Sinhala and Maldives.
*The golden era of Chola empire started with the accession of
Rajaraja- I to the throne. Rajaraja- I was the first Chola king
who created Naval Army. *Rajendra Chola-I was a Chola
emperor, who is considered as one of the greatest rulers and
military generals of India. He succeeded his father, Rajaraja
Chola-I. *Rajendra-I conquered the whole of Srilanka and
brought the king of Sinhaldweep (Srilanka) Mahendra-V
to Chola kingdom as prisoner. He also defeated Pala ruler
Mahipala and adopted the title of Gangaikonda. Rajendra-I
founded a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Chola
navy was the strongest in the area, and they converted the Bay
of Bengal into Chola lake. *Chola Gangam Ponneri was an
artificial lake constructed by Chola king Rajendra Chola-I in
the memory of his victory over rulers of Ganga river basin
including Bengal Kings and Kalinga Dynasty. *Vijayabahu,
the Ceylon king proclaimed independent Sinhala Island during
the period of Kulottunga-I but Kulottunga did not show
any incivility and married his daughter with Sinhala prince
Virapperumal. *Generally, Chola emperors used to elect their
‘Yuvraj” during their tenure, who becomes the heir of Empire
after them.
*Sangam literature only describes the emergence and
development of Chola, Chera and Pandya rulers. *During the
reign of Chola ruler Kulotung-I, 1077 AD, a Chola Buddhist
delegation of 72 merchants was sent to China. *The Chola
empire was divided into six provinces for the convenience of
administration. *The provinces were called ‘Mandalam’. *A
Province was divided in ‘Kottam’ or ‘Valnadu’. *It was like
the commissionaires. There were many ‘Nadu’in each Kottam.
*The district was called ‘Nadu’. *The assembly of Nadu was
called ‘Nattar’. *The village association was called ‘Kurram’.
*The smallest unit of administration was Gram Sabha.Chola
artists were accomplished in carving art.
*They framed numerous portraits of stones and metals. They
also prepared Bronze sculptures more than stone sculpture.
Most elegant idols of Nataraja (Shiva) are found in large
numbers. They are included in best sculptures of the world.
These idols are four-handed. *The Dakshinamurti idol of
Shiva depicts him as a mentor (Guru, Teacher) . Shiva is
considered in this form as providing knowledge to his devotees.
Dakshinamurti Idol is installed facing south direction.
*The battle of Takkolam was a military engagement between
Rajaditya, son of the Chola king Parantaka - I and a confederacy
of western Gangas, Monas and Vaidunbas led by Rashtrakuta
King Krishna - III at Takkolam. The battle fought in 949 AD
resulted in the defeat of Cholas and the death of Rajaditya in
the battlefield.
*Pallava ruler Singhvishnu (575-600 AD) assumed the title of
‘Avanisingh’. *He defeated the kings of Chola, Pandya, Singhal
and Kalmra. * Narasimhavarman I (630 - 668 AD) assumed
the title of ‘Mahamall’. *Parmeshvar Varman I (670-700 AD)
assumed the title of Lokaditya, Ekamall, Rananjaya, Atyantkam,
Ugradand, Gudbhajan, etc. *Mahendravarman-I (600-630 AD)
composed a humour book titled ‘Mattvilasprahasan’.
The list of various ports is available in ‘Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea", the famous book of an anonymous Greek
sailor. Tondi, Mushiri and Nelisanda were the main ports of
the western coast. At present, the ancient city of Vatapi is in
Bagalkot district (Karnataka) is known as Badami. It was the
capital of Chalukyas during the 6th -7th century. Pulakesin - I was
the real founder of Vatapi’s Chalukya dynasty. Women were
appointed to high designations in Chalukya administration.
*Vijaya Bhattarika, the Queen of Chandraditya (brother of
Vikramaditya - I), issued two copper plates by her name. She
was an excellent poetess too. Vijayaditya granted a village
to a scholar Brahmin on the recommendation of his younger
sister Kumkumdevi. Vijaya Bhattarika ran the administration
efficiently. *Pulakesin - II was the most capable and powerful
ruler of Chalukyas, who ruled over 610 to 642 AD. Aihole
inscription provides the saga of his achievements. *Ma-twa-
lin was a Chinese traveller who has given an account of the
relationship between China and India during the reign of
Chalukyas.
