DISTANCE TO SCHOOL, FAMILY SIZE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC

STATUS AS PREDICTORS OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

OF ELEMENTARY LEARNERS

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL

Volume: 43
Issue 4
Pages: 434-448
Document ID: 2025PEMJ4170
DOI: 10.70838/pemj.430404
Manuscript Accepted: 07-10-2025
 Psych Educ, 2025, 43(4): 434-448, Document ID:2025PEMJ4170, doi:10.70838/pemj.430404, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

Distance to School, Family Size and Socio-Economic Status as Predictors of Academic

Performance of Elementary Learners
Jelaine C. Orbino,* Roel P. Villocino
For affiliations and correspondence, see the last page.
Abstract
Academic performance is not shaped by a single factor but by how multiple elements interact in the learner's
environment. This study examined the combined influence of distance between home and school, family size and
socio-economic status to academic performance to raise parental awareness and support the students. This study was
quantitative and utilized a descriptive-correlational research design. A survey was conducted among 119 elementary
learners enrolled in a public elementary school in Region XIII-Caraga, for Academic Year 2024-2025. The data for
this study were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire. Statistical processing, such as Pearson’s Correlation
Coefficient and Descriptive Statistics, was conducted using SPSS software to analyze the relationships among the
study variables. The results revealed that most elementary learners lived a moderate distance from school, belonged
to medium-sized families, and came from low-income households. Both parents were at the elementary level and self-
employed. Learners’ academic performance was rated satisfactory, with a class mean of 83%. A significant
relationship was found between distance to school, household income, parents’ educational attainment, and academic
performance, with a p-value greater than the study’s significant value of 0.05. However, no significant relationship
was found between family size, parental employment status, and academic performance. Schools were recommended
to support low-income learners, raise parental awareness of the value of education, and explore programs that address
travel distance and academic support. Further research was encouraged to examine more home-related factors
affecting learners’ academic performance.
Keywords: elementary education, distance to school, family size, socio-economic status, academic performance,
descriptive-correlational research

Introduction
Academic performance among elementary learners is influenced by a wide range of factors, including family size, socio-economic
status, and the distance between home and school. These factors play a crucial role in determining educational outcomes, especially in
marginalized communities. Given these challenges, it is essential to examine how these factors collectively predict academic
performance, especially among elementary learners, where foundational skills are developed. In India, Rathlee (2024) found that
students from low-income families were more likely to experience academic setbacks due to financial instability and lack of access to
learning resources. Similarly, in sub-Saharan Africa, researchers revealed that long commutes to school often discourage regular
attendance, contributing to lower academic achievement (Adongo et al., 2022). These studies illustrate that across various international
settings, external factors like family size, socio-economic status, and distance to school are significant predictors of learners' success
in formal education.
In Negros Oriental, socio-economic status, family size, and distance to school have also been identified as key determinants of academic
performance among elementary students. According to Abenawe (2022), Even if students from higher and lower socioeconomic
backgrounds attend school, it is hard to overlook how lower socioeconomic status affects student achievement. Additional difficulties
that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds frequently encounter include a lack of educational resources, challenging learning
environments, and low desire, which harm their academic achievement. Moreover, the possibility that poor behaviors like tardiness,
indiscipline, truancy, delinquency, and absenteeism could result from the distance to school is another cause for concern. When faced
with a long commute, the students are prone to the behaviors indicated above, which could negatively impact their academic
performance. In addition to exhaustion, long commutes to school can make students less motivated to learn, which may lead to
dropping out (Faremi et al. 2023).
In addition to the abovementioned paragraphs, in a public elementary school in Region XIII-Caraga, the challenge related to distance
to school, family size and socio-economic status notably affects students’ academic performance. Students who lived in distance from
schools were more likely to experience decreased academic performance due to absenteeism. Similarly, children from larger, lower-
income families were found to face difficulties in accessing quality education, with financial constraints significantly affecting their
ability to focus on schoolwork.
Despite the existing studies highlighting the impact of socio-economic status, family size, and distance to school on academic
performance, another critical gap lies in the lack of context-specific interventions that address these challenges. While existing studies
have highlighted these factors individually, there is a scarcity of study exploring how they collectively impact academic performance
and what localized strategies could mitigate these barriers. Thus, this study sought to address this gap by investigating the combined
influence of these predictors on the academic performance of elementary learners in Region XIII-Caraga, contributing to an

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Research Article

understanding of the barriers faced by students in this marginalized area.

