VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANA SANGAMA, BELGAVI-590018, KARNATAKA

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (CSE

STREAM)
(As per CBCS Scheme 2022)

Course Name: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (CSE STREAM)

Course Code: BBOC407

IV SEMESTER
 Second Year B.E: Computer Science and Engineering

Department of Chemistry
STUDY MATERIAL

Subject: Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Subject Code: BBOC407

COURSE SYLLABUS
MODULE 1 - CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Introduction: Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids.
Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and
hormones.

Module 2: APPLICATION OF BIOMOLECULES

Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in bioplastics
production, Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis, Proteins in food production, lipids in
biodiesel and detergents production, Enzymes in biosensors fabrication, food processing,
detergent formulation and textile processing.
Module 3: ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR
BIOENGINEERING DESIGN
Brain as a CPU system. Eye as a Camera system. Heart as a pump system. Lungs as
purification system. Kidney as a filtration system.
Module 4- NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS
Echolocation (ultrasonography, sonars), Photosynthesis (photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf). Bird
flying (GPS and aircrafts), Lotus leaf effect (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces),
Plant burrs (Velcro), Sharkskin (Friction reducing swimsuits), Kingfisher beak (Bullet train).
Human Blood substitutes - haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and
perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
Module 5-TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING
Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds. Scaffolds and tissue engineering, Bio printing
techniques and materials, 3D printing of ear, bone and skin. 3D printed foods. Electrical
tongue and electrical nose in food science, DNA origami and Biocomputing, Bio imaging and
Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis. Self-healing Bio, Bioremediation, and Bio
mining via microbial surface adsorption.
 SUBJECT: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (CSE STREAM)
SUBJECT CODE: BBOC407

MODULE 1 - CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

SYLLABUS:
Introduction: Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application. Biomolecules:
Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of
special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and hormones.

Cell: A cell is defined, as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can
replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.
Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells.
Characteristics of Cells:
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
• The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
Types of Cells:
1) Prokaryotic Cells

 Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria

have a region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This
region is called the nucleoid.
 They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria,
and cyanobacteria.

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  The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
 The hereditary material can be either DNA or RNA.
 Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction
2) Eukaryotic cells

 They are characterized by a true nucleus.

 The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
 This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
 The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
 Electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell-to-cell communication.
 They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
 There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg. The plant
cell contains chloroplast, cell wall, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the
animal cells do not.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL

Understanding cell structure and functions is key to understanding life processes.

Structure: Cell consists of

1. Plasma Membrane (cell membrane): Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of
substances.
2. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing organelles. Most of the
biochemical reactions occurs in it.
3. Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA), controlling cell activities.
4. cell wall : it is found in plant cell. It lies outside the cell membrane and protects and cell
membrane also gives the rigid structures. Cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin.
5. Organelles: Specialized structures:
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Involved in protein and lipid metabolism.there are two types of
ER. One is rough ER and another is smooth ER.
b. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages molecules.
c. Mitochondria: Generates energy through respiration. These are called powerhouses of cell.
d. Lysosomes: Break down waste materials. These are called suicide bags of cell as it digest
the unwanted cell.
e. Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
f. Centrioles (in animals): Assist in cell division.
g. Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement.
h. vacuoles: these are found exclusively in plant cell which helps in storage of food, air water
etc.
i. chloroplast: these are also only in plant cell which a pigment and plays a major role in
photosynthesis .
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Functions of cell:
1. Respiration: Converts glucose into ATP for energy.thus cell helps in energy production.
2. Protein Synthesis: cells helps in synthesis of .proteins. ribosomes are called protein factory of
the cell.
3. Storage and Processing: Synthesizes, modifies, and transports molecules.
4. Cellular Communication: Signals between cells via various molecules.
5. Waste Management: Breaks down and recycles cellular waste.
6. Cell Division: Replicates cells for growth, repair, and reproduction
7. Movement: supports cell movements and shape changes.
Stem Cells:Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in
the body. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the remarkable ability to differentiate into
specialized cell types.
Stem cells are classified based on their potency or potential to differentiate into different
cell types:
1. Totipotent: Can differentiate into all cell types, including embryonic and extraembryonic
tissues. Examples include cells in the early embryo.
2. Pluripotent: Can differentiate into cells of all three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and
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Mesoderm. Examples include embryonic stem cells (ESCs).
3. Multipotent: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types within a particular lineage or
Tissue. Examples include adult stem cells.

Applications of stem cell:

1. Self-renewal: Stem cells can divide and produce identical copies of themselves, maintaining a
pool of undifferentiated cells.
2. Differentiation: They can differentiate into specialized cell types with specific functions, such
as nerve cells, muscle cells, blood cells, and more.
3. Repair and regeneration: Stem cells play a crucial role in tissue repair and regeneration by
replacing damaged or diseased cells with healthy ones.
4. Research and therapy: They are valuable tools in scientific research for studying development,
disease modeling, and drug testing. In medicine, stem cell therapies hold promise for treating a
wide range of diseases and injuries
5. Embryonic development: During embryonic development, stem cells give rise to all the
different cell types in the body, forming tissues and organs
6. Adult tissue maintenance: In adult organisms, stem cells are responsible for maintaining and
repairing tissues throughout life, ensuring their proper function.
7. Regenerative medicine: Stem cell therapies are being developed to regenerate damaged tissues
and organs, offering potential treatments for conditions such as heart disease, spinal cord injury,
Parkinson's disease, and diabetes.
8. Cell-based therapies: Stem cells can be used in cell-based therapies to replace damaged or
dysfunctional cells with healthy ones, offering hope for treating degenerative diseases and
injuries.
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9. Gene editing: Stem cells can be genetically modified using techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9,
allowing researchers to study gene function and develop potential treatments for genetic
disorders.
10. Biotechnology: Stem cells are used in biotechnology for producing specialized cells and
tissues for research, drug discovery, and tissue engineering applications.
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules, also known as biological molecules, are chemical compounds found in living
organisms that are essential for the survival of living cells and all life processes. They are the
building blocks of life and perform important functions in living organisms, such as
reproduction, growth, and sustenance. Biomolecules include large macromolecules such as
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as vitamins
and hormones.
CARBOHYDRATES:
Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds composed of only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.
The name carbohydrate is of French origin (hydrate de carbone) as the carbohydrates
were considered as hydrates of carbon.
The carbohydrates can be represented by the general formula Cx(H2O)y
Definition: Carbohydrates are defined as the polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones and those substances that give these compounds on hydrolysis
Properties of Carbohydrates:

Property Description
1)Chemical Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a ratio of 1:2:1,
Composition respectively.
2)Structure Consists of chains or rings of sugar molecules.
Divided into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
3)Types
polysaccharides.
Most carbohydrates are soluble in water due to their hydrophilic nature,
4)solubility
except for some larger polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are generally sweet tasting, while
5)Sweetness
polysaccharides are not.
The primary source of energy for living organisms, providing 4 calories
6)Energy Source
per gram upon digestion.
7)Storage Stored as glycogen in animals and as starch in plants for energy reserves.
8)Structural Act as building blocks for cell walls in plants (cellulose) and
Function exoskeletons in arthropods (chitin).
9)Biological Essential for cellular processes such as metabolism, cell signaling, and
Significance immune system functioning.
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 Certain carbohydrates, such as pectin and agar, have the ability to form
10)Gel formation gels when mixed with water, leading to applications in food thickening,
stabilizing, and gelling agents
Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose and certain oligosaccharides,
contribute to dietary fiber, promoting digestive health, regulating blood
11)Dietary Fiber
sugar levels, and aiding in weight management.

Carbohydrates undergo various chemical reactions, including oxidation,

12)Chemical
reduction, and hydrolysis, which play critical roles in energy metabolism
Reactivity
and biosynthesis

Functions of Carbohydrates:
1) They serves as a major source of energy:They are the principal source of energy
supplying 45-65% of the calorie requirements of the body.Glucose is used as fuel by your
body’s cells, tissues, and organs.
2) Protein sparing action: Protein perform a specialized function of bodybuilding and
growth. The wasteful expenditure of protein to meet the energy needs of body should be
avoided. Carbohydrates comes to the rescue and spare the protein from being misused for
caloric purpose.
3) Supplies energy for muscle work:
In muscle, glycogen is broken down to lactic acid to provide energy for muscle
contraction.
4) Synthesis of Pentose:
Pentose( eg: Ribose) are the constituents of several components in the body eg: Nucleic
acid(RNA and DNA), and coenzymes (NAD+, FAD).These pentose’s are produced in
carbohydrate metabolism.
5) Synthesis of non-essential amino acid:
6) Synthesis of fat
Excess consumption of carbohydrates leads to the formation of fat, which is stored in the
adipose tissue.
7) Special function in liver
The liver is the central organ that integrates the body’s metabolism. Carbohydrates play
an active role in this metabolic integration.
8) Importance of non-digestible carbohydrates
Some carbohydrates are not digested by the body, but Very important, as they help in
bowel motility, prevents constipation, lowers cholesterol and helps in maintaining
normal blood glucose level.
9) Carbohydrates are essential for the production of serotonin – serotonin is a
neurotransmitter that regulates mood
10) Complex carbohydrates can increase healthy gut bacteria.

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 PROTEINS:
• Protein is one of three macronutrients, which are nutrients the body needs in larger
amounts. The other macronutrients are fat and carbohydrates.
• Protein is made up of long chains of amino acids.
• Proteins may be either 1)complete OR 2. incomplete.
• Complete proteins are proteins that contain all essential amino acids. Animal products,
soy, and quinoa are complete proteins.
• Incomplete proteins are proteins that do not contain all essential amino acids. Most plant
foods are incomplete proteins, including beans, nuts, and grains.

PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS:
Proteins exhibit a structure, consisting of primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary levels of organization. The primary structure refers to the linear
sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Secondary structure involves
1)Structure folding patterns such as alpha helices and beta sheets, while tertiary structure refers
to the three-dimensional arrangement of the entire polypeptide chain. Quaternary
structure arises when multiple polypeptide chains assemble to form a functional
protein molecule.

2)Amino
Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are organic molecules containing an
Acid
amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain.
Composition

Proteins exhibit remarkable functional diversity, serving as enzymes, structural

3)Functional
components, transporters, receptors, antibodies, hormones, and molecular
Diversity
motors, among other roles..
Proteins undergo folding into their native three-dimensional structures, driven
by interactions between amino acid side chains and the surrounding
4)Folding and
environment. The folding process is crucial for protein function, as it determines
Stability
the specific binding sites and active sites necessary for interactions with other
molecules.
Proteins can undergo denaturation, a process in which their native structure is
5)Denaturation disrupted, leading to loss of function. Denaturation can be induced by various
factors, including heat, pH extremes, organic solvents,
The solubility of proteins varies depending on their amino acid composition and
6)Solubility the surrounding environment. Some proteins are soluble in water, while others
are insoluble and may form aggregates or precipitates.

