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Chapter
Chapter
2 2 Modern
Modern
Systems
Systems
Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

Chapter 2
The Origins of Software

Chapter Overview
The primary purposes of Chapter 2 are to show students that not all of the software associated with a
systems development project is developed in-house and to emphasize that analysts should consider
several design strategies based on the organization’s resources before choosing one to pursue for further
development in design. The secondary purpose is to emphasize that the consideration of a packaged
software solution should be done after the analysis efforts are complete, not as a substitute for analysis.

The chapter discusses six sources for software: Information Technology Services Firms, packaged
software producers, enterprise-wide solutions (ERP), cloud computing, open-source and in-house
development. In addition, the reasoning that should be followed when choosing among the many options
available to an analysis team for developing design strategies. The point is that the “make-versus-buy”
decision is not a choice of one or the other, but is in reality a spectrum of choices ranging from make at
one end and buy at the other. Just as important, more choices these days are made toward the buy end of
the scale. The Request for Proposal (RFP) is shown as an important element to understanding how
analysis and design requirements must be translated into a document that external source organizations
can review for bid. The chapter includes a discussion of outsourcing, an option for systems development
and management that may not occur to many students in their first systems development course. The
chapter explains reuse and the four different approaches to reuse.

Instructional Objectives
Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s
point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to:

1. Show students that in-house developed systems are not the only source for software.

2. Six sources for software need to be understood: Information Technology Services Firms, packaged
software producers, enterprise-wide solutions (ERP), Cloud Computing Services, open-source, and
in-house developers. An understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of each must be shown.

3. Cloud Computing is likely to be new to students and even though they may have heard the term, it is
important to ensure that they understand what it is and its advantages. Emphasize that it enables
customers (firms) to use hardware and software that is not installed on their computers but rather to
access services over the Internet of a Virtual Private Network (VPN) on a pay-for-use basis.
Emphasize the three key advantages of cloud computing: (1) freeing internal IT staff, (2) gaining
access to applications faster than via internal development, and (3) achieving lower-cost access to
corporate-quality applications. Also mention that cost savings are achieved from elastic leasing of
pooled resources dynamically resulting in lower costs by paying only for the resources actually used.
This is referred to as scalability. Be sure to mention the security concerns associated with cloud
computing.

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Modern
Systems
Systems
Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

4. Show students how to evaluate off-the-shelf software and why it is important to do thorough analysis
first. Review the criteria to consider when purchasing off-the-shelf software (p.35). Also explain that

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2 2 Modern
Modern
Systems
Systems
Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

the claims made by software and hardware vendors need to be validated by someone outside the
vendor organization, such as current users and independent software testing centers. Emphasize that
vendor information may be biased and even trade publication articles may describe software in a
more than realistic positive light. When in doubt, check the information out.

5. Discuss the importance of software reuse and how object-oriented and component-based
development are the two most common reuse methods. Also emphasize that reuse must be aligned
with the organization’s overall strategic goals. Explain the four levels of adoption currently being
seen in the industry: ad hoc, facilitated, managed, and designed (Table 2-3 lists the four
approaches).

Classroom Ideas
1. Use Table 2-1 and an updated version of the same information from the most recent Software
Magazine survey to begin a discussion of the many, varied sources of software in the marketplace.

2. Use Table 2-2 to summarize the six alternative sources for software and how to choose among them
for specific software needs. This table can serve as the basis for a discussion of the make- versus-
buy decision and can be expanded to include the “not invented here” syndrome. Additionally, invite
a guest speaker who is currently responsible for software procurement and have them discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of the sources of software.

3. Have students research the proper format and contents for Requests for Proposal and have them
create and/or present an RFP (see Problem and Exercise 1). RFP preparation should include
discussion of the hardware, software, and organizational issues presented in this chapter.

4. Find a local guest speaker (from your alumni base or a recruiter coming to your campus) from an
organization that employs object-oriented design to come in and discuss the level of reuse and the
real-world issues involved in their organization with promoting the concept, given some of the
startup costs and constraints.

Answers to Key Terms

Suggested answers are provided below. These answers are presented top-down, left-to-right.