Research Questions
The study investigates the influence of distance to school, family size, and socio-economic status on the academic performance of
elementary learners. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What is the demographic profile of the elementary learners in terms of:
1.1 distance to school; and
1.2 family size?
2. What is the socio-economic status of the elementary learners in terms of:
2.1 household income;
2.2 parents' educational attainment; and
2.3 employment status of parents?
3. What is the level of academic performance of elementary learners?
4. Is there a significant relationship between:
4.1 distance to school and academic performance;
4.2 family size and academic performance; and
4.3 socio-economic status and academic performance?
5. Do distance to school, family size and socio-economic status predict academic performance of elementary learners?
Literature Review
Distance to School of Elementary Learners
Distance to school has long been considered a significant factor influencing the academic performance of elementary learners. Their
distance to school significantly influences students' educational engagement, success, and physical attendance. Lengthy commutes are
mentioned as a potential cause of urbanicity-based achievement inequalities, where pupils from urban areas outperform their
counterparts in remote, rural areas (Hopson et al., 2024). Since children attend school regularly, there is a significant correlation
between their academic achievement and the school's distance. Students who walked long distances from their houses to school were
often late and hungry, which may have led to school dropouts. Additionally, students who must walk a long distance each day to get
to school spend less time sleeping and studying, which causes them to wake up late (Peteros, 2022). Longer commutes are linked to
poorer student performance as well as increased absenteeism and tardiness rates (Bammou et al. 2024).
In rural areas, the distance to school often exacerbates the challenges faced by elementary learners. Longer travel times, particularly in
regions with inadequate transportation infrastructure, can significantly limit students' ability to attend school regularly and on time.
Long commutes from home and tardy reporting by students result in fewer hours of student-teacher interaction, inadequate coverage
of curricula, less time spent in class by teachers and students on necessary assignments, and occasionally even student dropout. Thus,
these numerous other important factors prevent students from developing solid basic academic skills at a young age. Being late and
absent because of the distance to school hinders students' early development as academic achievers and strains the teachers' well-
planned lessons. Thus, students who miss class arrive late and travel vast distances to school have a detrimental impact on the student's
academic performance in rural elementary schools. Long commutes and late arrivals by students result in fewer hours of interaction
between students and teachers, inadequate coverage of the curriculum, and less time spent in class on essential assignments. In some
cases, this can even lead to student dropout. These factors hinder students from developing strong academic skills at a young age
(Chitondo, 2022).
In Marilog, Davao City, a locality characterized by both geographical isolation and socio-economic disparities, the challenges related
to family size, distance to school, and socio-economic status are even more pronounced. A study conducted by Lane (2024) in the rural
areas of Davao revealed that students who lived farther from schools were more likely to experience decreased academic performance
due to irregular attendance and fatigue. Urban learners are also not immune to the negative effects of long commutes, as distance plays
a role even in more developed educational systems. In urban contexts, factors such as traffic congestion and public transportation issues
can make commuting a stressful experience, affecting students' readiness for school.
Furthermore, the impact of distance on academic performance can be moderated by socioeconomic factors. Students from lower
socioeconomic backgrounds, who often cannot afford private transportation, are more likely to suffer from the adverse effects of long
commutes. Additionally, the research conducted by Di Malta et al. (2022) emphasized that disadvantaged students are more likely to
live farther away from high-quality schools, compounding the challenges posed by distance and negatively affecting their performance.
The possibility that poor behaviors like tardiness, indiscipline, truancy, delinquency, and absenteeism could result from the distance to
school is another cause for concern. When faced with a long commute, the students are prone to the behaviors indicated above, which
could negatively impact their academic performance. In addition to exhaustion, long commutes to school can make students less
motivated to learn, which may lead to dropping out (Faremi et al. 2023).
Distance to school also intersects with other environmental factors, such as weather conditions and safety concerns, which further

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Research Article

complicate students' ability to perform well academically. For example, Giusti et al. (2021) found that students in colder climates or
regions with frequent severe weather are disproportionately affected by the distance to school, as they face additional barriers such as
dangerous travel conditions. The study by Chamorro et al. (2022) also identified safety concerns, including crime rates along
commuting routes, as a critical factor influencing both attendance and academic performance, particularly for younger students who
may travel alone.
In conclusion, the relationship between the distance to school and academic performance is complex and influenced by multiple
variables, including rural versus urban settings, socioeconomic status, and environmental factors. While proximity to school generally
enhances academic engagement and success, long commutes have been consistently linked to negative academic outcomes for
elementary learners.
Family Size of Elementary Learners
Family size was identified as an influential factor in the academic performance of elementary learners, with larger families often facing
resource constraints that can impact educational results. Adongo et al. (2022) has shown that a small family has a greater impact on
academic achievement than a large one. Additionally, it showed that a lesser percentage of a family's income is used to meet the needs
of a small family as opposed to a large family. According to Alsaleh et al. (2021), children in larger families may experience lower
academic achievement due to the dilution of parental resources, including time, energy, and financial support.
Family size has consistently been identified as a key factor influencing the academic performance of elementary learners. Research
highlights that children from larger families often face greater challenges in terms of academic achievement. This is because resources,
including parental attention, time, and financial support, tend to be stretched thin when there are more children to care for.
The effect of family size on academic performance also appears to be closely linked to socioeconomic status. In low-income families,
having more children often exacerbates financial strain, limiting access to educational materials, extracurricular activities, and other
resources that support learning. As noted by Hu et al. (2021), children from larger families in low-income households face greater
challenges in terms of educational attainment, as their parents may struggle to provide adequate educational support.
The role of family dynamics in large families has also been explored in terms of emotional support and cognitive development. With
more children to care for, parents may struggle to maintain strong emotional connections with each child, potentially impacting their
academic motivation and self-esteem. According to Pagerols et al. (2022), children from large families tend to receive less individual
emotional support, which can affect their cognitive development and ability to perform well in school. Furthermore, Şengonul (2022)
observed that overcrowded living conditions, which are more common in large families, often limit space for focused study, resulting
in decreased academic performance.
Moreover, the educational attainment of parents in large families plays a significant role in moderating the effects of family size on
academic performance. Parents with higher educational backgrounds are often better equipped to navigate the challenges of raising
multiple children while still providing academic support. Parents' educational attainment is an important factor in determining how
well students succeed academically since parents with higher levels of education are better able to support their children's academic
pursuits (Kumar et al., 2021).
Socio-Economic Status of Elementary Learners
The term "socioeconomic status" describes the financial, cultural, and social resources and the social standing, benefits, and prestige
that come from these resources. It is viewed as a complex framework and idea assessed based on the parents' educational backgrounds,
years of education, employment position, and family income (Sengonul, 2022). Parents' socioeconomic status (SES) impacts children's
educational attainment in various ways. Higher SES parents give their kids access to privileged cultural and social capital since they
are more likely to have college degrees and hold high-status jobs. High-SES parents also practice "concerted cultivation," which
involves prioritizing planned activities that support academic achievement and devoting much time to developmental activities that
improve their kids' academic performance (Morgan et al., 2022).Additionally, Li et al. (2022) argue that parental education levels play
a crucial role in determining the academic outcomes of children, as more educated parents are better equipped to assist with homework
and foster a learning environment at home.
Conversely, children from low SES backgrounds often face a myriad of challenges that negatively impact their academic performance.
Economic hardship can limit access to essential resources such as school supplies, nutritious food, and a conducive learning
environment at home. For instance, Jiang (2021) found that students from low-income families are more likely to experience chronic
absenteeism and lower grades due to factors such as hunger, housing instability, and limited parental involvement in their education.
According to studies, children from low-SES homes performed worse academically than those from high-SES families. Children from
low-SES homes experienced issues with language, emotion, memory, and cognitive development. They also experienced health issues
and low future incomes. Furthermore, undernourished children from low-socioeconomic families developed academically more slowly,
and their future school life suffered. On the one hand, poor schooling, rising dropout rates, and child malnutrition decreased students'
academic performance; on the other hand, they had a detrimental impact on society's well-being (Bozkurt et al., 2021).