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FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS:
1) The major function of protein is to build muscle mass and other tissues.
2) Protein can also provide energy as Carbohydrates
3) Proteins serve as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions within cells and
Organisms.
4) Protein as transport proteins.
Transport proteins as the name suggest bind to metal ions, organic molecules or gases
like oxygen and transport them into individual organs.
5) Proteins provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs in living organisms.
Structural proteins such as collagen, elastin, and keratin contribute to the
Mechanical strength, elasticity, and integrity of various biological structures,
Including bones, skin, hair, and connective tissues.
6) Proteins play crucial roles in cellular signaling pathways, transmitting and
Modulating signals that regulate various physiological processes.
7) Proteins are essential components of the immune system, participating in the
Recognition, response, and defense against pathogens and foreign substances.
8) Proteins play a central role in muscle contraction, enabling movement and
Locomotion in animals.

LIPIDS:
Lipids are a diverse group of organic molecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in
nonpolar solvents. They include fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. Lipids
serve various essential functions in living organisms, such as providing energy storage,
forming cell membranes, serving as signaling molecules etc.

PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS:
1) Lipids are insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene ,ether etc.
2) Lipids exhibit structural diversity, encompassing a wide range of molecules with distinct
chemical compositions and functions.
3) Some lipids display amphipathic properties, containing both hydrophilic (water-attracting)
and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions within the same molecule. For example
Phospholipids, have hydrophilic phosphate heads andhydrophobic fatty acid tails.
4) Lipids serve as efficient energy storage molecules, storing energy in the form of chemical
bonds within their hydrocarbon chains. Triglycerides, the primary storage form of lipids,
accumulate in adipose tissues.
5) lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect vital organs from
temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage.ex: adipose tissue.
6) Certain lipids, such as waxes and oils, possess lubricating properties that reduce friction and
facilitate movement in biological systems.

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 FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS:
1)Energy Lipids serve as a concentrated energy reserve in the body, providing more than
Storage twice the energy per gram compared to carbohydrates or proteins.
2) Structural Lipids contribute to the structural integrity of cell membranes, forming a lipid
Role bilayer that encloses and protects the contents of cells.
Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect vital
3) Insulation
organs from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage
4) Hormone Lipids play a crucial role in hormone synthesis and regulation, serving as
Regulation precursors for steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol.
Lipids function as signaling molecules in intercellular communication
5) Cell
pathways,
Signaling
modulating cellular responses to environmental cues and stimuli
6) Absorption Lipids facilitate the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E,
Of Nutrient and K) and other hydrophobic nutrients in the digestive system.
7) Nervous Lipids, particularly phospholipids, are essential for the structure and function
System of nerve cells. Myelin, a specialized lipid-rich substance, forms a sheath
Function: around nerve fibers, facilitating the rapid transmission of nerve impulses.

NUCLEIC ACID:
Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit) is known
as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides.
Discovery: Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic acids in 1869.
The basic components of a nucleic acid include three different entities, namely a nitrogenous
base, a sugar moiety and a phosphate group. These combine to give one unit of a nucleotide,

Properties of Nucleic Acids:

1. Polarity: Nucleic acids exhibit polarity, it is due to the presence of phosphate group.
2. Double helix structure: DNA molecules possess a double helix structure, characterized
by two complementary polynucleotide strands winding around each other in a right-

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 handed manner. This structure provides stability and protection to the genetic information
encoded within the DNA molecule and facilitates replication and transcription processes.
3. Base Pairing:Nucleic acids exhibit specific base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs
with thymine (T) in DNA or uracil (U) in RNA via hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C)
pairs with guanine (G). This complementary base pairing ensures the accurate replication
and transmission of genetic information during cellular processes.
4. Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in stabilizing the structure of
nucleic acids.
5. Acidic Nature: Nucleic acids are acidic molecules due to the presence of phosphate
groups in their structure.
6. Chemical Stability and Reactivity: Nucleic acids are chemically stable molecules under
physiological conditions but can undergo specific chemical reactions, such as hydrolysis
of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides or enzymatic modifications, crucial for
their functions in cellular processes.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACID:

Function Description
Nucleic acids, particularly DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), serve as the primary
1)Genetic
carrier of genetic information in living organisms. DNA contains the instructions
Information
necessary for the development, growth, functioning, and reproduction of
Storage
organisms.
Nucleic acids, specifically RNA (ribonucleic acid), play a crucial role in protein
2)Protein synthesis. RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
Synthesis (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), are involved in various stages of protein
production.
3)Gene
Nucleic acids participate in the regulation of gene expression, controlling when
Expression
and how genes are turned on or off.
Regulation
Nucleic acids, particularly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), function as carriers of
4)Energy chemical energy within cells. ATP molecules store and transfer energy generated
Transfer during cellular metabolism, providing the necessary energy for cellular activities
such as muscle contraction, biosynthesis, and transport processes.
Some nucleic acids, such as ribozymes, exhibit catalytic activity, enabling them to
5)Catalysis facilitate specific biochemical reactions within cells. Ribozymes participate in
processes such as RNA splicing, peptide bond formation, and RNA cleavage,.
6)Immune Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, can trigger immune responses when
Response recognized as foreign molecules by the immune system.

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 Certain nucleic acids, such as small non-coding RNAs, are involved in chemical
7)Chemical
signaling pathways within cells. These regulatory RNAs modulate gene expression
Signaling
by interacting with specific target molecules.

ENZYMES:
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the activation
energy required for the conversion of substrates into products.
PROPERTIES:
1. Enzymes are proteins: They are made up of many amino acids linked together
and folded into specific shapes.
2. Enzymes are reusable: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions, but do not take
part in the reactions.
3. Enzymes are substrate specific. Can react with certain food/nutrients based on
their shapes.
4. Enzymes are sensitive to pH.: The shapes of enzymes can be changed if pH
levels are too high or low.
5. Enzymes are denatured by high heat: High temperatures will change the shapes
of enzymes.
6. Enzymes are inhibited by poisons: Poisons can bind to the structure of enzymes
and prevent effective binding at the active site.
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES:
1. Catalyzing chemical reactions: Enzymes accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required for the reaction to occur.
2. Metabolism regulation: Enzymes control metabolic pathways by regulating the rate of specific
reactions, ensuring proper energy production and utilization.
3. Digestion: Digestive enzymes break down large molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats into smaller, absorbable molecules during digestion.
4. Synthesis of biomolecules: Enzymes facilitate the synthesis of complex biomolecules like
proteins, DNA, and RNA by linking smaller building blocks together.
5. Detoxification: Some enzymes aid in the detoxification of harmful substances by converting
them into less toxic forms that can be excreted from the body.
6. Signal transduction: Enzymes participate in cellular signaling pathways by modifying proteins
or molecules to transmit signals within cells.
Overall, enzymes play crucial roles in maintaining the biochemical balance and functionality of
living organisms.
VITAMINS:

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Vitamins are essential micronutrients that play diverse roles in maintaining health and supporting
Various physiological functions in the body.
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal growth, metabolism, and overall
health. They are micronutrients.
They are classified into two categories: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water-soluble
vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C).
PROPERTIES:
1. All are complex organic substances.
2. The molecular weight is low.
3. Essential vitamins for one species may not be essential for another.
4. Some vitamins are synthesized in the body.
5. Vitamins are not destroyed in the digestive processes and are absorbed as such.
6. The daily requirement for any vitamin is increased during growth, pregnancy and
lactation.
7. Vitamins are not act as antigenic.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS:
1. Antioxidant Activity: Vitamins such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene
act as antioxidants, protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals.
2. Energy Metabolism: B vitamins (e.g., B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12) are
essential for converting food into energy and for supporting various metabolic
processes.
3. Bone Health: Vitamin D is crucial for calcium absorption and bone
mineralization, helping to maintain strong and healthy bones.
4. Immune Function: Vitamins A, C, D, and E play important roles in supporting
the immune system, helping the body fight off infections and diseases.
5. Vision: Vitamin A is essential for vision, particularly for maintaining the health
of the retina and promoting good vision in low light.
6. Collagen Synthesis: Vitamin C is necessary for collagen synthesis, which is
important for skin health, wound healing, and maintaining the integrity of
connective tissues.
7. Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting and bone metabolism.
8. Nervous System Function: Vitamins B6, B12, and folate (B9) are important for
the proper functioning of the nervous system, including the synthesis of
neurotransmitters and the maintenance of nerve cells.
9. DNA Synthesis and Repair: Folate (B9) and other B vitamins are necessary for
DNA synthesis and repair, which is important for cell growth and division.
10. Heart Health: Certain vitamins, such as vitamin E and folate, have been
associated with heart health and may help reduce the risk of cardiovascular
diseases.

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 1. Vitamin A: Supports vision, especially in low light conditions. - Promotes
healthy skin and mucous membranes. - Supports immune function. - Plays a
role in growth and development.
2. Vitamin B complex: Helps convert food into energy (metabolism). - Supports
nerve function and neurotransmitter synthesis. - Aids in red blood cell formation.
- Important for DNA synthesis and repair. - Supports healthy skin, hair, and
eyes.
3. Vitamin C: Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage caused by
free radicals. - Supports immune function. - Facilitates collagen synthesis,
which is crucial for wound healing and skin health. - Enhances iron absorption
from plant-based sources.
4. Vitamin D: Facilitates calcium and phosphorus absorption, promoting bone
health. - Supports immune function. - May have roles in reducing inflammation
and regulating cell growth.
5. Vitamin E: Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cell membranes and other fat-
soluble parts of the body from damage. - Supports immune function. -
Promotes skin health and wound healing.
6. Vitamin K: - Essential for blood clotting, as it helps activate proteins
involved in the clotting process. - Supports bone health by regulating calcium
deposition in bones and preventing calcification of soft tissues.
HORMONES:
Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by various glands in the endocrine
system and are released into the bloodstream.
Hormones play crucial roles in regulating numerous physiological processes, including growth
and development, metabolism, reproduction, mood, and stress response.
PROPERTIES OF HORMONES:
1. Chemical Nature: Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure into
three main groups: steroids, peptides/proteins, and amines..
2. Specificity: Each hormone interacts with specific target cells or organs that have
receptors capable of binding to the hormone.
3. Regulation of Secretion: Hormone secretion is tightly regulated by various factors such
as feedback mechanisms, neural signals, and environmental cues. For example, insulin
secretion increases in response to high blood sugar levels after a meal, helping to regulate
glucose levels in the bloodstream.
4. Transport: Hormones are transported through the bloodstream to target tissues or
organs..
5. Half-Life: Hormones have varying half-lives, which determine how long they remain
active in the bloodstream. Some hormones, like adrenaline, have short half-lives and
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 exert rapid effects, while others, such as thyroid hormones, have longer half-lives and
exert slower, more prolonged effects.
6. Feedback Mechanisms: Hormonal secretion is often regulated by feedback mechanisms
that help maintain homeostasis. For example, the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) from the pituitary gland is inhibited by high levels of thyroid hormones in the
bloodstream.
7. Synergistic and Antagonistic Effects: Hormones can interact with each other to produce
synergistic or antagonistic effects on target tissues. Synergistic effects occur when two
hormones act together to produce a greater response than either hormone alone.
Antagonistic effects occur when one hormone opposes the action of another hormone.