*Indian black pepper was a favourite ingredient of the most
expensive Roman cookery. In Europe, the first spice that used
was pepper, and it gained an enormous social and economic
value there. Greeks were familiar with the use of black
pepper as early as 4th century BC, though it was probably an
uncommon and expensive item. That is why in Sanskrit it is
called as ‘Yavanapriya’ (the favourite of Greeks). Arikamedu
is an archaeological site in southern India at Pondicherry. An
intaglio was found here which was carved with the picture of
a man. It was identified as Augustus Caesar. Beads and Gems
were also found. Hence it was concluded that these antiquities
belonged to the Roman Empire. Dubreuil called Arikamedu “a
true Roman city.” In Periplus of the Erythraen sea, it was called
as Poduke. *Amphora Jar is an ancient jar with a long and
narrow neck and two handles on both sides. This jar was used
in ancient Rome as a container for wine or oil. *Various trade
union existed in South Indian townships like Manigramam,
Nanadesi, Valanjiyar, etc. The purpose of these unions was
to encourage trade and business.
*Uraiyur was very significant town during Sangam Era, located
on the bank of Cauvery River in Tiruchirappalli (Tamil Nadu).
It was known as Koli and Varanam and was the major centre
of cotton. It is mentioned in “Periplus of the Erythraen Sea.”
Vengi River was the lifeline of the state of Pandya. The river
originates in Kandan Manikanur near Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
Pandya state was located to the south of Cauvery. It comprises
the districts of modern Madurai and some regions of Travancore
also. Its capital was Madura.
*Chera was a state of South India located in the present-day
state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu.
The capital of the state of Chera was Vanchi. *The capital
of Kadamba rulers was Vanavasi. Kadamba dynasty was
founded by Mayurasharman. Kadamb state was annexed by
Pulakesin - II.
*Pandya king of South India sent an ambassador to the kingdom
of Rome in 26 B.C. Pandya dynasty had the longest duration
of reign in South Indian region (almost 200 BC to 1378 A.D.).
Their capital was Madurai. *Meenakshi temple was originally
built by Kulasekara Pandya. It is located in Madurai, and the
lotus-shaped city surrounds it completely.

Ancient Literature and

Litterateur
*The Greek author Herodotus is often known as the 'Father
of History'. His famous book ‘Historica’ describes the Indo-
Persian relations during the 5th century BCE. *Mudrarakshasa
written by Vishakhadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although
written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta
with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas. It also
gives a picture of the socio-economic condition under the
Mauryas. *Sanskrit literature reached its peak during the
Gupta period. This era is known for writing of prose and as
well as poetry. Amarakosh by Amar Singh, Kamasutra by
Vatsyayana, Meghdoot by Kalidasa and Mudrarakshasa by
Vishakhadatta are among the classic literature composed during
this period.
*The famous authors and their books :
Surdas - Sursagar, Sur Saravali , Sahitya Lahiri
Dandin (Dandi ) - Daskumarcharitam
Tulsidas - Ramcharitmanas, Vinaya Patrika, Kavitavali
Kalidasa - Abhigyanshakuntalam,
Kumarsambhavam, Malavikagnimitram,
Meghadootam.
*Naishadhiyacharita is a story of Nala and Damayanti in
the Mahabharata written by Sriharsha; Kiratarjuniyam is an
epic poem describing combat between Arjuna and Lord Shiva.
*Magha wrote Sisupalavadha. *Dashkumarcharitam was
written by Dandi and describes the adventures of 10 princes.
*The Panchasiddhantika of Varahamihira is based on
Greek astronomy. The Milindapanha is a Buddhist text in
Pali language which is a dialogue between the Indian monk
Nagasena and the Indo-Greek king Milinda (Menander).
*Jai Singh (1128-1149) was the contemporary ruler of
Kashmir. Kalhana was the author of Rajatarangini. He
completed this pioneer creation during the reign of Jai Singh.
*Rajatarangini, a metrical historical chronicle of the north-
western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir
was written in Sanskrit.
*Ashvaghosa, a noted poet, is considered to be instrumental
in the propagation of Buddhism. He was also the writer of a
famous court poem of his times called the Saundarananda
Kavya. This poem was discovered and edited by Pandit
Haraprasada Shastri. *Buddhacharita is a poetic narrative of
the life of Buddha by the Sanskrit poet Asvaghosha.