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Socio-economic status (SES) in rural communities plays a significant role in shaping the academic performance of elementary learners.
Children in rural areas often face challenges due to lower family incomes, limited access to educational resources, and less
infrastructural support compared to their urban counterparts. According to a study by Kwarteng et al. (2022), rural learners frequently
experience disparities in access to quality educational materials, such as books and digital learning tools, which directly impact their
ability to perform well in school. These conditions create a socio-economic environment that can impede academic progress, leaving
rural students at a disadvantage.
In addition to material limitations, the economic structures in rural communities often require children to contribute to household labor,
reducing the time they can dedicate to their studies. Research by Liu et al. (2022) highlights that in many rural settings, families
prioritize work over education due to economic necessity, resulting in inconsistent school attendance and lower academic performance.
Additionally, the rural economy often lacks diversity, leading to fewer opportunities for professional employment and lower family
incomes, which exacerbates educational inequalities (Hardiyanti et al., 2022). This socio-economic landscape can limit the academic
aspirations of rural learners, as they have fewer role models and career prospects that emphasize the value of education, further
perpetuating the cycle of low academic achievement.
Within the ASEAN region, socio-economic disparities are a major issue affecting educational attainment. For instance, in Indonesia,
Pasha (2024) emphasized that children from larger families, particularly in rural areas, were more likely to experience lower academic
performance due to resource dilution. In rural areas, limited access to essential educational infrastructure further compounds the impact
of socio-economic status (SES) on the academic performance of elementary learners. Rural schools often lack the necessary funding
to provide updated learning materials, sufficient classroom resources, and extracurricular programs that contribute to a holistic
educational experience. A study by Fateel et al. (2021) found that rural schools tend to have fewer technological tools, which has
become an increasingly important factor in modern education. Without these resources, rural students may struggle to keep pace with
their peers in more urbanized settings where access to educational technology is the norm. Additionally, rural communities typically
have fewer specialized programs for academic remediation or enrichment, limiting the support available to learners who may need
additional help (Finch & Finch, 2022).
Moreover, the quality of instruction in rural schools can be affected by socio-economic constraints. Due to lower salaries and fewer
professional opportunities, rural schools often experience difficulty attracting and retaining qualified teachers. According to a study by
Marks (2021), teacher shortages are more pronounced in rural areas, where schools often rely on underqualified or less experienced
educators. This disparity in teacher quality can have a direct impact on students' academic outcomes, as effective teaching is one of the
strongest predictors of student success.
Economic instability in rural families can also create stress and emotional difficulties for elementary learners, further hindering their
academic achievement. Children in low-SES rural households may experience higher levels of anxiety and stress due to financial
insecurity, which can lead to absenteeism, lack of concentration in school, and overall disengagement from the learning process
(Dalmaijer et al., 2021).The emotional toll of growing up in a low-income, rural environment often exacerbates the challenges these
students face in achieving academic success.
Lastly, social capital is an important factor in determining the academic performance of rural elementary learners. The limited
availability of social networks and educational role models in rural areas can restrict students' access to academic guidance and
mentorship, which is crucial for educational success. This lack of exposure to academic role models and professional mentors often
results in lower educational expectations among rural learners and their families, creating a cyclical pattern where lower socio-
economic status leads to lower academic performance and limited upward mobility (Africa et al., 2021).
The role of community support systems cannot be understated when discussing the socio-economic status of elementary learners in
rural settings. Many rural areas have tight-knit communities that, despite limited resources, often rally together to support local schools
and families. When parents and community members actively participate in school events and governance, it fosters a sense of
belonging and motivates students to excel academically (Brown & Putwain, 2021).
As observed by Gede et al. (2024), the shift to remote learning disproportionately affected students from low-SES backgrounds, leading
to a decline in academic performance and engagement. The lack of reliable internet access and the absence of support for online learning
created barriers that hindered educational attainment. These challenges underscore the urgent need for targeted policies and
interventions to bridge the digital divide and ensure that all learners, regardless of their socio-economic status, have equitable access
to quality education.
Conversely, children from low SES backgrounds frequently face more challenges, such as limited access to learning materials,
nutritious food, and a stable home environment, which are all crucial for academic success. Economic hardship can lead to issues like
chronic absenteeism and lower grades due to factors such as hunger, housing instability, and stress, which in turn affect children’s
cognitive development and emotional well-being (Jiang, 2021). Moreover, rural students often experience additional socio-economic
barriers, including fewer educational resources and opportunities for parental involvement in education, which further hinder their
academic achievement (Kwarteng et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022).
Overall, SES remains a significant predictor of academic performance, particularly for elementary learners, with those from
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disadvantaged backgrounds facing considerable obstacles in their education (Fateel et al., 2021).
Household Income
Household income is a key component of socio-economic status and has a profound influence on the academic performance of
elementary learners. Children from higher-income families often have access to a wealth of educational resources that can enhance
their learning experiences. These resources may include private tutoring, access to technology, and extracurricular activities, all of
which can significantly boost academic achievement. A study by Naite (2021) found that students from higher-income households
consistently outperformed their lower-income peers in standardized tests, primarily due to their ability to access these supplementary
learning opportunities.
Moreover, household income has a direct impact on a child's academic performance. Specifically, children from wealthier families
often have access to educational resources, such as private tutoring, technology, and extracurricular activities, which significantly
enhance their learning. In contrast, children from lower-income households face significant barriers, including limited access to these
resources, food insecurity, and housing instability, which can all negatively affect their academic performance. Consequently, a study
by Reardon (2021) highlights that the gap in academic achievement between higher and lower-income children has widened due to
differences in parental investments in cognitive development.
On the other hand, students from low-income households often face financial barriers that hinder their academic performance. Limited
access to resources such as textbooks, computers, and even basic school supplies can significantly impact a child’s ability to engage
fully in academic activities. Furthermore, household financial instability can contribute to stress and distraction, reducing a child's
ability to concentrate on schoolwork. According to Wilder (2023), children from low-income families are more likely to experience
food insecurity and inadequate housing, which are both detrimental to academic performance.
Parents' Educational Attainment
Parents' educational attainment plays a crucial role in shaping the academic performance of elementary learners. Higher levels of
parental education are associated with greater involvement in their children's education, which positively impacts academic outcomes.
Educated parents are better equipped to assess their kids' academic needs and potential. They can assist their children with their early
education, impacting their expertise level in their field. Parents can best promote their children's educational potential by providing
them with access to the newest facilities and technologies if they have a strong financial base (Vadivel et al., 2023). These parents are
also more aware of the importance of early childhood education and tend to invest in enrichment programs that give their children a
head start in academic achievement (Cui et al., 2023). The ability of educated parents to navigate the education system, provide
academic support, and set higher expectations for their children has been consistently linked to better student performance.
In contrast, lower levels of parental education often correlate with reduced academic support at home, which can hinder a child’s
academic development. Parents with limited formal education may struggle to assist with schoolwork, particularly in subjects that
require specialized knowledge or skills. Parents who are educated and understand the value of superior education, are more inclined to
give priority to the link between the community, school, parents, and students. When parents take an active role in helping their kids
with academics, good academic results are probably to occur. The effects of parental education on the intellectual achievement of
schoolchildren are apparent. This implies that parents' education helps their children achieve academic success (Bhandari & Timsina
2024).
Parents' educational attainment is a well-documented factor influencing children's academic success. Studies consistently show that
parents with higher levels of education tend to be more involved in their children's education, which positively impacts student
performance. Educated parents are more likely to engage in academic activities with their children, such as reading, assisting with
homework, and fostering an environment that values education. Additionally, these parents are often better equipped to navigate the
education system and provide their children with resources that support academic achievement (Won, 2021).
Employment Status of Parents
The employment status of parents significantly influences the academic performance of elementary learners, as it affects both financial
stability and the time parents can dedicate to supporting their children’s education. Parents with stable, full-time employment are more
likely to provide the financial resources necessary for academic success, including school supplies, educational materials, and
extracurricular activities that enhance learning. The family budget may be lowered by parental unemployment, making it more difficult
for parents to pay for direct educational expenses like private tutoring. Family conflict can result from unemployment and is linked to
declining mental health in kids, missing school, and/or not being ready for school (Drydakis, 2023).
However, the relationship between parental employment and academic performance is complex, particularly when parents face
underemployment or irregular work schedules. Parents working multiple jobs or experiencing job instability may struggle to provide
the necessary support for their children’s education due to exhaustion, stress, or time constraints. Affuso et al. (2022) found that the
stress associated with job instability can negatively affect the home environment, creating additional challenges for children in
maintaining focus and performing well in school.