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES:

Some common hormones and their functions include:

1. Insulin: Regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells.
2. Testosterone: Plays a key role in male reproductive development and maintenance of male
characteristics.
3. Estrogen: Regulates the menstrual cycle and is involved in female reproductive development
and secondary sexual characteristics.
4. Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4): Regulate metabolism and energy production.
5. Adrenaline (epinephrine): Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose levels in response
to stress.
6. Cortisol: Helps regulate metabolism, immune function, and the body's response to stress.
7. Progesterone: Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and helps maintain pregnancy.
8. Homeostasis: Hormones play key roles in maintaining homeostasis by regulating various
physiological processes, including blood pressure, electrolyte balance, body
temperature, and water balance.

Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to various health problems. For example, diabetes results from
a deficiency in insulin production or insensitivity to insulin. Hormonal imbalances can occur due to
factors such as aging, stress, diseases, medications, or genetic conditions. Hormone replacement
therapy and other medical interventions are often used to manage hormonal imbalances and related
health issues.

QUESTION BANK:
1. Define cell. Explain the structure and functions of cell.
2. What are carbohydrates? Explain the properties and functions of it.
3. What are proteins? Explain the properties and functions of protein.
4. What are lipids? Explain the properties and functions of lipids.
5. What are nucleic acids? Explain the properties and role of nucleic acid.
6. What are vitamins? Explain the functions and properties of it.
7. What are hormones? Explain the properties and functions of hormones.
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8. What are enzymes? Why it is called biocatalyst? Explain the properties and functions of
enzymes.
9. What are stem cell? Explain the properties and functions of stem cells.

Mrs. Namratha
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
AJIET, Mangaluru

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 Course Title: Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)
Course Code: BBOC407
Module 2: APPLICATION OF BIOMOLECULES
Syllabus:
Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in
bioplastics production, Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis, Proteins in food
production, lipids in biodiesel and detergents production, Enzymes in biosensors
fabrication, food processing, detergent formulation and textile processing

Carbohydrates and their applications:

Cellulose-based water filters:
 Derived primarily from plant sources such as wood pulp, cotton, and hemp, cellulose
possesses remarkable properties that make it an ideal candidate for water filtration
applications. Its fibrous structure, composed of long chains of glucose molecules, forms a
porous matrix capable of trapping contaminants while, allowing water molecules to pass
through.
Composition and Construction:
Cellulose-based water filters are typically composed of cellulose fibers woven into
various forms, including membranes, papers, and cartridges. These filters may be contain
additional materials like activated carbon or nanoparticles to enhance their filtration
efficiency.
The manufacturing process involves converting cellulose pulp into thin sheets or
membranes through techniques such as papermaking or casting. These sheets are then
treated to modify pore size, surface chemistry, and other properties to optimize filtration
performance
 Properties :
 Biodegradability: Cellulose-based filters are derived from natural cellulose fibers, making
them biodegradable and environmentally friendly.
 Pore Size Control: Manufacturers can control the pore size of cellulose-based filters,
allowing for precise filtration tailored to specific applications.
 Chemical Resistance: Cellulose-based filters exhibit good resistance to a wide range of
chemicals, making them suitable for filtering various substances.

 High Absorption Capacity: Cellulose fibers have a high surface area and can absorb
significant quantities of liquids, making them effective in filtration processes.

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  Low Protein Binding: These filters typically have low protein binding properties, making
them suitable for applications in the biopharmaceutical industry where protein adsorption is
a concern.
 Sterilizable: Cellulose-based filters can often be sterilized through methods such as
autoclaving or gamma irradiation, making them suitable for use in sterile environments.
Filtration Mechanism:
The filtration mechanism of cellulose-based filters relies on physical barriers and adsorption
phenomena. As water flows through the porous structure of the filter, contaminants such as
bacteria, viruses, sediment, and organic compounds are mechanically trapped within the
cellulose matrix. Additionally, certain filters incorporate activated carbon, which adsorbs
chemical impurities and improves taste and odor. This synergistic approach ensures
comprehensive purification while maintaining high water flow rates.
Advantages of Cellulose-Based Filters:
Sustainability: Derived from renewable plant sources, cellulose-based filters offer an eco-
friendly alternative to synthetic materials, reducing reliance on non-renewable resources and
minimizing environmental impact.
Biodegradability: Unlike plastic-based filters, cellulose filters are biodegradable, posing minimal
risk to ecosystems and reducing landfill waste.
Cost-effectiveness: Cellulose is widely available and relatively inexpensive, making cellulose
based filters a cost-effective option, particularly for large-scale water treatment.
Versatility: Cellulose filters can be tailored to target specific contaminants, offering versatility in
addressing diverse water quality challenges.
Compatibility: Cellulose-based filters are compatible with existing filtration systems and can be
seamlessly integrated into various water treatment processes.
Applications:
Cellulose-based water filters find applications across a spectrum of settings, including:
1. Household water purification systems
2. Industrial water treatment facilities
3. Emergency relief efforts in disaster-stricken areas
4. Remote or off-grid communities lacking access to centralized water infrastructure.
5. Recreational activities such as camping and hiking.

Bioplastics:
Bioplastics are moldable plastics made from renewable resources, such as corn, sugarcane, vegetable
oils, and starches. They may break down naturally or remain intact and are sourced from chemical
compounds created by microorganisms or genetically engineered plants. They are more sustainable
alternatives to traditional petroleum-based plastics and offer several environmental advantages over
their conventional counterparts.

Poly lactic acid (PLA)

PLA, or polylactic acid, is a bioplastic that has gained significant attention recently due to its renewable
nature and potential to replace traditional petroleum-based plastics.
Chemical Composition: PLA is a thermoplastic polymer derived from renewable resources such as corn
starch or sugarcane. It is composed of repeating lactic acid units.

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Properties: It is generally transparent, biodegradable under certain conditions, and can have
mechanical properties comparable to traditional plastics.
General Production steps are as follows.
Step 1 - Lactic Acid Production: Lactic acid, the precursor to PLA, can be produced through the
fermentation of sugars derived from renewable resources such as corn, sugarcanetc

Step 2- Lactide Formation: Lactic acid undergoes dehydration to form lactide, a cyclic dimer.

Step 3-Polymerization: Lactide monomers are then polymerized through ring-opening

polymerization (ROP) to form PLA chains catalyzed by metal catalysts or enzymes.

Step 4 - Processing: The resulting PLA can be further processed into pellets, fibers, or films using
conventional polymer processing techniques like extrusion, injection molding, or blow molding.
Applications:
1. Packaging: PLA is commonly used in packaging applications such as food containers, cups,
In addition, films due to its transparency, barrier properties, and biodegradability.
2. Textiles: PLA fibers are used in textile applications including clothing, nonwoven fabrics.
3. Medical Devices: PLA's biocompatibility and biodegradability make it suitable for medical
Applications such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems.
4. 3D Printing: PLA is a popular material for 3D printing due to its ease of processing,
Biodegradability, and wide availability in filament form.
5. Disposable Items: PLA is used in disposable items like cutlery, plates, etc.

Limitations:

 Limited Chemical Compatibility: Cellulose filter paper may not be compatible with certain
aggressive chemicals or solvents, as it can degrade or dissolve when exposed to them.
 Low Temperature Resistance: Cellulose filter paper typically has a relatively low
resistance to high temperatures. It may degrade or lose its structural integrity when
subjected to elevated temperatures.
 Particle Retention Size: The pore size distribution of cellulose filter paper limits its
effectiveness in filtering out very fine particles. While it can effectively capture larger
particles, it may not be effective for microorganism with very minute size.
 Moisture Sensitivity: Cellulose filter paper can absorb moisture from the environment,
affecting its filtration performance and structural integrity.
 Biological Contaminant Growth: Cellulose filter paper provides a favorable environment
for the growth of biological contaminants such as bacteria and fungi, especially when
exposed to moisture.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates or PHAs are polyesters produced in nature by numerous

microorganisms, including through bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids.
When produced by bacteria they serve as both a source of energy and a carbon store.
More than 150 monomers can be combined within this family to give materials with extremely
different properties.
These plastics are biodegradable and are used in the production of bioplastics.

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Features of PHA
1. Biodegradability: One of the key advantages of PHA is its biodegradability. Unlike
traditional plastics derived from fossil fuels, which can persist in the environment for
hundreds of years, Bacteria will break down PHA into carbon dioxide and water. This property
makes PHA an attractive option for reducing plastic pollution and addressing environmental
concerns.
2. Renewable Source: PHA can be produced from renewable resources such as sugars,
vegetable oils, and agricultural by-products.
3. Versatility: PHA can be produced with varying degrees of stiffness, flexibility, and
durability, making it suitable for diverse applications including packaging, agriculture,
medical devices, and consumer goods.
4. Biocompatibility: PHA is generally considered biocompatible and non-toxic, making it
suitable for medical and biomedical applications such as sutures, implants, drug delivery
systems, and tissue engineering scaffolds.
.
5. Production Process: The production of PHA typically involves fermentation processes using
microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, or algae. These microorganisms are engineered or
selected for their ability to convert renewable carbon sources into PHA.

Synthesis:

Production of PHA bioplastic

Bacteria and microorganisms produce PHA. It is more appropriate to refer to it as biosynthesis
Than production.
 To make PHA, a culture of a microorganism are fed with nutrients so that they multiply
rapidly.
 Once the population has reached a certain level, the nutrient composition is changed to force
the microorganism to synthesize PHA.and stored by the microorganisms.
 The PHA can weigh as much as 80 % of the organism’s dry weight.
 The biosynthesis of PHA is usually caused by certain deficient conditions such as the lack of
macro elements (phosphorus, nitrogen, trace elements, and oxygen) and the excess supply of
carbon sources 8.Drying: Finally, the purified PHAs are dried to remove any remaining solvent
and water.