2.3. Outsourcing 2.4. Request for proposal (RFP)

2.2. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems 2.5. Reuse
2.1. Cloud Computing

Answers to Review Questions

2.6. Six sources of software are identified in the text. These include: 1) Information Technology
Services Firms, 2) packaged software producers, 3) enterprise-wide solution software, 4) cloud
computing, 5) open-source, and 6) in-house development software.

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Modern
Systems
Systems
Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

Information Technology Services firms are used by companies who do not have expertise or
personnel to develop IS systems. These firms have experts in the development, hosting, and
running of applications and other services to fit a customer’s specifications.

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Systems
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Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
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Manual
Manual

Packaged software producers develop a vast number of applications for different markets that fits a
large market segment. Prepackaged solutions may range from general, broad-based to narrow, niche
packages that can run on a variety of platforms.

Enterprise solutions (ERP) consist of a series of integrated modules; these modules are integrated to
focus on business processes rather than on business functional areas allowing companies to store
data in only one area without duplication. This allows the use of a single repository ensuring more
accurate and consistent data with less maintenance.

Cloud Computing is the provision of applications over the Internet or a virtual private network
(VPN) such that customers do not need to invest in hardware and software infrastructure and can
pay on a per-use basis. A key advantage is that server and storage capacity can be ordered on
demand as needed. Information security remains a concern when considering cloud computing
because of 3rd party control of the applications.

Open-source software has risen in popularity because of the free availability of not only the product
but the source code as well. This software is developed and maintained by a community of like-
minded people dedicated to improving source code access, with Linux, MySQL, and Firefox being
the most prevalent examples.

In-house development requires the resources, especially trained staff, to develop software targeted to
an organization’s own specific needs. Fewer companies are going this route today because of the
expertise needed and the high costs of development.

Table 2-2 compares the six sources of software components.

2.7. When deciding what off-the-shelf software to buy, you should compare products and vendors.
Additional criteria include (among others that are more situation-specific): cost, functionality,
vendor support, vendor viability, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation.
Vendor viability and vendor support are probably the two most important.

2.8. A Request for Proposal (RFP) is a formal document that provides detailed specifications about a
target information system and asks vendors for information on how they would develop the system.
Analysts use RFPs as a way to get vendors to perform the research to determine what application
design will meet user requirements and the hardware and systems software vendors believe are
necessary for developing the new system.

2.9. To verify vendor claims about a software package, an analyst can ask for a software
demonstration, use the software (and its documentation and training materials) personally, talk with
other users of the software, and consult independent software testing and abstracting services
(surveys available for a fee). It is important to make sure that the system fits your organization’s
needs.

2.10. Enterprise resource planning systems consist of a series of integrated modules; these modules
pertain to specific, traditional business functions. However, these modules are integrated to focus on
business processes rather than on business functional areas. Enterprise resource planning systems’
advantages include a single repository of data for all aspects of a business process, flexible modules,

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Systems
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Analysis
Analysis
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Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

less maintenance, more consistent and accurate data, and ease of adding and integrating new
modules into the existing system. Possible disadvantages of this approach include complexity,
lengthy implementation time, lack of in-house expertise, expense, and changing how the

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Modern
Systems
Systems
Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
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Manual
Manual

organization conducts its business. These projects when accomplished successfully are most often
approached as an institutional change project, not simply an IT project.

2.11. Reuse is the use of previously written software resources that can be reused in new applications.
It most often is applied to object-oriented and component-based development. Creating, storing, and
maintaining objects and components that can be drawn on again and again for new applications is
the objective. Reuse should in theory increase programmer productivity, decrease development time,
minimize errors, and schedule overruns. Ultimately it should produce higher quality work with
fewer defects and thus reduce overall implementation and maintenance time. In current practice, due
to high initial startup costs, lack of good quality methods for labeling, storage, combined with lack
of senior management commitment, reuse is not practiced as often as it could be. Additionally, lack
of incentives and rewards to design for and apply reuse concepts and the overall difficulty in
measuring economic gain from its application all conspire against reuse in the real world. Note
Figure 2-5 on the high initial startup costs when a high level of reuse is planned. As more
organizations achieve success and as more componentization takes place in the for purchase arena
more organizations will have incentive to integrate reuse into their business strategy.