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The employment status of parents plays a significant role in shaping the academic performance of elementary learners. Studies show
that stable, full-time employment often leads to better financial stability for families, enabling them to provide necessary educational
resources and extracurricular activities that contribute to academic success.
However, the situation is more complex when parents experience irregular or insecure employment. Research highlights that parents
working multiple jobs or facing job instability may struggle with time management and stress, which can negatively impact the support
they can offer their children's education. Additionally, job-related stress can create a disruptive home environment, further hindering a
child’s ability to concentrate on their studies (Affuso et al., 2022).
Level of Academic Performance of Elementary Learners
Gaining knowledge is one way to characterize academic performance. It pertains to developing abilities and competencies, obtaining
good marks and comparable academic success, obtaining a profession that advances, and having the will and perseverance to pursue
education. Additionally, while looking for information about students' academic performance, the versions of academic performance
stated above are given the highest significance for academic achievement, followed by knowledge and skills acquired (Kumar et al.,
2021). The academic performance of elementary learners is often measured by standardized tests, grades, and teacher assessments,
which serve as indicators of a child’s cognitive development and mastery of essential skills. Several factors, including school
environment, home support, and individual motivation, contribute to shaping academic outcomes.
Quilez et al. (2021) found that children who are engaged in a stimulating learning environment, both at home and at school, tend to
achieve higher academic performance, as they are exposed to diverse learning opportunities that enhance critical thinking and problem-
solving skills. Students are required to complete the tasks assigned to them successfully to facilitate academic performance, exhibit a
perfectionist mindset, demonstrate resiliency when faced with challenges, and create plans for conquering the challenges they
encounter. The financial circumstances in which students find themselves, their study and homework habits, their time management
abilities, their health, and their familial relationships are some of the significant aspects influencing their academic success (Briones et
al., 2022).
On the other hand, various socio-environmental factors can hinder the academic performance of elementary learners, particularly those
from disadvantaged backgrounds. Learners who struggle academically often face challenges such as inadequate learning resources,
lack of parental involvement, or insufficient support from their school. A student's level of academic success is influenced by their
family's social, economic, and educational standing. Due to the availability of more learning resources, it is commonly accepted that
children of parents from higher and moderate socioeconomic backgrounds are better exposed to a learning environment at home (Munir
et al., 2023). In addition to external factors, intrinsic characteristics such as motivation and self-regulation are crucial in determining
the academic performance of elementary learners. According to a study by Matzavela & Alepis (2021), students who exhibit higher
levels of intrinsic motivation tend to achieve better academic outcomes. These learners demonstrate a natural curiosity and desire to
understand the material, which drives them to engage more deeply with their studies. Furthermore, Mao et al. (2021) found that self-
regulated learners, who can set goals and monitor their own progress, are more likely to perform well academically, as they can
overcome distractions and stay focused on their tasks. Both motivation and self-regulation are critical for long-term academic success,
as they foster independent learning habits that continue into later stages of education.
Cognitive development also plays a pivotal role in determining academic performance, with early interventions proving to be beneficial
for elementary learners who may be struggling. Similarly, Kuo et al. (2021) noted that schools providing targeted support services,
including tutoring and personalized learning plans, help bridge the performance gap between low- and high-achieving students,
ensuring that even struggling learners can succeed academically.
In addition, Siddique et al. (2021) observed that smaller class sizes and personalized attention from teachers lead to better academic
outcomes, as students receive more individualized instruction and support. These findings suggest that the quality of the learning
environment is essential for optimizing student performance at the elementary level.
Social-emotional factors also play a key role in academic achievement. Emotional stability, positive peer relationships, and supportive
teacher-student interactions have been found to contribute significantly to students' academic performance. According to Wu et al.
(2021), elementary learners who experience a positive emotional climate in the classroom are more likely to engage with the material
and participate actively in lessons, leading to higher academic achievement.
Methodology
Research Design
The study employed quantitative descriptive-correlational research design. To accurately depict the features of circumstances, people,
or groups, as well as the frequency with which particular events occur, descriptive research uses statistics to characterize and summarize
the data. Conversely, correlational research examines how variables of interest relate to one another without the researcher getting
involved (Jomuad et al., 2021). The quantitative approach was utilized because this study aimed to define research questions since
descriptive and correlational designs focus on how the data will be analyzed. Mainly, descriptive questions were addressed by