Properties of PHA:
1. Biodegradability: PLA is biodegradable under industrial composting conditions, breaking
down into water and carbon dioxide.
2. Renewable Resource Base: Made from renewable resources such as cornstarch or sugarcane,
reducing reliance on petroleum.
3. Mechanical Properties: PLA has good tensile strength and rigidity but is more brittle
compared to other plastics like ABS.
4. Thermal Properties: PLA has a low glass transition temperature (~60°C) and a melting
temperature around 150-160°C, limiting its thermal resistance.
5. Ease of Processing: Easily processed using standard equipment for injection molding,
extrusion, and 3D printing.

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6. Environmental Impact: Lower carbon footprint compared to conventional plastics, thanks
to its renewable origins and biodegradability.

Common applications of PHA:

1. Packaging Materials: Used for making biodegradable packaging, including food
containers, wrappers, and disposable cutlery.
2. 3D Printing: Popular as a filament for 3D printers due to its ease of use and
environmentally friendly properties.
3. Disposable Tableware: Employed in the production of disposable plates, cups, and utensils
that are compostable and eco-friendly.
4. Medical Implants: Used in bioresorbable medical implants such as sutures, screws, and
stents, which safely degrade within the body.
5. Agricultural Films: Applied in agricultural mulch films that biodegrade, reducing the need
for plastic waste disposal.
6. Textiles: Utilized in the manufacture of biodegradable fibers and fabrics for clothing and
other textile products

NUCLEIC ACIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

DNA VACCINE FOR RABIES
Rabies is a viral disease that affects wild and domestic animals and is transmitted to humans
through animal contact
.Mechanism:
➔ DNA Encoding Rabies Antigen: The DNA vaccine contains a small circular piece of DNA
that encodes specific antigens from the rabies virus. These antigens, typically the rabies virus
glycoprotein (RVG), are crucial for producing an immune response.
➔ Intramuscular Injection: The vaccine is given via injection into muscle tissue. Once they are
inside the muscle cells, the DNA is taken up and begins the process of antigen expression.
➔ Antigen Production: Within the host cells, the DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then
translated into the rabies virus antigen protein(s). The antigen proteins are then presented
on the surface of the host cells.
➔ Immune Response Activation: The presence of rabies virus antigens triggers the host
immune system.
:
➔ Antigen Selection: Researchers identify and select specific antigens from the rabies virus
that are most effective at inducing an immune response. The RVG protein is a common
choice due to its role in viral attachment and entry into host cells.
➔ Plasmid Vector Construction: The DNA sequence encoding the selected rabies antigens is
cloned into a plasmid vector. This vector serves as a delivery vehicle for the DNA vaccine.
➔ Purification: The recombinant plasmid DNA is purified using various techniques to remove
impurities and ensure a high-quality vaccine product.
➔ Formulation: The purified DNA vaccine is formulated into a suitable delivery system, such

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as a saline solution or lipid nanoparticles, to facilitate its administration and uptake by
host cells.
Immunization and Application:
Preventive Vaccination: DNA vaccines for rabies are administered to individuals or animals at
risk of rabies exposure.
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP): DNA vaccines can also be used as part of post-exposure
prophylaxis for individuals bitten or scratched by animals suspected of carrying the rabies virus.
They complement traditional rabies vaccines and rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) administration.
Advantages:
Stability: DNA vaccines are stable at room temperature, eliminating the need for cold chain
storage and transportation.
Ease of Production: DNA vaccines can be produced using recombinant DNA technology,
offering a
scalable and cost-effective manufacturing process.
Safety: DNA vaccines do not contain live viruses, reducing the risk of vaccine-associated
adverse events.
Challenges:Immunogenicity: While DNA vaccines can induce strong immune responses,
optimizing their efficacy, particularly in large-scale human populations, remains a challenge.
Regulatory Approval: Regulatory approval for DNA vaccines requires extensive data on safety,
efficacy, and long-term effects, which may pose hurdles to their widespread use

RNA VACCINES FOR COVID-19

It represents a groundbreaking approach to vaccination that has been at the forefront of efforts to
combat the pandemic. These vaccines utilize messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells in the
body to produce a protein like the spike protein found on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus,
which causes COVID-19. The immune system then recognizes this spike protein and mounts a
response, including the production of antibodies, to protect against future infection. RNA
vaccines for COVID-19 works typically as follows:
1. mRNA Selection: Scientists identify the genetic sequence encoding the spike protein of the
SARS-CoV-2 virus. This sequence is used as the template for generating the mRNA vaccine.
2. mRNA Formulation: The mRNA encoding the spike protein is formulated into lipid
nanoparticles. These nanoparticles protect the mRNA and help deliver it into cells once the
vaccine is administered.
3. Vaccination: The mRNA vaccine is administered to individuals through intramuscular injection,
typically into the upper arm. Once injected, the lipid nanoparticles deliver the mRNA into cells in
the vicinity of the injection site.
4. Cellular Uptake: Cells take up the lipid nanoparticles containing the mRNA. Once inside the
cell, the mRNA serves as a template for protein synthesis.
5. Protein Production: The cell's machinery reads the mRNA and produces copies of the spike
protein encoded by the vaccine and are displayed on the surface of the cell.
6. Immune Response: The immune system recognizes the spike proteins as foreign and produces
immune response. This includes the production of antibodies that specifically target the spike
protein, as well as the activation of other immune cells, such as T cells.
7. Immune Memory: After vaccination, the immune system retains a memory of the spike protein.
If the vaccinated individual is later exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, their immune system can

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 quickly recognize and mount a response against it, preventing or reducing the severity of
COVID-19.

PROTEINS AS FOOD
WHEY PROTEIN AND MEAT ANALOGS
Whey protein is a high-quality protein derived from whey, a byproduct of cheese production. It's one of
the two main proteins found in milk, the other being casein. Whey protein is renowned for its excellent
amino acid profile, including all nine essential amino acids required by the body. Benefits offered by
Whey protein:
1. Muscle Growth and Repair: Whey protein is rich in leucine, which plays a vital role in
stimulating muscle protein synthesis. Consuming whey protein after exercise can help
support muscle recovery and promote muscle growth.
2. Weight Management: whey protein, has been shown to promote feelings of fullness and
satiety, which can help control appetite and support weight management goals.
3. Nutrient Absorption: Whey protein can enhance the absorption of certain nutrients,
particularly in individuals with compromised digestive function.
4. Convenient Source of Protein: Whey protein supplements come in various forms, such as
powders, bars, and ready-to-drink shakes, making them convenient options for increasing
protein intake on the go or supplementing the diet with additional protein.
5. Versatility: Whey protein can be easily incorporated into recipes and beverages, making it
a versatile ingredient for boosting protein content in meals and snacks.
Whey protein is obtained from the liquid portion of milk that separates during cheese production.
When milk is coagulated to form curds and whey, the curds are used to make cheese, while the
liquid whey is collected and processed further to extract whey protein.
The production of whey protein involves several steps:
➔ Whey Separation: After the curds are formed and removed during cheese production, the
remaining liquid is whey.
➔ Protein Concentration: The whey is processed to concentrate the proteins by involving
methods such as ultrafiltration, microfiltration, or ion exchange to remove water, lactose, and
minerals, leaving behind a protein-rich liquid.
➔ Purification: The concentrated whey protein solution undergoes further purification to
remove impurities like fat and carbohydrates. This is typically done through additional filtration
steps or using enzymes or chemicals to isolate the protein fractions.
➔ Drying: Once purified, the whey protein solution is dried to create a powder form. This can
be achieved through methods such as spray drying or freeze drying.
➔ Packaging: The dried whey protein powder is then packaged into containers for distribution
and sale.

Meat analogs,
Meat analogs also known as meat substitutes, meat alternatives, or plant-based meats, are
products designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of traditional meat products while
being entirely plant-based.
These products are typically made from various plant-based ingredients, such as soy, wheat
gluten, pea protein, mushrooms, and other legumes, along with flavorings, seasonings, and
binding agents.

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Soy Protein: Soy protein is often used as a base ingredient in meat analogs due to its high
protein content and ability to mimic the texture of meat when processed.
Wheat Gluten (Seitan): Wheat gluten, also known as seitan, is another protein-rich ingredient
commonly used in meat analogs. It has a chewy texture that resembles meat when cooked. Pea
Protein: Pea protein is derived from yellow peas and is often used in meat analogs for its protein
content and neutral flavor profile.
Mushrooms: Mushrooms, particularly varieties like shiitake or portobello, can be used to add
meaty texture and umami flavor to meat analogs.
Legumes: Other legumes, such as lentils, chickpeas, and black beans, can also be used to
provide protein, texture, and flavor to meat analogs.
Flavorings and Seasonings: Meat analogs may contain various flavorings, seasonings, and
spices to enhance their taste and aroma, mimicking the flavor of traditional meat products.
Production Process:
The production process for meat analogs typically involves several steps:
➔ Ingredient Mixing: Plant-based ingredients are mixed with water, flavorings, and
seasonings to form a dough or slurry.
➔ Texturization: The dough or slurry may undergo texturization processes, such as extrusion
or molding, to create the desired meat-like texture.
➔ Cooking: The meat analogs are cooked using methods such as baking, frying, or steaming
to achieve the desired taste and texture.
➔ Packaging: Once cooked, the meat analogs are packaged and may be sold fresh, frozen, or
refrigerated, depending on the product and distribution requirements.

Benefits of meat analogs:

Plant-Based: Meat analogs provide a cruelty-free and environmentally friendly alternative to
traditional meat products, as they do not require the use of animals for production.
Healthier Option: Meat analogs are often lower in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to
traditional meat products, making them a healthier option for individuals looking to reduce their
intake of animal products.
Variety: Meat analogs come in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms, providing
consumers with options to suit their taste preferences and dietary needs.
Sustainability: Producing meat analogs typically requires fewer resources, such as water and
land, compared to traditional meat production, making them a more sustainable choice

PLANT-BASED PROTEINS
Plant-based proteins are protein-rich foods derived from plants. They offer a nutritious and
sustainable alternative to animal-based proteins and are a crucial component of vegetarian,
Sources
Legumes: Legumes are a diverse group of plants that include beans, lentils, chickpeas, and peas.
They are rich in protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Examples include black beans, kidney
beans, chickpeas, lentils, and split peas.
Soy Products: Soybeans are a complete source of protein, meaning they contain all nine
essential amino acids. Soy products include tofu, , soy milk, and soy protein powder.
Whole Grains: Whole grains such as quinoa, brown rice, oats, barley,

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Nuts and Seeds: Nuts and seeds are high in protein, healthy fats, vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
Examples include almonds, walnuts, peanuts, cashews, chia seeds, flaxseeds, hemp seeds, and
pumpkin seeds.
Seitan (Wheat Gluten): Seitan is a meat substitute made from wheat gluten. It has a chewy
texture and is a popular ingredient in vegetarian and vegan dishes. Seitan is particularly high in
protein and is often used as a meat alternative in recipes.
Nutritional Yeast: Nutritional yeast is a deactivated yeast that is commonly used as a flavoring
agent in vegan and vegetarian dishes. It is rich in protein and B vitamins, including vitamin B12.
Vegetables:. Some vegetables, such as spinach, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and peas, contain
moderate amounts of protein.