*Harshavardhana was also a great lover of education and
learning. He is supposed to be the author of ‘Ratnavali,’
‘Priyadarshika’and ‘Nagananda.’ Historians say "Harsha was
a patron of letters. He appears to have wielded the pen with no
less dexterity and effect than the sword". There are three plays
authored by him viz., the ‘Ratnavali,’ ‘Priyadarsika’ and the
‘Nagananda,’. It is said that it was composed by a King named
Harshadeva. This royal author has been identified with Harsha
of Kannauj since it is contended that no other sovereign of this
name can meet the requirements of the case. *Kalidasa was
Sanskrit poet and dramatist and probably the greatest Indian
writer of any epoch. The seven works identified as genuine
are (1) Abhijnanashakuntalam (2) Vikramorvashiyam (3)
Malavikagnimitram (4) Raghuvamsham (5) Kumarasambhavam
(6) Meghadutam (7) Ritusamharam. *The first play composed
by the great poet Kalidasa is Malavikagnimitram. Often it
is called Kalidasa Malavikagni- mitram, as an honour to
Kalidasa. This play consists of 5 acts about the love story of
King Agnimitra of Vidisha from the Shunga dynasty (presumed
to have ruled Magadha) and Malavika.
*'Svapnavasavdattam' is a Sanskrit plan written by great poet
Bhasa. *Geet Govind is an epic poem, written in Sanskrit by
Jayadev in the twelfth century. Jayadev was the royal poet in
the court of King Lakshman Sen of Bengal.
Panchatantra is a collection of Indian animal fables which
has had extensive circulation both in the country of its origin
and throughout the world. It has been translated into 15 Indian
and 40 foreign languages. It was compiled in Sanskrit (Hindu)
and Pali (Buddhist). The compilation is attributed to Pandit
Vishnu Sharma. *In Mughal era, it was translated by Abul
Fazl under the name of Ayar-e-danish.
*Bhaskaracharya is also known as Bhaskara - II known for
significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical
knowledge in the 12th century. There are six well-known
works of Bhaskaracharya. His book Siddantasiromani has four
parts - Lilavathi, Bijaganita, Ganitadhyay and Goladhayay.
*Aryabhatta was a renowned mathematician and astronomer
of ancient India. One of his major works was Aryabhatiya.
The book deals with many topics like astronomy, spherical
trigonometry, arithmetic, algebra and plane trigonometry. *In
the field of astronomy, Aryabhatta was the pioneer to infer that
the earth is spherical, and it rotates on its axis around the sun.
He is also considered to be the father of Trignometry.
*Mattavilasa Prahasana was written by the versatile Pallava
ruler and scholar Mahendravarman I.
*Manusmriti also known as Manav Dharam Shastra is mainly
related to the social system. It is the earliest metrical work on
Brahminical Dharma in Hinduism. Manu is considered to be
the originator of law in Inda.
*‘Zero’ was discovered by an anonymous Indian. Arabians
learnt it from India and carried it over Europe. It was found that
the Arabs firstly used zero in 873 A.D. “The Natural History”
is the creation of ‘Pliny the Elder,’ a Roman author.
Some Important books and their authors

Pre-Medieval Period
*Ruler of Ajmer, Prithviraj-III, was commonly known as
Prithviraj Chauhan. He defeated Mohammad Ghori in 1st battle
of Tarain in 1191 AD but suffered defeat in the 2nd battle of
Tarain in 1192 AD. *Hammir Epic describes “Chauhans”
as Suryavanshi. According to Hammir epic, Chauhans were
the scions of “Chahman”, the son of Sun. They were one
of the four fire clan. Vasudeva and Guvak are mentioned as
initial kings of this dynasty. *Sharangdev wrote Hammir Raso.
Anangpal Tomar Rajput (Tomar dynasty) originally feuda-
tories of the Gurjar- Pratiharas, founded the city of Dhillika
(modern Delhi) in 736 AD. Gopala was the founder of ‘Pala
Dynasty’. He built a monastery in Nalanda. Dharampala was
an enthusiastic Buddhist. He was called “Paramsaugat” in
his inscriptions. He constructed famous Buddhist monaster-
ies at Vikramshila and Somapuri (Paharapur). *Vikramshila
University was demolished by Bakhtiyar Khalji. The Pala
king Devpala was Buddhist. He was also known as “Param
Saugat” as per the texts. He donated five villages on the
request of Java king Balputradev of Sailendra Dynasty for
developing a Buddhist Vihar in Nalanda.
*Queen of Govind Chadhra Gahadvala, Kumardevi was Bud-
dhist. She constructed Dharmachakra Jain Vihar in Sarnath.