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descriptive design. The quantitative descriptive design's statistical instruments were comparable tools such as frequency tables, means,
standard deviations, and confidence intervals. Using a correlational design, the researcher gathered information from two or more
variables and assessed the degree of association between them. The correlation between two variables is calculated to determine their
relationship (Thomas & Zubkov 2023). From the elaboration above, the quantitative approach was the most suitable for this study.
Additionally, the correlation method was employed to examine the relationships between distance to school, family size, socio-
economic status, and the academic performance of elementary learners. The correlational design was appropriate for analyzing these
relationships without manipulating the variables, enabling the researcher to assess how these factors impact student achievement.
Respondents
The respondents of the study consisted of Grade 3 to Grade 6 students who were enrolled in a public elementary school in Region XIII-
Caraga in School Year 2024–2025. There were 119 learners enrolled from Grade 3 to Grade 6. A universal sampling technique was
employed, wherein all individuals within the defined population had an equal chance of being selected, ensuring comprehensive and
unbiased representation. This sampling method ensured the inclusiveness of the entire population, which was essential for generalizing
the findings to similar contexts. Parental consent was obtained for all participants to ensure ethical compliance, and only those who
provided consent were included in the study.
Instrument
The data for this study were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire. The instrument underwent a validation process to ensure
its reliability and appropriateness for the target respondents. A panel of experts in education and research reviewed the questionnaire
for its content, format and structure followed by a pilot test involving a small sample of students from a non-participating school. The
questionnaire was divided into four sections: demographic information, distance to school, family size, and socio-economic status,
with questions tailored to gather key details related to the predictors of academic performance. The instrument was designed specifically
for elementary learners and included questions about their age, gender, family background, and socio-economic conditions.
Moreover, the demographic section collected information on the learners' grade level, gender, and age. Subsequent sections focused
on important factors such as the distance from home to school, transportation methods, and family size. The socio-economic section
explored household income, parental educational attainment, and employment status to assess the learners' socio-economic background.
Procedure
Before conducting the study, the research proposal was submitted to an ethics review board to ensure that all ethical standards were
upheld. Following ethics approval, a formal letter was submitted to the Schools Division Superintendent of Agusan del Sur and the
school head of the public Elementary School to obtain authorization to conduct the study within the school. After receiving approval
to conduct the study, informed consent forms were distributed to the participants and their parents or guardians. These forms explained
the study's purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits, and the participants' rights. Only students who provided signed consent
from their parents or guardians were included in the study. The research instrument was validated to ensure reliability and
appropriateness for the target respondents. A panel of experts in education and research reviewed the questionnaire, followed by a pilot
test involving a small sample of students from a non-participating school. Based on the results, necessary adjustments were made to
enhance clarity and accuracy. With all permissions and consent, the questionnaires were administered to the students during school
hours. Answering of questionnaires was done with the help of parents or guardians to ensure the correctness of the information being
filled in. Teachers also assisted in distributing and collecting the forms. At the same time, the researcher guided the process and ensured
that instructions were communicated and that students were able to complete the questionnaire accurately. Once the data was collected,
it was encoded into a secured database for analysis. Statistical processing was conducted using SPSS software to analyze the
relationships among the study variables.
Data Analysis
The collected data were analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques to explore the relationships between distance to school, family
size, socio-economic status, and academic performance. The following methods were applied:
Descriptive Statistics. Mean, standard deviation, and frequency distributions was used to summarize the demographic characteristics
of the respondents (e.g., family size, distance to school, and socio-economic status).
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient. This test was employed to determine the strength and direction of the relationships between the
independent variables (distance to school, family size, and socio-economic status) and the dependent variable (academic performance).
Multiple Regression Analysis. This technique was used to assess the combined influence of the independent variables on academic
performance. This allowed the researcher to identify which factors are significant predictors of student achievement.
All statistical analysis were conducted using SPSS software, ensuring accuracy in the computation and interpretation of results. The
results provided insights into how these key factors impact academic performance and inform potential interventions for improving
educational outcomes.