2.12. In comparing and contrasting the four approaches to reuse, the student should note the
advantages and disadvantages listed in Table 2-3. Note also that no one type yields the best possible
solution. Successful reuse requires an understanding of how reuse fits within larger organizational
goals and strategies.

Answers to Problems and Exercises

2.13. An organization uses the Request for Proposal (RFP) to solicit proposals from several competing
vendors. Usually, RFPs first provide background information on the company and the business units
involved in the request, an explanation of the information systems needs, a description of what is
wanted from the vendors (i.e., what information they must provide or other actions they must take),
and an explanation of any rules or procedures for the RFP and system development process. The
bulk of the document then describes the mandatory, essential, and desirable requirements in the
areas of need (e.g., functionality, hardware, software, and service). Students’ RFP outlines should
include these key features.

2.14. In addition to cost, functionality, vendor support, vendor viability, flexibility, documentation,
response time, and ease of installation, a number of other “real-world” criteria might be included.
People often choose application packages, such as word processors and spreadsheets, based solely
on their familiarity with the packages and/or their bias toward one hardware platform or operating
system over another. To a certain extent this is functional. On the other hand, this can be a
disadvantage; for example, it is useful to consider the current staff’s familiarity with the new
application software and the resulting need for retraining but if a company does not choose new
software because of the employees’ lack of familiarity with the software, they run the risk of being
left behind using antiquated technology. Additional criteria include compatibility with currently
used application software (so, for example, data can be shared), compatibility with existing
hardware and system software, ability to support a range from novice to experienced (or power)
users, and appeal of the user interface (ease of use).

2.15. The list for evaluating alternative custom software developers is similar to that for selecting
off-the-shelf application software or for computer hardware and system software. In addition to cost,

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Systems
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Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
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Manual
Manual

functionality, vendor support, vendor viability, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease
of installation, you might include the current staff’s familiarity with the software, need for
retraining, compatibility and connectivity with current systems, and the track record of the vendor in

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Systems
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Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
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Manual
Manual

successfully implementing similar software in other organizations. Such vendors should have an
established track record for developing similar software in other organizations. Their references
should be checked thoroughly, including visits to other sites. Additionally, factors such as the
vendor’s employee turnover rate and history should be considered to ensure the same level of skill
and talent is available. Vendor capability may change over time. If the developer’s role ends after
the application is accepted, then the vendor’s reputation for handling this transition from external
development to internal maintenance is important. From a legal point of view, you may want to
select a custom developer based on the willingness to sign a non-disclosure agreement, so that he is
not allowed to develop a similar system for one of your competitors, at least for a certain amount of
time.

2.16. The project team can use the advantages of the enterprise resource planning design as part of its
strategy for selling this system. The team can stress that this solution consists of a series of
integrated modules; these modules are integrated to focus on business processes, and the firm can
integrate all parts of a business process. This approach includes a single repository of data, thus
providing more consistent and accurate data and less maintenance. These modules are flexible and
new modules are easily integrated into an existing system.

Also, an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system might be justified on the following grounds: (1)
it is a complete enterprise-wide solution that models all aspects of each transaction, supposedly
seamlessly and within a single system; (2) an ERP system is based on a single repository of all
corporate data, which implies consistency, accuracy, and flexibility of the data; and (3) adding new
modules should be relatively painless as all modules are specifically designed to work together. On
the other hand, some might counter that ERP systems are complex and require expensive outside
expertise for implementation, and that the organization itself has to adjust to fit the software’s model
of how organizations should operate rather than the reverse.

In both cases, the team may also employ testimonials and reports of results from other organizations
that have benefited from the ERP strategy. Other users can be both a reliable and insightful source
of information.

Guidelines for Using the Field Exercises

2.17. Business people are likely to use this list of criteria in some formal or informal way. Have your
students present their findings to the class so that they can learn about a variety of companies. It is
useful for students to see how companies actually use these criteria and methods in purchasing off-
the-shelf software. Encourage students to understand why their interviewees prioritized the criterion
list in such a manner as different companies will have different lists of priorities.

