PEER TO PEER COMPUTING: -
➢ The peer-to-peer computing architecture contains nodes that are equal participants in
data sharing.
➢ All the tasks are equally divided between all the nodes. The nodes interact with each
other as required as share resources.
➢ The P2P process deals with a network structure where any participant in the network
known as a node act as both a client and a server.
➢ This means that, rather than relying on a basis server to supply resources or services,
everybody from the network of nodes can trade resources and services with one
another.
➢ Here each computer acts as a node for file sharing within the formed network. Here
each node acts as a server and thus there is no central server in the network.
➢ This allows the sharing of a huge amount of data. The tasks are equally divided
amongst the nodes. Each node connected in the network shares an equal workload.
➢ For the network to stop working, all the nodes need to individually stop working. This
is because each node works independently.
GRID COMPUTING: -
➢ A grid is a computer network of geographically dispersed and heterogeneous
computational resources as shown in Figure.
➢ Unlike cloud, whose primary focus is to provide services, a grid is more application
specific and creates a sense of a virtual supercomputer with an enormous processing
power and storage.
➢ The constituent resources are called nodes. These different nodes temporarily come
together to solve a single large task and to reach a common goal.
➢ Nowadays, countless computational nodes ranging from hand-held mobile devices to
personal computers and workstations are connected to LAN or Internet.
➢ Therefore, it is economically feasible to reuse or utilise their resources like memory as
well as processing power. The grid provides an opportunity to solve computationally
intense scientific and research problems without actually procuring a costly hardware.
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➢ Grid can be of two types — (i) Data grid, used to manage large and distributed data
having required multi-user access, and (ii) CPU or Processor grid, where processing is
moved from one PC to another as needed or a large task is divided into subtasks and
divided to various nodes for parallel processing.
➢ Grid computing is different from IaaS cloud service. In case of IaaS cloud service,
there is a service provider who rents the required infrastructure to the users.
➢ Whereas in grid computing, multiple computing nodes join together to solve a
common computational problem.
➢ To set up a grid, by connecting numerous nodes in terms of data as well as CPU, a
middleware is required to implement the distributed processor architecture.
➢ The Globus toolkit (http://toolkit.globus.org/toolkit) is one such software toolkit used
for building grids, and it is open source. It includes software for security, resource
management, data management, communication, fault detection, etc.
DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING: -
➢ Distributed computing refers to a system where processing and data storage is
distributed across multiple devices or systems, rather than being handled by a single
central device.
➢ In a distributed system, each device or system has its own processing capabilities and
may also store and manage its own data.
➢ These devices or systems work together to perform tasks and share resources, with no
single device serving as the central hub.
➢ One example of a distributed computing system is a cloud computing system, where
resources such as computing power, storage, and networking are delivered over the
Internet and accessed on demand.
➢ In this type of system, users can access and use shared resources through a web
browser or other client software.
CLOUD COMPUTING: -
➢ Cloud computing is an emerging trend in the field of information technology, where
computer-based services are delivered over the Internet or the cloud, and it is
accessible to the user from anywhere using any device.
➢ The services comprise software, hardware (servers), databases, storage, etc. These
resources are provided by companies called cloud service providers and usually charge
on a pay per use basis, like the way we pay for electricity usage.
➢ We already use cloud services while storing our pictures and files as backup Reprint
2025-26 on Internet, or host a website on the Internet.
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➢ Through cloud computing, a user can run a bigger application or process a large
amount of data without having the required storage or processing power on their
personal computer as long as they are connected to the Internet.
➢ Besides other numerous features, cloud computing offers cost-effective, on-demand
resources. A user can avail need-based resources from the cloud at a very reasonable
cost.
CLOUD SERVICES: -
➢ A better way to understand the cloud is to interpret everything as a service. A “service”
corresponds to any facility provided by the cloud.
➢ There are three standard models to categorise different computing services delivered
through cloud. These are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service
(PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).
(A) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) The IaaS providers can offer different kinds of
computing infrastructure, such as servers, virtual machines (VM), storage and backup
facility, network components, operating systems or any other hardware or software.
• Using IaaS from the cloud, a user can use the hardware infrastructure located at
a remote location to configure, deploy and execute any software application on
that cloud infrastructure.
• They can outsource the hardware and software on a demand basis and pay as
per the usage, thereby they can save the cost of software, hardware and other
infrastructures as well as the cost of setting up, maintenance and security.
(B) Platform as a Service (PaaS) The facility provided by the cloud, where a user
can install and execute an application without worrying about the underlying
infrastructure and their setup.
• That is, PaaS provides a platform or environment to develop, test, and deliver
software applications.
• Suppose we have developed a web application using MySQL and Python. To
run this application online, we can avail a pre-configured Apache server from
cloud having MySQL and Python pre-installed.
• Thus, we are not required to install MySQL and Python on the cloud, nor do we
need to configure the web server (Apache, nginx). In PaaS, the user has
complete control over the deployed application and its configuration.