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Ethical Considerations
Ethical consideration presented the beliefs and concepts that should be maintained throughout the study. With this, the researcher
ensured that the ethical standards were strictly followed throughout the study, addressing the areas that followed:
Social Value. This research was conducted to investigate the combined influence of distance to school, family size, and socio-economic
status on the academic performance of elementary learners. The study aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these
interconnected factors impacted student achievement, identifying potential challenges and opportunities to improve educational
outcomes in a public elementary school in Region XIII-Caraga. The results were shared with the community through the Local
Government Unit (LGU) and were published in an online journal, so other related research studies could use them as a reference.
Informed Consent. The researcher distributed Informed Consent Forms (ICF) to the identified participants. The researcher disclosed
essential information such as their name and affiliation. It was also emphasized that participation was purely voluntary and that
participants were free to withdraw anytime they felt any discomfort. The purpose of the study was explained, along with the procedures
that were carried out for the study.
Vulnerability of the Research Participants. The researcher explained the entire process of the in-depth interview that was conducted
and also emphasized that the participants had the freedom to opt out of the interview if they experienced any discomfort and that it
would not affect them in any way.
Risks, Benefits, and Safety. The researcher explained the benefits of the participants’ participation in the study. The questionnaire was
also administered at the most convenient time and place for the participants, and any expenses they incurred for the study were
reimbursed by the researcher.
Privacy and Confidentiality of Information. The researcher made sure that the participants’ personal information, identity, and data
gathered were kept confidential and secured to ensure that the Data Privacy Act of 2012 was followed. The data collected through
printed questionnaires were kept in a locked file inside the school head’s office, and the data were transferred to a Google Drive, which
only the researcher could access. The data were destroyed after the conduct of the study.
Justice. The research participants were chosen based on the inclusion criteria: they must have been enrolled learners of Bacay
Elementary School for School Year 2024–2025. Also, the learners had to be in Grade 3 to Grade 6. In any case where research
participants incurred expenses during the conduct of the questionnaire, the researcher reimbursed them. They were also given a token
of appreciation for any inconvenience that the study might have caused.
Transparency. To address this aspect, the researcher disclosed the affiliations and the objective of the study. The research participants
were also given a chance to review their answers to verify the correctness of the data entered in the questionnaire.
Results and Discussion
This section deals with the presentation of the data collected. The results of the study were presented and discussed in sequence based
on the presentation of the problems.
Learners’ Profile
This section presents the results related to the first research question, which identifies the profile of the elementary learners in terms
of distance to school and family size.
Distance to School of the Elementary Learners. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents based on the distance they travel from
their homes to school. This distance was measured in kilometers.
Table 1. Distance to School of the Elementary Learners
Distance To School in Km Frequency Percentage
1. 0-0.49 km (Very Near) 27 23%
2. 0.5 to 0.99 km (Near) 25 21%
3. 1 to 1.49 km (Moderate) 54 45%
4. 1.5 km or more (Far) 13 11%
Total 119 100%

Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents based on the distance they travelled from school. From this data, 27 or 23% of the
respondents live within a distance of 0-0.49 km, 25 or 21% of the respondents live within 0.5 to 0.99 km, 54 or 45% live a distance of
1-1.49 km away from the school, and only 13 or 11% respondents live at a distance of 1.5 km or more. Overall, most of the respondents
live between 1-1.49 km from the school.
Family Size of the Elementary Learners. This section presents the results to the statement of the problem 1.2, which identifies the
number of siblings in each family. Table 2 presents the family sizes of the respondents.