Benefits of Plant-Based Proteins:

Nutrient-Rich: Plant-based proteins are often rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants,
providing a wide array of nutrients that support overall health.
Lower in Saturated Fat: Plant-based proteins are generally lower in saturated fat and
cholesterol compared to animal-based proteins, which can help promote heart health and lower
the risk of certain chronic diseases.
Sustainability: Producing plant-based proteins typically requires fewer resources, such as water
and land, and generates fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to animal agriculture, making
them a more environmentally sustainable choice.
Versatility: Plant-based proteins can be incorporated into a variety of dishes, including soups,
salads, stir-fries, sandwiches, wraps, and smoothies, providing flexibility and variety in the diet.

LIPIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is an animal fat-based or vegetable oil diesel fuel, including long-chain alkyl (methyl,
ethyl, or propyl) esters. Biodiesel is generally made by esterifying lipids (e.g., soybean oil,
vegetable oil, and animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol generating fatty acid esters.

Here is why lipids are utilized as biodiesel:

➔ High Energy Content: Lipids, such as triglycerides found in vegetable oils and animal fats,
Are rich in energy. When converted into biodiesel, they provide a high-energy source of fuel for
various applications.
➔ Renewable Resource: Lipids used for biodiesel production are derived from renewable
Sources such as plants (e.g., soybean, canola, palm) and animal fats, making biodiesel a
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.
➔ Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Biodiesel produced from lipids typically emits lower
Levels of greenhouse gases compared to conventional petroleum diesel. It contributes to
reducing carbon dioxide emissions and mitigating climate change.
➔ Biodegradability: Biodiesel derived from lipids is biodegradable, this property reduces the
Environmental impact of biodiesel spills and leakage compared to petroleum-based fuels.
➔ Domestic Production: Many lipid sources for biodiesel production are grown domestically,
Reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels, and enhancing energy security.
➔ Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure: Biodiesel can be used in existing diesel
engines and infrastructure with little modifications.

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➔ Versatility: Lipids can be sourced from a variety of feedstock, allowing for flexibility in
Biodiesel production and reducing costs with locally available resources.
➔ Potential for Waste Utilization: Biodiesel can be produced from waste materials such as
Used cooking oil, animal fats, and byproducts from food processing industries, contributing to
waste reduction and resource efficiency.
➔ Promotion of Rural Development: Biodiesel production from lipid feedstock can stimulate
Rural economies by creating jobs in agriculture, processing, and distribution sectors.
➔ Technological Advancements: Ongoing research and development efforts continue to
Improve biodiesel production processes, enhance lipid feedstock availability, and optimize
biodiesel performance, strengthening the viability of lipids as a source for biodiesel.

Synthesis of Biodiesel:
• Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils, yellow grease, used cooking oils, or animal fats.
• The fuel is produced by transesterification—a process that converts fats and oils into biodiesel
And glycerin (a coproduct).
• Oil or fat are reacted with alcohol usually methanol in the presence of a catalyst such as sodium
hydroxide [NaOH] or potassium hydroxide [KOH]) to form biodiesel and glycerin or
Glycerol.
• Glycerin, a co-product, is a sugar commonly used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and
Cosmetics.

LIPIDS AS CLEANING AGENTS

Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be used as cleaning agents or detergents,
particularly in the form of soap. Here's how lipids function as cleaning agents:
1. Soap Formation: Soap is traditionally made by saponifying lipids with a strong base, such
as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), through a process known as

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Saponification. This reaction converts triglycerides (the main component of fats and oils)
Into glycerol and fatty acid salts, which are the active cleaning agents in soap.
2. Surfactant Properties: The fatty acid salts produced during saponification act as
Surfactants, which are compounds that lower the surface tension between water and dirt,
Allowing them to mix more easily. Surfactants helps in easy removal of oil, grease etc.
3. Emulsification: Lipids can emulsify oils and greases, breaking them down into smaller
Droplets and dispersing them in water. Which will enhances the cleaning properties.
4. Biodegradability: These are biodegradable. They can be broken down by microorganisms in
the environment into simpler compounds, reducing their impact on ecosystems.
5. Mildness: Lipid-based detergents are often gentler on the skin compared to harsher
Synthetic detergents. They are less likely to cause irritation or dryness.
6. Natural Origins: Lipids derived from renewable sources, such as plant oils, offer a more
Sustainable alternative to petroleum-based detergents.

These lipid detergents also have the same general structure as washing detergents i.e, a polar
hydrophilic head group and a nonpolar hydrophobic tail.
These hydrophobic (water fearing) and hydrophilic (water-loving) regions, which allows them to
surround emulsifying fats and oils such that enzymes effectively breaking them down into
smaller particles that can be more easily removed. Thus depending on the concentration of the
lipid,this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles, liposomes, or lipid
bilayers.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are protein biomolecules that help to speed up metabolism or the chemical reactions in
our bodies. These are also called biocatalysts..
The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases, ligases and
isomerases.
Function of enzymes:
Enzymes perform the critical task of lowering a reaction's activation energy—that is, the amount
of energy that must be put in for the reaction to begin. Enzymes work by binding to reactant
molecules and holding them in such a way that the chemical bond-breaking and bond-forming
processes take place more readily

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Enzyme possess active site where substrate will come and attach and forms the enzyme-substrate
complex and once reaction is over enzyme- products complex is formed. Then the products
formed will leave the active site of enzymes.

ENZYMES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Enzymes Glucose-oxidase in biosensors
Glucose oxidase is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors for the detection and quantification
of glucose levels. Here is how it works within the context of biosensors:

Glucose biosensor was fabricated by immobilizing glucose oxidase (GOx). The immobilized
GOx catalyzes the oxidation of glucose by molecular oxygen producing Gluconic acid and
hydrogen peroxide. The Hydrogen peroxide is oxidized at a catalytic, classically platinum (Pt)
anode. The electrode easily recognizes the number of electron transfers, and this electron flow is
proportional to the number of glucose molecules present in blood.

Function: Glucose oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to produce gluconic acid and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) according to the following reaction:

Glucose + O2 → Gluconic acid + H2O2

● Substrate Specificity: Glucose oxidase specifically acts on glucose molecules, making it

highly selective for glucose detection.
● Detection Principle: In biosensors, glucose oxidase is immobilized within or on the surface of
Electrodes in combination with a transducer. When glucose is present in a sample, it reacts
With glucose oxidase, resulting in the production of hydrogen peroxide.
● Electrochemical Detection: The hydrogen peroxide generated in the enzymatic reaction
serves as a measurable signal. Biosensors often utilize electrochemical methods to detect this
signal.
● Calibration: Biosensors containing glucose oxidase require calibration to establish a
Relationship between the measured signal (e.g., current or voltage) and the concentration of
Glucose in the sample. Calibration curves are typically constructed using known concentrations
Of glucose to determine the sensor's sensitivity and linear range.
● Applications: Glucose biosensors find widespread applications in medical diagnostics.

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BIO BLEACHING
Bio-Bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such as enzymes, to remove color and
brighten fibers, paper, and textiles.
Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of lignocellulosic (Rice
waste,corn waste,etc) waste in environment. The major ligninolytic enzymes are Ligninolytic
fungi, lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase.

Bio-Bleaching Process and Role of Lignolytic Enzymes:

1. Pulp Preparation: Raw pulp obtained from wood or other lignocellulosic sources is prepared for
bleaching.
2. Enzyme Application: Lignolytic enzymes (such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and
laccase) are applied to the pulp mixture.These enzymes are typically produced by fungi or other
microorganisms.
3. Degradation of Lignin: Lignolytic enzymes break down lignin, which is a complex polymer
responsible for the coloration of pulp. Enzymes target and cleave the bonds within lignin molecules,
resulting in its fragmentation into smaller and soluble.
4. Removal of Lignin Fragments: The fragmented lignin is solubilized and washed away from the pulp
mixture. This process reduces the coloration and brightness of the pulp, resulting in a lighter and brighter
final product.
5. Paper Formation:The bleached pulp is then used to produce paper or other cellulose-based products
through various processing techniques, such as papermaking.

Benefits of Bio-Bleaching:
1. Environmentally Friendly: Reduces the use of harsh chemicals and minimizes
environmental pollution associated with conventional bleaching methods.

2. Sustainable: Utilizes natural enzymes and microbial processes to achieve bleaching,

promoting sustainability in the paper industry.

Role of enzymes In food processing:

Enzyme Source Applications Benefits

Breakdown of
starch into sugars,
Fungi, bacteria, Baking, brewing, corn improved dough
Amylase
plants syrup production handling,
increased
sweetness
Breakdown of
proteins into
Fungi, bacteria, Meat tenderizing,
peptides and
Protease plants, animal cheese making,
amino acids,
tissues brewing
improved texture
and flavor

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 Breakdown of fats,
Dairy processing, improved flavor
Fungi, bacteria,
Lipase flavor enhancement in and texture,
plants
cheese, baking enhanced dough
conditioning
Breakdown of
Juice clarification,
Fungi, bacteria, pectin, improved
Pectinase wine production, fruit
plants juice yield,
processing
reduced viscosity
Breakdown of
cellulose,
Juice extraction, wine
improved
Cellulase Fungi, bacteria production, coffee
extraction
processing
efficiency, reduced
turbidity
Breakdown of
lactose into
Dairy processing
Lactase Fungi, bacteria glucose and
(lactose free products)
galactose, reduced
lactose content
Breakdown of
sucrose into
Confectionery, soft glucose and
Invertase Yeast, fungi
drink production fructose, improved
sweetness, and
texture
Breakdown of
Removal of hydrogen hydrogen peroxide
Fungi, bacteria, peroxide in milk into water and
Catalase
plants processing, food oxygen, improved
preservation safety, and shelf
life
Coagulation of
Genetically
Rennet milk proteins,
engineered Cheese making
(Chymosin) improved cheese
microorganisms
yield and texture

Question bank:
1. Explain the composition, consyruction and filter mechanism in cellulose based water
filter paper.
2. Illustrate the properties , advantages, applications and limitains of cellulose based water
filter paper.

