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bindex.indd 05:47:54:PM 07/10/2013 Page 602
Essential Algorithms
A Practical Approach to Computer
Algorithms
Rod Stephens
Published by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10475 Crosspoint Boulevard
Indianapolis, IN 46256
www.wiley.com
Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
ISBN: 978-1-118-61210-1
ISBN: 978-1-118-61276-7 (ebk)
ISBN: 978-1-118-79729-7 (ebk)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted
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iii
iv
Thanks to Bob Elliott, Tom Dinse, Gayle Johnson, and Daniel Scribner for all
of their hard work in making this book possible. Thanks also to technical edi-
tors George Kocur, Dave Colman, and Jack Jianxiu Hao for helping ensure the
information in this book is as accurate as possible. (Any remaining mistakes
are mine not theirs.)
Introduction xv
Glossary 559
Index 573
vi
Introduction xv
Chapter 1 Algorithm Basics 1
Approach 2
Algorithms and Data Structures 3
Pseudocode 3
Algorithm Features 6
Big O Notation 7
Common Runtime Functions 11
Visualizing Functions 17
Practical Considerations 17
Summary 19
Exercises 20
Chapter 2 Numerical Algorithms 25
Randomizing Data 25
Generating Random Values 25
Randomizing Arrays 31
Generating Nonuniform Distributions 33
Finding Greatest Common Divisors 33
Performing Exponentiation 35
Working with Prime Numbers 36
Finding Prime Factors 37
Finding Primes 39
Testing for Primality 40
Performing Numerical Integration 42
The Rectangle Rule 42
The Trapezoid Rule 43
vii
Adaptive Quadrature 44
Monte Carlo Integration 48
Finding Zeros 49
Summary 51
Exercises 52
Chapter 3 Linked Lists 55
Basic Concepts 55
Singly Linked Lists 56
Iterating Over the List 57
Finding Cells 57
Using Sentinels 58
Adding Cells at the Beginning 59
Adding Cells at the End 60
Inserting Cells After Other Cells 61
Deleting Cells 62
Doubly Linked Lists 63
Sorted Linked Lists 65
Linked-List Algorithms 66
Copying Lists 67
Sorting with Insertionsort 68
Linked List Selectionsort 69
Multithreaded Linked Lists 70
Linked Lists with Loops 71
Marking Cells 72
Using Hash Tables 74
List Retracing 75
List Reversal 76
Tortoise and Hare 78
Loops in Doubly Linked Lists 80
Summary 81
Exercises 81
Chapter 4 Arrays 83
Basic Concepts 83
One-dimensional Arrays 86
Finding Items 86
Finding Minimum, Maximum, and Average 86
Inserting Items 88
Removing Items 89
Nonzero Lower Bounds 89
Two Dimensions 90
Higher Dimensions 91
Triangular Arrays 94
Sparse Arrays 97
Glossary 559
Index 573
Algorithms are the recipes that make efficient programming possible. They
explain how to sort records, search for items, calculate numeric values such as
prime factors, find the shortest path between two points in a street network, and
determine the maximum flow of information possible through a communica-
tions network. The difference between using a good algorithm and a bad one
can mean the difference between solving a problem in seconds, hours, or never.
Studying algorithms lets you build a useful toolkit of methods for solving
specific problems. It lets you understand which algorithms are most effective
under different circumstances so that you can pick the one best suited for a
particular program. An algorithm that provides excellent performance with
one set of data may perform terribly with other data, so it is important that
you know how to pick the algorithm that is the best match for your scenario.
Even more important, by studying algorithms you can learn general problem-
solving techniques that you can apply to other problems even if none of the
algorithms you already know is a perfect fit for your current situation. These
techniques let you look at new problems in different ways so that you can create
and analyze your own algorithms to solve your problems and meet unantici-
pated needs.
In addition to helping you solve problems while on the job, these techniques
may even help you land the job where you can use them! Many large tech-
nology companies, such as Microsoft, Google, Yahoo!, IBM, and others, want
their programmers to understand algorithms and the related problem-solving
techniques. Some of these companies are notorious for making job applicants
work through algorithmic programming and logic puzzles during interviews.
The better interviewers don’t necessarily expect you to solve every puzzle.
In fact, they will probably learn more when you don’t solve a puzzle. Rather
xv
xvi Introduction
than wanting to know the answer, the best interviewers want to see how you
approach an unfamiliar problem. They want to see whether you throw up your
hands and say the problem is unreasonable in a job interview. Or perhaps you
analyze the problem and come up with a promising line of reasoning for using
algorithmic approaches to attack the problem. “Gosh, I don’t know. Maybe I’d
search the Internet,” would be a bad answer. “It seems like a recursive divide-
and-conquer approach might work” would be a much better answer.
This book is an easy-to-read introduction to computer algorithms. It describes
a number of important classical algorithms and tells when each is appropri-
ate. It explains how to analyze algorithms to understand their behavior. Most
importantly, it teaches techniques that you can use to create new algorithms
on your own.
Here are some of the useful algorithms this book describes:
■ Numerical algorithms such as randomization, factoring, working with
prime numbers, and numeric integration
■ Methods for manipulating common data structures such as arrays, linked
lists, trees, and networks
■ Using more-advanced data structures such as heaps, trees, balanced trees,
and B-trees
■ Sorting and searching
■ Network algorithms such as shortest path, spanning tree, topological
sorting, and flow calculations
Here are some of the general problem-solving techniques this book explains:
■ Brute-force or exhaustive search
■ Divide and conquer
■ Backtracking
■ Recursion
■ Branch and bound
■ Greedy algorithms and hill climbing
■ Least-cost algorithms
■ Constricting bounds
■ Heuristics
To help you master the algorithms, this book provides exercises that you
can use to explore ways you can modify the algorithms to apply them to new
situations. This also helps solidify the main techniques demonstrated by the
algorithms.
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