2.18. Obtaining RFPs may be difficult for your students. It may be necessary for you to obtain copies
of RFPs either from business contacts or from the university. You may have to file a Freedom of
Information Act (FOIA) request in order to obtain RFPs from public organizations. It is very useful
for students to see real RFPs. Students are amazed at how lengthy and detailed these are for larger,
more complex systems and at how complicated RFPs can become for governmental agencies. Help
students understand that government agencies are subject to federal laws that do not always apply to
private organizations.

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Systems
Systems
Analysis
Analysis
and and
Design
Design
8th edition
8th edition Instructor’s
Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

2.19. Start by contacting larger organizations (as they are more likely to employ ERP) where alumni
from your university or college are now employed and help your students “break the ice.” Also,
most if not all universities now have comprehensive ERP instillations that the IT folks would be
willing to talk about. Chances are any organization that a student contacts about its ERP

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Systems
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and and
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Manual
Manual

implementation will have a lot to say, provided the IT staff is willing to share the information.
Typically, ERP implementations take several years and cost quite a bit in terms of consultant fees.
There are many reasons to move to an ERP system, just as there are many reasons not to move to an
ERP system. The organization was probably attracted to the promise of uniformity and consistency
made by ERP vendors, although the exact reasons differ from firm to firm. Chances are good that
the organization has made some internal changes, such as realigning departments internally to take
advantage of the opportunities ERP systems offer, as well as to meet the demands ERP systems
make in order to operate effectively. The chances are also good that most of the implementation
work has been done by outside consultants, so for firms not used to managing large numbers of
contractors, an ERP implementation is a new and different experience. The implementation is likely
still going on at whatever firm a student happens to talk with, but it has probably been going on for
many months or years, as each ERP implementation is a learning experience for the consultants and
the adopting firm.

Petrie Electronics
2.20. Typically, executives develop a set of organizational goals. These goals are then
translated into strategic initiatives. These initiatives are broken down into projects, which require
a combination of resources and processes to execute. IS projects are typically developed in this
top-down method, although some organizations allow IS projects, to be developed by front-line
employees (e.g., see Google’s 20% rule).

In this case, Petrie Electronics uses the top-down approach to select projects that will help meet
goals. The head office has set “number-1 priority” to develop closer relationships with their
customers. In doing so they selected a customer loyalty IT project as part as this goal. There may
be other projects that will also address this particular organization’s goal.

2.21. IS and IS projects are directly related to company strategy in that they typically are part
of a program of project that are directed toward addressing a particular organizational goal. IS
cuts across all organizational boundaries (e.g., accounting, finance, marketing, and so on) to
enable the organization to offer services and products. Without IS, organizations could not
function. For this reason, most, if not all, organizational goals involve IS in some sort of fashion.

Further, it is critical that IS are developed (or bought) with an understanding and alignment to
corporate strategy. If IS does not perform within the needs of corporate strategy, then this strategy
will simply fail.

2.22. Most consumer-facing organizations have some sort of loyalty programs. There are
hundreds, if not thousands, to choose from in every sort of industry (e.g., online retail, home
improvement stores, car dealerships, and so on). Most programs provide a card that allows the
organizations to track the activities of their customers. The organizations can then tailor
marketing efforts based on customer buying behaviors. The most common loyalty programs are
those of grocers. Most grocery stores in North America and Europe all provide significant
discounts for customers that use loyalty programs. They then use the buying data to provide
coupons and ads that will be relevant to the customer. Also, customers who receive discounts are
more likely to be “loyal” to a certain store or brand.

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2.23. Jim’s next step is to start the first phases of the project management process. This
includes six steps to project initiation that are outlined in Chapter 3.

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Modern
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Systems
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Analysis
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Instructor’s
Manual
Manual

2.24. As noted by Ella, the executives selected a new employee to lead this project because
they wanted a fresh perspective for this very important project. This fresh perspective will allow
for the possibility of a creative solution to be developed. Also, Jim is NOT invested in seeing
other current systems succeed as he has not developed or invested time in them. His opinion,
therefore, should be objective.

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 Modern Systems Analysis
and Design
Eighth Edition

Joseph S. Valacich
Joey F. George

Chapter 2
The Origins of Software

Chapter 2 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 2-1

Learning Objectives
 Explain outsourcing.
 Describe six different sources of
software.
 Discuss how to evaluate off-the-shelf
software.
 Explain reuse and its role in software
development.

Chapter 2 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 2-2

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