STJIT-Dept. of Chemistry- BBOC407

 3. Explain the synthesis of PLA and PHA. Write the properties, applications and limitations
of it.
4. Explain the role of DNA vaccination for rabies.
5. Explain the role of RNA vaccination for COVID-19.
6. Explain the role of protein as food in the following. i)Whey protein ii) meat analogs
7. Explain the sources and benefits of plant-based protein.
8. What re biodiesel? Explain the synthesis of biodiesel.
9. Explain the role of lipids as biodiesel and in cleansing agents.
10. Explain the role of enzymes in food processing.
11. Explain the role of enzymes in bio bleaching process.

Mrs. Namratha
Assistant professor
Department of Chemistry
AJIET, Mangaluru

STJIT-Dept. of Chemistry- BBOC407

 Course Title: Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)
Course Code: BBOC407
Module 2: ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR
BIOENGINEERING DESIGN
Syllabus:
Brain as a CPU system. Eye as a Camera system. Heart as a pump system. Lungs as purification
system. Kidney as a filtration system.

Brain as a CPU System

• The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor
skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body.
• Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous
system, or CNS.
• Most computers process information very rapidly, but they do so in serial fashion: all
of the information is processed by a single central processing unit (CPU) that performs
one operation after another.
• But the CPU can also simulate parallel processing by subdividing its various tasks into
subtasks and alternating rapidly among them.
• The brain’s neurons are much slower than a computer’s integrated circuits.
• But the brain’s power comes from its being a machine that performs massively parallel
processing.
• The brain does not have a CPU. Instead, it has millions of neurons that combine signals
simultaneously.
Architecture:
• Neurons are the most common type of brain cell. The average human brain contains
about 86 billion neurons.
• At one end, each neuron has a cell body surrounded by dendrite branches.
• An axon connects the cell body to the axon terminal at the other end of the
neuron. Schwann cells surround the axon.
• They provide a fatty coating called the myelin sheath.
• Neurons transmit electrical signals called impulses.
• They flow through the axon from the dendrites and the cell body toward the axon
terminal.
• Impulses jump from the axon end of one neuron to the dendrite end of the next. To
do this, the signal has to cross a tiny gap called a synapse.
• Travelling from neuron to neuron, impulses move between brain regions at different

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 1
speeds.

• The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through a process that begins early in
Life and continues into adulthood.
• Simpler circuits come first and more complex brain circuits build on them later. Genes
Provide the basic blueprint, but experiences influence how or whether genes are expressed.
• Plasticity, or the ability for the brain to reorganize and adapt, is greatest in the first years
Of life and decreases with age.
The brain, along with the spinal cord, constitutes the central nervous system. It is responsible for
thoughts, interpretation and origin of control for body movements.

Parts of Human Brain:

Following are the major parts of the human brain:
Forebrain – Largest part of the brain
It is the anterior part of the brain. The forebrain parts include:
• Cerebrum
• Hypothalamus
• Thalamus
Forebrain Function: Controls the reproductive functions, body temperature, emotions, hunger and
sleep.
Fact: The largest among the forebrain parts is the cerebrum. It is also the largest part of all
vertebrate brains.
Midbrain: Smallest and central part of the brain The midbrain consists of:
• Tectum
• Tegmentum
Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain The hindbrain is composed of:

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 2
• Cerebellum
• Medulla
• Pons
Hindbrain functions: The three regions of the hindbrain co-ordinates all processes necessary for
survival. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep, wakefulness and motor learning.

Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the body. It consists
of the brain and the spinal cord.
Brain:
The brain is one of the important, largest and central organ of the human nervous system. It is the
control unit of the nervous system, which helps us in discovering new things, remembering and
understanding, making decisions, and a lot more. It is enclosed within the skull, which provides
frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The human brain is composed of three major parts:
1. Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and
Thalamus.
2. Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and
Tegmentum.
3. Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and
Pons.
Spinal Cord:
• The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibres and associated tissues enclosed
within the spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain.
• It begins in continuation with the medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed in a
bony cage called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called meninges.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 3
• The spinal cord is concerned with spinal reflex actions and the conduction of nerve
impulses to and from the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System:
“Peripheral nervous system involves the parts of the nervous system outside the brain and the
spinal cord.”
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that develops from the
central nervous system which connects different parts of the body with the CNS. It carry out both
voluntary and involuntary actions with the help of peripheral nerves.
PNS includes two types of nerve fibres:
1. Afferent nerve fibres – These are responsible for transmitting messages from tissues
and organs to the CNS.
2. Efferent nerve-fibres – These are responsible for conveying messages from CNS to the
corresponding peripheral organ.

Bio-designing brings analogies between Brain and CPU and Comparable Parts can be as
follows:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) & Brain: Like a CPU in a computer, the brain processes
information, and coordinates activities.
Function: Executes instructions, processes data, and manages system resources.
 Memory (RAM/Storage) & Hippocampus and Cerebral Cortex: These brain regions
store and retrieve memories, akin to how RAM and storage manage data.
Function: Temporary storage (RAM) for quick access and long-term storage for retaining
information.

 Bus Systems (Data Pathways) & Neurons and Synapses: Serve as pathways for
transmitting information throughout the brain.
Function: Facilitate communication between different parts of the system (input/output
operations).
 Input/output Devices & Sensory Organs and Motor Cortex: Sensory organs (eyes, ears)
input data to the brain; the motor cortex outputs commands to muscles.
Function: Receive external data (input) and execute responses (output).
 Parallel processing: both can perform multiple works simultaneously. Brain does it by the
help of neurons and CPU does it with help of multi-core processor and hyper- threading.
 Instructions and operations: both follow instructions to perform the tasks. The brain
follows neural pathways and CPU follows set of instructions through software.

Applications based on Brain as CPU Bio-design.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 4
  Electroencephalography (EEG):
Inspired Bio-design: Non-invasive sensors to monitor brain activity and diagnose
neurological disorders.
Applications: Medical diagnostics, brain-computer interfaces, cognitive research.
 Robotic Prosthetics:
Inspired Bio-design: Prosthetic limbs that interface with the nervous system to restore
functionality. Applications: Assistive devices for amputees, advanced robotics,
rehabilitation technology.
 Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS):
Inspired Bio-design: Use of electrical impulses to modulate brain activity in patients with
neurological disorders.
Applications: Treatment of Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, depression.
 Brain-Machine Interfaces (BMIs):
Inspired Bio-design: Direct communication pathways between the brain and external
devices. Applications: Control of prosthetics, computer interaction, and enhanced realit y
systems.
 Neural Networks and AI:
Inspired Bio-design: Computational models that mimic the brain’s network of neurons to
process information.
Applications: AI applications in natural language processing, image recognition, predictive
analytics. These analogies, functions, Bio-designs, and applications illustrate how the
brain's complex processing capabilities inspire a wide range of technological innovations,
mirroring its efficiency and adaptability in artificial systems.

Eye as a Camera System:

There are many similarities between the human eye and a camera, including a
• diaphragm to control the amount of light that gets through to the lens.
• This is the shutter in a camera, and the pupil, at the centre of the iris, in the human eye. A
lens to focus the light and create an image.
• The image is real and inverted. A method of sensing the image.
• In a camera, the film is used to record the image; in the eye, the image is focused on the retina,
and a
system of rods and cones is the front end of an image-processing system that converts the image
to
electrical impulses and sends the information along the opticnerve to the brain.
• The way the eye focuses light is interesting because most of the refraction that takes place is not
done
by the lens itself, but by the aqueous humour, a liquid on top of the lens.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 5
The External Structure of an Eye
The parts of the eye that are visible externally include the following:-
Sclera: It is a white visible portion. It is made up of dense connective tissue and protects the inner
parts.
Cornea: It is the transparent, anterior or front part of our eye, which covers the pupil and the iris.
The main function is to refract the light along with the lens.
Iris: It is the pigmented, coloured portion of the eye, visible externally. The main function of the
iris is to control the diameter of the pupil according to the light source.
Pupil: It is the small aperture located in the centre of the Iris. It allows light to enter and focus on
the retina.
The Internal Structure of an Eye
The internal components of an eye are:
Lens: It is a transparent, biconvex, lens of an eye.
Retina: It is the innermost layer of the eye. It is light sensitive and acts as a film of a camera. It
converts the image into electrical nerve impulses for the visual perception by the brain.
Optic nerve: It is located at the posterior portion of the eyes. The optic nerves carry all the nerve
impulses from the retina to the human brain for perception.
Aqueous Humour: It is a watery fluid present between the cornea and the lens. It nourishes the
eye and keeps it inflated.
Vitreous Humour: it is a transparent, jelly-like substance present between the lens and the retina.
The main function of vitreous humour is to protect the eyes and maintain its spherical shape.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 6
Architecture of rod and cone cells:
The human retina has two types of photoreceptors to gather light namely rods and cones. While
rods are responsible for vision at low light levels, cones are responsible for vision at higher light
levels. The light levels where both are functional are known as mesopic.
Rods:
• Capable of scotopic vision (low light levels), they have a low spatial acuity and do not
mediate colour
• Populated at the periphery of the retina.
• They are rod-shaped, facilitating vision during dim light/night
• Contain rhodopsin pigment rich in vitamin A responsible for the night vision hence
making rods sensitive to light
Cones:
• Capable of photopic vision (higher light levels), they are responsible for high spatial
acuity and responsible for colour vision
• They are populated in the central fovea region and mostly found in retina
• Help distinguish colour and other fine details and are cone-shaped
• They are of three types – long-wavelength sensitive cones(L-cones), middlewavelength sensitive
cones (M-cones) and short-wavelength sensitive cones (S-cones)
• These contain iodopsin pigment known as violet pigment.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 7
Bio designing brings analogies between Eye and Camera System and Comparable Parts can
be as follows:
 Lens:
Eye: The lens of the eye focuses light onto the retina. Camera: The camera lens focuses light
onto the image sensor. Function: Adjusts focus to ensure a clear image is formed.
 Iris and Pupil:
Eye: The iris controls the size of the pupil, regulating the amount of light entering the eye.
Camera: The aperture controls the size of the opening, regulating light exposure. Function:
Manages light intake to optimize image clarity and prevent overexposure.
 Retina:
Eye: The retina contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that detect light and convert it
into electrical signals.
Camera: The image sensor (CCD or CMOS) captures light and converts it into digital signals.
Function: Converts light into electrical signals for image processing.
 Optic Nerve:
Eye: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
Camera: The data cable (USB, HDMI) transmits image data from the camera sensor to a
computer or display.
Function: Transfers captured data for processing and interpretation.
 Eyelid:
Eye: Protects the eye and regulates light exposure by opening and closing. Camera: The
camera shutter controls the duration of light exposure.
Function: Protects the sensitive components and controls light exposure duration.