Krityakalpataru was written by Lakshmidhar minister of Govind
Chandra . Last ruler of Gadhvala dynasty was Jayachandra.
*Alha and Udal were related to Mahoba. They were com-
mandant of Chandel king Parmardidev (1165-1203 A.D.)
who died during the battle with Prithviraj Chauhan. Descrip-
tion of Chandel and Chauhan’s terrific struggle is provided
in "Prithviraj Raso" by Chandrabardai and “Alhakhand”
of Parimal Raso by Jagnik.
*Jejakabhukti was the ancient name of Bundelkhand. This
region was named after Jay Shakti or Jeja/Jejak, grandson
of Nannuk (founder of Chandel dynasty). *Dhangdev, also
known as Dhanga, was a king of the Chandel dynasty of
Jejakbhukti. Vidyadhara built Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Dhanga attained Moksha by abandoning his body in waters
of Ganga and Yamuna at Sangama, Prayaga.
*Pundravardhana Bhukti was located in the region of North
Bengal in ancient times. Its territory was expanded to the
northern Bihar during the era of Pala, Chandra and Sena
dynasty.
*Nagbhatta I (730-756 A.D.) is considered as the founder
of Pratihara dynasty, but the actual founder of this dynasty
was Vastsaraja. *Mihirbhoja was the most prominent ruler
of Pratihara Dynasty. The capital of Pratihars was Kannauj.
The real founder of Parmara dynasty was Siyak - II and the
capital of Parmars was Dhara. *Chalukyas belonged to Agni
Clan lineage, founded by Moolraja - I. The capital of Solankis
was Anhilwada. Kannauj is an ancient city whose ancient
name was Mahodaya Shri and Kanyakubja during the regime
of Mihirbhoj.
*An eminent Jain scholar Hemchandra got fame during the
period of Solanki king Jaysimha Siddharaj (1093-1143 AD).
However, he adorned the court of his successor Kumarapala
(1143 A.D. -1172 A.D.) as an advisor.
*Lakshmansen (1178 A.D. - 1206 A.D.) was the king of Sen
Dynasty; reigned 28 years. He initiated a new Samvat called
‘Laxman Samvat’.
*The famous jurists of early medieval India were Hemadri,
Vigyaneshwar and Jimutavahana. Vigyaneshwara wrote
“Mitakshara” and Jimutvahana wrote “Dayabhaga.”
*Rajashekhara was courtier scholar of Gurjar-Pratihara king
Mahendrapala - I and his son Mahipala I. He compiled texts
like Karpurmanjari, Kavyamimansa, Bridhshal Bhanjika,
Bal Ramayana, Bhuvankosh, etc
*Motupalli was a very important seaport in the Kakatiya
kingdom. This seaport is presently located in the Prakasham
district of Andhra Pradesh. This port was visited by Italian
traveller, Marco Polo. The Motupalli epigraph specifies the
rates assessed on a variety of items including scents such as
sandal, camphor, rose-water, ivory, pearls, corals, a range of
metals like copper, zinc and lead, silk, pepper and areca nuts.
It gives an idea of exports and imports from Motupalli port.
*Parmara dynasty was founded in the 9th century A.D. by a
person named Upendra or Krishnaraj. A city named Dhara
was the capital of Parmar dynasty. *King Bhoj was a Parmara
ruler. The early power centre of Parmars was Ujjain. After the
death of King Bhoj, Scholars said–
“Adya Dhara Nira Dhara, Niralamba Saraswati,
Pandita Khandita sarve Bhoj Raje Divangate”.
*The popular book ‘Samarangana Sutradhara’ written by
Parmara king Bhoj was based on Architecture and artificial
scientific equipment. ‘Saraswati Kanthabharan’, ‘Siddhanta
Sangraha,’ ‘Yoga Sutra vritti,’ ‘Rajamartand,’ ‘Vidya
Vinod,’ ‘Yukta Kalptaru’ and ‘Charucharya’ are some of his
masterpieces.
*Bhojshala temple is located in Dhar district of Madhya
Pradesh and was established by Parmara King Bhoj in 1035
AD. as Sanskrit school. The presiding deity of Bhojshala
temple is Goddess Saraswati. Now Bhojshala is situated in
premises of Kamal Maula Mosque.
*Gangeyadev was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty. He
adopted the title of Vikramaditya. He started issuing gold
coins after its extinction in pre-medieval period.