• It provides a deployment environment for developers at a much-reduced cost
lessening the complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and
software.
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(C) Software as a Service (SaaS) SaaS provides on-demand access to application
software, usually requiring a licensing or subscription by the user.
• While using Google Doc, Microsoft Office 365, Drop Box, etc., to edit a
document online, we use SaaS from cloud.
• A user is not concerned about installation or configuration of the software
application as long as the required software is accessible.
• Like PaaS, a user is provided access to the required configuration settings of the
application software, that they are using at present.
• In all of the above standard service models, a user can use on-demand
infrastructure or platform or software and is usually charged as per usage,
thereby eliminating the need of a huge investment upfront for a new or evolving
organisation.
• In order to utilise and harness the benefits of cloud computing, Government of
India has embarked upon an ambitious initiative — “GI Cloud” which has been
named as ‘MeghRaj’ (https:// cloud.gov.in).
Email: -
➢ Email stands for Electronic Mail. It is a method to send messages from one computer
to another computer through the Internet.
➢ It is mostly used in business, education, technical communication, and document
interactions. It allows communicating with people all over the world without bothering
them.
➢ In 1971, a test email was sent Ray Tomlinson to himself containing text. It is the
information sent electronically between two or more people over a network.
VIDEO CONFERENCING: -
➢ Video conferencing is a live, visual connection between two or more remote parties
over the internet that simulates a face-to-face meeting.
➢ Video conferencing is important because it joins people who would not normally be
able to form a face-to-face connection.
➢ At its simplest, video conferencing involves transmitting static images and text
between two locations.
➢ At its most sophisticated, it provides transmission of full-motion video images and
high-quality audio between multiple locations.
➢ This technology is particularly convenient for business users in different cities or even
different countries because it saves time, expenses, and hassles associated with
business travel.
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e-Banking: -
➢ Electronic banking is a banking method that relies on electronic technology to conduct
financial transactions, replacing traditional paper-based processes.
➢ It includes transferring funds between accounts or between financial institutions and
firms using electronic methods.
➢ Electronic banking encompasses services such as debit card transactions, online
banking, ATMs, direct deposits, and electronic check conversion.
➢ This contemporary banking approach provides customers with convenience, speed,
and accessibility, enabling them to efficiently and securely manage their finances
through electronic channels.
UPI: -
➢ Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is an Indian instant payment system
and protocol developed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) in
2016.
➢ The interface facilitates inter-bank peer to peer (P2P) and person-to-merchant (P2M)
transactions.
➢ It is used on mobile devices to instantly transfer funds between two bank accounts
using only a unique UPI ID.
➢ It runs as an open source application programming interface (API) on top of
the Immediate Payment Service (IMPS), and is regulated by the Reserve Bank of
India (RBI).
➢ Major Indian banks started making their UPI-enabled apps available to customers in
August 2016 and the system is today supported by almost all Indian banks.
E-commerce: -
➢ E-commerce, or electronic commerce, refers to the buying and selling of goods and
services over the internet.
➢ It involves the use of electronic platforms, such as websites, mobile applications, and
social media, to conduct transactions between businesses and consumers or between
businesses.
➢ E-commerce has revolutionized the way businesses operate and has created new
opportunities for entrepreneurs and consumers alike.
➢ One of the primary benefits of e-commerce is that it offers a more convenient and
efficient way to conduct business.
➢ Consumers can browse and purchase products from the comfort of their own homes,
while businesses can reach a global audience without the need for a physical
storefront.
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➢ E-commerce has also enabled businesses to streamline their operations by automating
many of the tasks involved in the sales process, such as inventory management, order
processing, and shipping.
e-Governance: -
➢ Electronic governance or e-governance implies government functioning with the
application of ICT (Information and Communications Technology).
➢ Hence e-Governance is basically a move towards SMART governance implying:
simple, moral, accountable, responsive and transparent governance.
There are 4 kinds of interactions in e-governance, namely:
1. G2C (Government to Citizens) — Interaction between the government and the
citizens.
• This enables citizens to benefit from the efficient delivery of a large range of
public services.
• Expands the accessibility and availability of government services and also
improves the quality of services
• The primary aim is to make the government citizen-friendly.
2. G2B (Government to Business):
• It enables the business community to interact with the government by using e-
governance tools.
• The objective is to cut red-tapism which will save time and reduce operational
costs. This will also create a more transparent business environment when
dealing with the government.
• The G2B initiatives help in services such as licensing, procurement, permits and
revenue collection.
3. G2G (Government to Government)
• Enables seamless interaction between various government entities.
• This kind of interaction can be between various departments and agencies
within government or between two governments like the union and state
governments or between state governments.
• The primary aim is to increase efficiency, performance and output.
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4. G2E (Government to Employees)
• This kind of interaction is between the government and its employees.
• ICT tools help in making these interactions fast and efficient and thus increases
the satisfaction levels of employees.
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