Applications
 Digital Cameras: Inspired Bio-design: Cameras use lenses, apertures, and sensors inspired
by the eye’s structure and function.
Applications: Photography, videography, mobile phone cameras.
 Optical Instruments: Inspired Bio-design: Instruments like microscopes and telescopes
use lenses and focusing mechanisms like the eye.
Applications: Scientific research, medical diagnostics, astronomy.
 Vision Correction Devices: Inspired Bio-design: Glasses and contact lenses correct
focusing issues like myopia and hyperopia, like how the eye’s lens adjusts focus.
Applications: Vision correction for individuals with refractive errors.
 Medical Imaging Technologies: Inspired Bio-design: Devices such as endoscopes and
retinal scanners are designed based on the eye’s ability to capture detailed images.
Heart as a pump system:

Architecture of heart:

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 8
• The heart is a fist-sized muscular organ made up of cardiac muscles. Heart, blood and
a network of arteries, veins, and other blood vessels make the cardiovascular system.
The aorta is the largest artery in the body and plays a crucial role in the circulatory system. The
main functioning of aorta is to distribute the oxygenated blood throughout the body.
• The heart is the key structure of a circulatory system because it is the motor or pumping
Organ, which helps in circulation of blood throughout the body as per requirement.
• For example, during exercise or other heavy works, it pumps more blood than during
Rest.
•The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs and protected
By a thick wall called pericardium.

• It is divided into four chambers namely- right and left atria and left and right ventricles. Atria are
present on the top and ventricles are the chambers at the bottom.
• Interatrial septum is a thin wall, which separates the right and left atria whereas two ventricles
are divided by interventricular septum.
• Valves are the fibrous tissues, which ensure the unidirectional flow of blood in the heart. The
valve present between the right atrium and ventricle is known as tricuspid valve and this
prevents the backward flow of blood from the right ventricle the to the right atrium. Bicuspid
valve (mitral valve) is the valve that separates the left atrium and ventricle.

Bio-designing brings analogies between Heart and Pump System and Comparable Parts can be
as follows:

▪ Heart Chambers:

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 9
 Analog: Pump chambers
Function: Receive and expel fluid (blood)
▪ Valves (Aortic, Mitral, etc.):
Analog: Check valves
Function: Ensure one-way flow of fluid
▪ Arteries and Veins:
Analog: Pipes and hoses
Function: Transport fluid to and from the pump
▪ Blood:
Analog: Fluid being pumped (e.g., water, oil)
Function: Medium of transport for nutrients and waste
▪ Heart Muscle (Myocardium):
Analog: Pump motor
Function: Generates force to move fluid
▪ Electrical Conduction System (SA node, AV node):
Analog: Electrical control system (timers, regulators)
Function: conrols the amount and time of flow of blood(fluid)
Applications
▪ Artificial Hearts and Ventricular Assist Devices (VADs):
Applications: Life-saving devices for patients with severe heart failure
▪ Industrial Pumps:
Applications: Water treatment plants, chemical processing, oil, and gas industry
▪ Medical Devices and Implants:
Applications: Prosthetic heart valves, blood flow regulators
▪ Hydraulic Systems:
Applications: Heavy machinery, automotive brakes, aircraft systems
▪ Automated Control Systems:
.Applications: Manufacturing automation, smart irrigation systems.

Lungs as purification system:

The lungs and respiratory system allow us to breathe. They bring oxygen into our bodies (called
inspiration, or inhalation) and send carbon dioxide out (called expiration, or exhalation).This
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is called respiration.
Architecture of lungs:
• Lungs are a pair of respiratory organs located in the chest cavity protected by rib cage.
• They are spongy elastic and are enclosed by two membranes called Pleura.
• Space between the two membranes of the Pleura is filled with fluid. Pleura protects the lungs
from injury.
• Right lung is larger than the left lungs and it is made of three lobes while the left lung has
only two lobes. A pipe like structure called Trachea carries the air from Nose through
Neck, thoracic cavity and opens into two lungs through two branches called Bronchi.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 10
• The walls of Trachea are supported by several 'C" shaped cartilaginous rings which prevent it
from collapsing and closing. Bronchus divides into fine Bronchioles which open into tiny balloon
like structures called Alveoli.
• Alveoli, also known as air space or air sacs, are millions of hollow cup-shaped cavities found in
the lungs where exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

Exchange Of Gases(gas exchange mechanism)

• Gaseous exchange is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs
and blood.
• It is the biological process by which gases enter or exit the bloodstream across
cell membranes.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 11
• Gas exchange occurs constantly between the blood and the cells throughout the body, as well as
between the blood and the air inside the lungs.
Breathing and Exchange of Gases:
In breathing, there are two processes: exhalation and inspiration.
External Respiration
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the mouth and the air in the lungs is known
as external respiration. External respiration, often recognized as breathing, encompasses drawing
air into the lung that is inhalation and as well as expelling air into the environment, which is the
exhalation process.
Internal Respiration
Internal respiration is the process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body's
capillaries and alveoli.
Transport of Gases in Respiration:
The capability of hemoglobin (in RBCs) to carry (transport) oxygen and carbon dioxide as blood
flows through the body is referred to as transport of gases.
• Transport of Oxygen: The alveoli-capillary membrane allows oxygen to pass through and
dissolve in the plasma. After that, it enters RBCs and attaches to haemoglobin molecules. Hgb
carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide and transports the majority of it. Oxyhaemoglobin is
formed when haemoglobin and oxygen mix. Oxyhemoglobin synthesis is reversible, allowing Hb
and oxygen to separate which allows oxygen to enter tissues.
• Transport of Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide is carried in the bloodstream in three different
forms: dissolved, bonded to haemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Due to larger
solubility coefficients, the dissolved form (7%) is more than oxygen (oxygen is 1.5 per cent) which
diffuses in the presence of concentration gradients. RBCs absorb the majority of dissolved CO2.
CO2 binds to proteins in the blood as well and converts as carboxy haemoglobin.

 Transport: Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming oxyhemoglobin, which is
then transported via the bloodstream to cells throughout the body where it is released to provide
energy through cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide, transported in the blood mainly as bicarbonate
ions and bound to hemoglobin, is carried back to the lungs to be exhaled.

 Exhalation: Carbon dioxide-rich blood returns to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. Upon
reaching the alveoli, carbon dioxide diffuses across the alveolar membrane into the airspaces of
the lungs and is then exhaled out of the body during expiration.(exhalation).

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 12
Bio designing brings analogies between Lungs and Purification System and Comparable
Parts can be as follows:
▪ Alveoli:
Analog: Filtration membranes or media
Function: Exchange gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between air and blood
▪ Bronchi and Bronchioles:
Analog: Ducts or air channels
Function: Conduct air to and from the alveoli
▪ Diaphragm and Respiratory Muscles:
Analog: Bellows or pumps
Function: Drive the intake and expulsion of air
▪ Capillaries Surrounding Alveoli:
Analog: Fluid channels in filtration systems
Function: Transport gases to and from the filtration membrane
▪ Mucus and Cilia:
Analog: Pre-filters and cleaning mechanisms
Function: Trap and remove particulates and pathogens from the air.

Applications
▪ Respiratory Support Devices:
. Applications: Ventilators, CPAP machines, ECMO (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation)
▪ Advanced Air Filtration Systems:
. Applications: HEPA filters, air purifiers, clean room filtration systems
▪ HVAC Systems:
Applications: Home and industrial heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems
▪ Artificial Lungs and Oxygenators:
Applications: Medical devices for patients with severe respiratory issues, portable oxygen
concentrators
▪ Industrial Air Scrubbers:
Applications: Pollution control in factories, emission reduction systems.

. Kidney as a filtration system:

Architecture:
• The kidneys are located at upper and backside of the abdomen, on either side of
The spine. They are protected from damage by the lower ribs.
• The kidneys lie deep inside the abdomen so normally one cannot feel them.
• The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs. Each kidney weighs approximately
150-170 grams.
• Urine formed in the kidneys flow down to urinary bladder and then through the
Ureters. Each ureter is about 25 cm long and is a hollow tube- like structure made
Up of special muscles.
• The urinary bladder is a hollow organ made up of muscles, which lie in the lower and anterior
part of the abdomen. It acts as a reservoir of urine.
• The adult urinary bladder can hold about 400-500 ml of urine; when filled to near capacity, a
person feels the urge to pass urine.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 13
• The urine in the bladder is excreted through the urethra during the process of urination.

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 14
Mechanism of filtration:
This follows double filtration method.
• Each of kidneys is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron
includes a filter, called the glomerulus, and a tubule.
• The nephrons work through a two-step process: the glomerulus filters blood, and the tubule
returns needed substances to blood and removes wastes.
• As blood flows into each nephron, it enters a cluster of tiny blood vessels—the glomerulus.

• The thin walls of the glomerulus allow smaller molecules, wastes, and fluid— mostly water—to
pass into the tubule. Larger molecules, such as proteins and blood cells, stay in the blood
Vessel.
• A blood vessel runs alongside the tubule.
• As the filtered fluid moves along the tubule, the blood vessel reabsorbs almost all of the water,
along with minerals and nutrients your body needs.
• The tubule helps remove excess acid from the blood. The remaining fluid and wastes in the tubule
become urine which enters the ureters and then to urine bladder.

Structure of Nephron:

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 15
Bio designing brings analogies between Kidney and Filtration System and Comparable Parts
can be as follows:
▪ Nephrons (Functional Units): Analog: Filter cartridges
Function: Filter waste and excess substances from blood
▪ Glomerulus:
Analog: Initial filtration screen
Function: Allows water and small solutes to pass while retaining larger molecules
▪ Bowman's capsule:
Analog: Collection chamber
Function: Collects filtrate from the glomerulus
▪ Tubules
Analog: Filtering tubes
Function: Reabsorb needed substances and secrete additional waste
▪ Collecting Ducts:
Analog: Final collection channels
Function: Channel filtered urine to the ureters

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 16
▪ Renal Artery and Vein:
Analog: Inflow and outflow pipes
Function: Supply unfiltered blood and remove filtered blood
▪ Ureters:
Analog: Output pipes
Function: Transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

Applications
▪ Dialysis Machines:
. Applications: Treatment for patients with renal failure
▪ Water Purification Systems:
Applications: Household water filters, portable water purification for disaster relief
▪ Industrial Wastewater Treatment:
Applications: Factories, chemical plants, environmental protection
▪ Selective Adsorption Technologies:
Applications: Air purifiers, targeted drug delivery systems
▪ Desalination Plants:
. Applications: Providing fresh water, supporting agriculture
▪ Smart Irrigation Systems:
Applications: Agriculture, landscaping, water conservation.