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Table 2. Family Size of the of the Elementary Learners

Family Size Frequency Percentage
1. 0 to 2 (small) 15 13%
2. 3 to 5 (medium) 73 61%
3. 6 and up (large) 31 26%
Total 119 100%

From the data provided, we can see that the most prevalent family size is between 3 to 5 members, constituting 73 or 61% of them.
About 31 or 26% were surveyed from families consisting of 6 members and up; just 15 or 13% are with family size of 0 to 2 members.
Overall, the data suggests that most respondents belong to medium-sized families.
Socio-Economic Status of the Elementary Learners
This section presents the results addressing the second research question, which identifies the socio-economic status of the respondents
in terms of household income, parents’ educational attainment, and employment status of parents.
Household Income. Table 3 presents the socio-economic status of the respondents based on household income.
Table 3. Household Income of the Elementary Learners
Household Income Frequency Percentage
1. 0 to Ph 4, 999 (low) 63 53%
2. Php 5, 000 to Php 9, 999 42 35%
3. Php 10, 000 to Php 14 999 8 7%
4. Php 15 000 to Php 19 999 2 0.1%
5. Php 20 000 and up (high) 4 3.4%
Total 119 100%

According to the data, 63 or 53% of respondents indicate that their households earn from Php 0 to 4,999, 42 or 35% earn from Php
5,000-9,999; on the other hand, 8 or 7% earn from Php 10,000-14,999, and just 4 or 3.4% earn from Php 20,000 and above, therefore,
the least number of respondents, which are just 2 or 0.1%, would earn anywhere from Php 15,000 to 19,999. Thus, it shows that the
majority of respondents belong to households with low incomes ranging from Php 0 to 4,999.
Educational Attainment of Mother. Table 4 presents the socio-economic status of the respondents based on the educational attainment
of their mothers.
Table 4. Educational Attainment of Mother
Highest Educational Attainment of Mother Frequency Percentage
1. no formal education 6 5%
2. elementary 43 36%
3. secondary 59 50%
4. college 5 5%
5. master’s o doctoral 6 5%
Total 119 100%

Based on the given data, 6 or 5% of the respondents’ mothers had no formal education, 43 or 36% finished elementary school, 59 or
50% had secondary education, which makes the level of education so far the most represented among respondents' mothers. At the
same time, only 5 or 5% managed to further their studies to a college degree, just as 6 or 5% pursued their master's or doctoral degrees.
Thus, most of the respondents' mothers have secondary education levels.
Educational Attainment of Father. Table 5 presents the socio-economic status of the respondents based on the educational attainment
of their fathers.
Table 5. Educational Attainment of Father
Highest Educational Attainment of Father Frequency Percentage
1. no formal education 7 6%
2. elementary 51 42.9%
3. secondary 54 45.4%
4. college 5 4.2%
5. master’s or doctoral 2 1.7%
Total 119 100%

It can be noted from the data that 7 or 6% of the respondents' fathers had no formal education, while 51 or 42.9% completed elementary
education. The data further shows that 54 or 45.4% of the respondent’ fathers were able to complete secondary education. The
percentage of respondents that graduated from college is only 5 or 4.2%, whereas only 2 or 1.7% went for their master's or doctorate
degrees. This means that most of the respondents' fathers highest academic attainment level is secondary education.

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Employment Status of Mother. Table 6 presents the socio-economic status of the respondents based on the employment status of
mother.
Table 6. Employment Status of Mother
Employment Status of Mother Frequency Percentage
1. none 32 27%
2. part time 22 18.5%
3. self-employed 42 35.3%
4. full time 23 19.3%
Total 119 100%

From the given information, 32 or 27% of respondents' mothers are unemployed, while 22 or 18.5% are part time workers. The majority
42 or 35.3% is self-employed, making it the most common employment status. Meanwhile, 23 or 19.3% are in full-time jobs. This
shows that the mothers of most respondents are mostly into self-employment.
Employment Status of Father. Table 7 presents the socio-economic status of the respondents based on the employment status of father.
Table 7. Employment Status of Father
Employment Status of Father Frequency Percentage
1. none 11 9.2%
2. part time 21 17.6%
3. self-employed 49 41.2%
4. full time 38 31.9%
Total 119 100%

The table shows that 11 or 9.2% of the respondents’ fathers are unemployed, and 21 or 17.6% are part-time workers. The largest, 49
or 41.2%, have reported self-employed as the most common form of engagement. In contrast, 38 or 31.9% have full-time employment.
Hence, the majority of respondents' fathers are self-employed.
Summary of the Demographic Characteristics of the Students. Table 8 presents the summary of the socio-economic status of the
students using descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation.
Table 8. Summary of the Demographic Status of the Students
Demographic Status Mean Descriptive Interpretation Standard Deviation
Distance to School 2.44 0.5-0.99 Km 0.958794
Family Size 2.13 3-5 siblings 0.607023
Household Income 1.67 ₱ 0 – ₱4,999/ month 0.926811
Educational Attainment of Mother 2.68 Elementary level 0.839495
Educational Attainment of Father 2.53 Elementary level 0.742735
Employment Status of Mother 2.47 Self-employed 1.083284
Employment Status of Father 2.96 Self-employed 0.929398

Table 8 reveals that a student's mean distance to school is 0.5-0.99 Km. For family size, the average is 3 to 5 siblings, while for
household income, it obtains the lowest average of 1.67, which indicates the lowest range for household income per month. Elementary
level is the average educational attainment for both parents, and for employment status, both parents are self-employed. The data also
shows that family size has the lowest standard deviation of 0.60, a smaller standard deviation, and the data is close to the mean. The
highest standard deviation obtained is 1.083284 for the mother's employment status. It indicates that the value is relatively far from the
mean.
Academic Performance of the Elementary Learners
This section presents the results to the third statement of the problem that identifies the academic performance of elementary learners.
Table 9 displays the distribution of grades among the respondents.
Table 9. Academic Performance of the Elementary Learners
Grade Range Frequency Percentage
75 – 79 21 17.6 %
80 – 84 56 47.1 %
85 - 89 36 30.3 %
90 - 94 6 5.0 %
Total 119 100%
Table 9 presents the academic performance of the Elementary Learners. The majority, 56 students or 47.1%, achieved grades within
the 80–84 range. This is followed by 36 students (30.3%) who scored between 85–89, and 21 students (17.6%) in the 75–79 bracket.
Only 6 students (5.0%) attained grades in the 90–94 range. These results indicate that most respondents performed within the 80–84
grade range.
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The grades of the students, from the given information, stretch between a minimum of 75 to a maximum of 91 and an average score of
83. Furthermore, they have a standard deviation of 3.722 — indicative of some distinct separation among the marks. Overall, the
average grade for the class ended up at 83, which means it falls under the category of "Satisfactory" performance. This suggests that
most students have performed well and satisfactorily in their studies.
Relationship between Distance to school, Family size, and Socio-economic status to the Academic Performance of Elementary
Learners
This section presents the results of the fourth statement of the problem that identifies the relationship between distance to school, family
size, and socio-economic status to the academic performance of elementary learners.
Relationship between Distance to school and Academic performance. Table 10 shows the relationship between Distance to school
and Academic performance of the respondents.
Table 10. Distance to school and Academic performance
Indicators Pearson r p-value Interpretation
value
Distance to school and -0.2 0.03 significant
Academic performance

As the computed correlation of -0.2 indicates the distance between school and academic performance, the two variables have a low
negative relationship. The p-value of 0.03 suggests that this correlation is statistically significant. This implies that the distance traveled
by a student to school has a minimal but meaningful influence on academic performance. Specifically, as the distance extends, academic
performance tends to decrease, indicating a negative direction in their relationship despite its low strength.
Relationship between Family size and Academic performance.
Table 11 presents the relationship between Family size and Academic performance of the respondents.
Table 11. Family size and Academic performance
Indicators Pearson p-value Interpretation
r value
Family size and Academic 0.143 0.12 NOT significant
performance

The interpretation from the given information states a correlation value of 0.143 between family size and academic performance,
indicating a very weak relationship between the variables. The p-value in the relationship is 0.12 shows that this relationship is not
statistically significant. Thus, family size does not noticeably affect academic performance.
Relationship between Socio-economic status and Academic performance
Socio-economic status of the respondents includes household income, parent’s educational attainment, and employment status of
parents.
Relationship between household Income and academic performance. Reflected in Table 12 is the relationship between Household
Income and Academic performance of the respondents.
Table 12. Household Income and Academic Performance
Indicators Pearson p-value Interpretation
r value
Household income and academic 0.4 <.001 significant
performance
With respect to the above information, one's earnings as a householder are related to academic performance in terms of value; it is
approximately 0.4. This suggests a moderate correlation between the two variables. This p-value of below 0.001 denotes that this
correlation is statistically significant. Therefore, household income has a significant impact on the performance of a student.
Relationship Between Mother’s Educational Attainment and Academic Performance. Table 13 presents the relationship between
mother’s educational attainment and academic performance of the respondents.
Table 13. Mother’s Educational Attainment and Academic Performance
Indicators Pearson r p-value Interpretation
value
Mother’s Educational attainment 0.2 0.04 significant
and academic performance

The established correlation of 0.2 between the mother's educational attainment and academic performance reflects a weak association
between the two variables. The p-value of 0.04 indicates the statistical significance of the stated relationship. This means that a mother's

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education correlates with a slight but meaningful influence on a student's academic performance.
Relationship Between Father’s Educational Attainment and Academic Performance. Table 14 provides the relationship between the
father’s educational attainment and the academic performance of the respondents.
Table 14. Father’s Educational Attainment and Academic Performance
Indicators Pearson r p-value Interpretation
value
Father’s Educational attainment 0.2 0.04 significant
and academic performance

The correlation coefficient of 0.2 indicates that there is a low relationship between the educational attainment of the father and academic
performance. Taken together with the 0.04 p-value calculated, this is statistically significant. This means that the education level of the
father has a small, yet significant, effect on his child's academic performance.
Relationship between Employment Status and Academic Performance. Indicated in Table 15 is the relationship between Employment
Status and academic performance of the respondents.
Table 15. Employment Status and Academic Performance
Indicators Pearson r p-value Interpretation
value
Employment Status and .07 .447 NOT significant
Academic Performance

According to the data, the relationship between employment and academic efficacy is at 0.07, which is a very weak correlation between
the two variables. The measure of significance, in this case, is p-value=0.447, which shows that this correlation is not statistically
significant, which indicates that the employment status of parents does not have much chance to change the student's academic
performance
Conclusion
The summary emphasizes that distance to school, household income, and parental education levels are significant factors influencing
the academic performance of elementary learners. This means that even a minimal increase in travel distance can contribute to
differences in academic outcomes. Families with higher incomes can provide supportive learning environments, such as access to
quality materials, technology, and extracurricular opportunities. Likewise, parents with higher educational attainment are more likely
to guide their children academically, set higher expectations, and value educational success.
In contrast, family size and parental employment status do not significantly impact learners' academic outcomes. While it is often
assumed that more siblings may limit attention and resources, what truly matters is the quality of relationships and support within the
home. Similarly, employment status alone does not determine academic success, but how parents balance work and involvement in
their child's education can have indirect effects. These findings highlight that student achievement is not shaped by single factors alone
but by how multiple elements interact in the learner's environment.
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Affiliations and Corresponding Information
Jelaine C. Orbino
Bacay Elementary School
Department of Education – Philippines
Roel P. Villocino
Assumption College of Nabunturan – Philippines

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