Question Bank:
1. Explain the structure of brain with neat-labelled diagram.
2. Compare the function of CPU as brain system.
3. Draw the structure of neuron and explain.
4. Explain the applications of brain functioning in bio-based design.
5. Explain the structure of an eye with neat-labelled diagram.
6. Write a note on rods and cone.
7. Explain eye as camera system by comparing the parts and write the applications.
8. Explain the structure of heart with diagram.
9. Explain the applications of heart as pumping system with applications.
10. Explain the architecture of lungs with diagram.
11. Explain the gas exchange mechanism in lungs
12. How lungs function and air filtration, units are compared. Write the applications.
13. Explain the structure of kidney and nephron with diagram.
14. Explain the role of kidney as filtering system.
15. Write the applications based on function of kidney as filtering system.
16. Explain CNS and PNS. Draw the structure of brain.

Namratha Kumari
Assistant professor
Depatment Of Chemisty
AJIET, Mangaluru

STJIT.Dept.Chemistry-BBOC407 17
 COURSE TITLE- BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (CSE Stream)

COURSE CODE- BBOC407

MODULE 4- NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS

SYLLABUS:

Echolocation (ultrasonography, sonars), Photosynthesis (photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf). Bird

flying (GPS and aircrafts), Lotus leaf effect (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces),
Plant burrs (Velcro), Shark skin (Friction reducing swim suits), Kingfisher beak (Bullet train).
Human Blood substitutes - haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons
(PFCs)

ECHOLOCATION (Ultrasonography, Sonars)

Echolocation is a biological or technological process that involves emitting sound waves and
listening to the echoes that bounce back off of objects in the environment to determine their
location, distance and shape.
In biology, the use of echolocation by animals has been well documented for centuries. Ancient
Greeks, for example, observed bats using echolocation to navigate and find food in the dark.
The scientific study of echolocation in animals, however, only began in the early 20th century,
with the pioneering work of British naturalist Donald Griffin. Griffin's research showed that
bats were using echolocation to navigate and hunt and helped to lay the foundation for the
modern study of biological echolocation.
In technology, the use of echolocation can be traced back to the early days of submarine
warfare. During World War I, the British navy developed a primitive form of sonar (known
then as "ASDIC") to detect submarines.
Biological Echolocation
 Found in various animals such as bats, dolphins, and some species of whales.
 Relies on the emission of sound waves, usually in the form of clicks or vocalizations.
 Animals emit sound waves and listen for the echoes produced when the sound waves
bounce off objects in their environment.
 By analysing the echoes, animals can determine the location, distance, and even the
shape of objects around them.
 This ability is mainly used for navigation, hunting, and communication in the animal
kingdom.
 Biological echolocation is a natural adaptation that has evolved over millions of years.
Technological Echolocation
 Replicates the concept of biological echolocation using technological devices.
 Utilizes sound waves, typically generated by artificial sources such as sonar or
ultrasonic sensors.
 These devices emit sound waves and analyse the echoes that bounce back from objects.

1
  The information from the echoes is processed and interpreted by the technology to
generate useful data, such as distance, location, and object recognition.
 Technological echolocation has applications in various fields, including navigation,
robotics, obstacle detection, and medical imaging.
 It is a human-engineered solution inspired by the natural abilities of animals.

Ultrasonography

Figure: Representing working principle of ultrasonography

Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to
produce images of the internal organs and tissues of the body. It is also known as ultrasound
imaging or sonography. The ultrasound machine emits high-frequency sound waves (usually
in the range of 2 to 18 MHz) that travel through the body and bounce back off of the internal
organs and tissues. The returning echoes are captured by the ultrasound machine and used to
create images of the internal structures.
Working principle of Ultrasonography
The working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-frequency sound
waves.
 Transducer: An ultrasonography machine consists of a transducer that is used to emit
and receive high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is placed in direct contact with
the skin or inserted into the body through a gel.
 Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound waves (usually
in the range of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound waves travel through the body
and encounter different tissues and organs, which have different acoustic properties.
 Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter boundaries between different
tissues and organs and bounce back, creating echoes. The strength of the echoes
depends on the acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as density and
stiffness.

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  Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography machine receives the
echoes and sends the information to a computer, which processes the data to create
images.
 Image formation: The computer uses the information from the echoes to create images
of the internal organs and tissues of the body. The images are displayed on a screen,
allowing the operator to see the structure and movement of the internal organs and
tissues.
Advantages of Ultrasonography:
1. Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or injections, making it
a safe and convenient imaging method.
2. No ionizing radiation: Ultrasonography does not use ionizing radiation, making it a
safer option for patients, especially pregnant women and children.
3. Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images that can be used to
monitor the movement and function of internal organs and tissues in real-time.
4. Portable: Ultrasonography machines are portable and can be used in a variety of
settings, making it a valuable tool for emergency and rural medicine.
5. Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method that does not
require any special preparation or recovery time.
6. Versatile: Ultrasonography can be used to image a wide range of structures within the
body, including the organs of the abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus,
and other soft tissues.
Limitations of Ultrasonography:
1. Limited depth: Ultrasonography has limited depth and is not as effective at imaging
deep structures or those obscured by bones or gas.
2. Operator dependence: The quality of the images produced by ultrasonography depends
heavily on the skills and experience of the operator.
3. Limited resolution: Ultrasonography has limited resolution compared to other imaging
methods, making it less effective at visualizing small structures or detecting small
changes in tissue.
4. Limitations in overweight patients: Ultrasonography may have limited usefulness in
overweight patients due to the difficulty in obtaining clear images through the layers of
fat.
5. Limitations in detecting some types of cancer: Ultrasonography may not be as effective
at detecting certain types of cancer, such as pancreatic cancer, due to the lack of
characteristic signs on ultrasound images.
Uses of Ultrasonography:
Ultrasonography is a versatile imaging method that is used in a wide range of medical
applications. Some of the most common uses of ultrasonography include:
1. Obstetrics and gynaecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to monitor the growth
and development of a fetus during pregnancy, as well as to evaluate the reproductive
organs and female pelvic organs for conditions such as ovarian cysts, fibroids, and
endometrial cancer.
2. Abdominal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the abdomen, such
as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, to diagnose conditions such as
liver disease, gallstones, pancreatitis, and kidney stones.

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 3. Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tendons, and
ligaments to diagnose conditions such as muscle strains, tendonitis, and ligament
sprains.
4. Vascular imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image blood vessels, such as the arteries
and veins, to diagnose conditions such as blood clots, blockages, and aneurysms.
5. Eye and neck imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the eyes and neck to diagnose
conditions such as cataracts, glaucoma, and thyroid nodules.
6. Emergency medicine: Ultrasonography is often used in emergency medicine to quickly
and accurately diagnose conditions such as appendicitis, pneumothorax, and fluid
buildup in the abdomen or chest.
Sonar
Sonar, which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a technology that uses sound waves
to detect and locate underwater objects.

Figure: Representing working principle of sonar

Working Principle of Sonars:
The working principle of sonar technology is based on the reflection of sound waves.
1. Transmitter: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a series
of sound pulses into the water. These sound pulses are typically in the form of high
frequency, low-power acoustic signals, known as "ping.
2. Propagation of sound waves: The sound pulses propagate through the water, traveling
to the target object and bouncing back as echoes. The speed of sound in water is slower
than in air, and it depends on the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the water.
3. Receiver: The sonar system also includes a receiver that listens for the returning echoes.
The receiver is typically placed far away from the transmitter to minimize interference
from the transmitted signals.
4. Calculation of range: The time it takes for the echoes to return to the receiver is used to
calculate the range to the target object. The range is simply the product of the speed of
sound in water and the time it takes for the echoes to return.
5. Determination of target properties: The frequency and pattern of the echoes are used to
determine the properties of the target object, such as its size, shape, and composition.
For example, a large, solid object will produce a strong, low-frequency echo, while a
small, porous object will produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.
6. Display of results: The results of the sonar measurement are typically displayed on a
screen or other output device, allowing the operator to visualize the target object and
its location.

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Advantages of Sonar Technology:
1. Versatility: Sonar technology is versatile and can be used in a variety of applications,
such as underwater navigation, mapping, and imaging, as well as for military and
scientific purposes.
2. Cost-effective: Compared to other underwater imaging technologies, sonar is relatively
cost-effective and affordable.
3. Non-invasive: Unlike other imaging technologies, such as diving and remote-operated
vehicles, sonar does not physically disturb the underwater environment, making it an
ideal choice for environmental monitoring and scientific research.
4. Real-time imaging: Sonar provides real-time imaging, allowing operators to quickly
and easily assess the underwater environment.
5. High resolution: Modern sonar systems have high-resolution capabilities, allowing for
detailed images of underwater objects and structures.
Uses of Sonars:
1. Naval applications: Sonars are used by naval vessels to detect and locate other ships,
submarines, and underwater obstacles, allowing them to navigate safely and avoid
potential collisions.
2. Fishery: Sonars are used in the fishing industry to locate schools of fish and determine
the depth of the water, allowing fishermen to more efficiently target their catch.
3. Oceanography: Sonars are used in oceanography to study the physical and biological
properties of the ocean, including the structure of the ocean floor, the movement of
currents, and the distribution of marine life.
4. Environmental monitoring: Sonars are used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems,
track the migration patterns of whales and other marine mammals, and assess the impact
of human activities on the ocean environment.
5. Sonar technology works by emitting a series of sound pulses and listening for the
echoes that bounce back from underwater objects. The time it takes for the echoes to
return is used to calculate the distance to the objects, and the frequency and pattern of
the echoes are used to determine their size and shape.
Limitations of Sonar Technology:
Limited visibility: Sonar imaging is limited by the visibility of the water, which can be affected
by factors such as sediment, algae, and water temperature. This can make it difficult to obtain
clear and accurate images.
Interference: Sonar signals can be affected by interference from other underwater sources, such
as ships, submarines, and natural underwater features, which can lead to false readings and
reduced accuracy.
Short range: Sonar signals have a limited range, which can make it difficult to image larger
underwater structures or objects that are located far away from the sonar system.
Limited depth: The depth to which sonar can effectively penetrate is limited, making it
unsuitable for imaging objects or structures that are located at great depths.
Acoustic noise: The use of sonar technology can also generate acoustic noise, which can disturb
marine life and harm marine ecosystems. This is particularly a concern for high power,
military-grade sonar systems, which have the potential to cause serious harm to marine life.

5
Complex technology: Sonar technology can be complex, requiring specialized skills and
equipment to operate and maintain. This can limit its accessibility and increase the cost of
implementation.
Inaccurate readings: Sonar readings can be inaccurate due to factors such as reflection,
refraction, and absorption of sound waves, which can result in incorrect measurements and
false readings.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Photovoltaic cells, Bionic leaf)
Photosynthesis is a fundamental biological process through which plants, algae, and some
bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. The process primarily
occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, involving two main stages: the light-dependent
reactions and the Calvin cycle. During the light-dependent reactions, which take place in the
thylakoid membranes, chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and converts it into chemical energy in the
form of ATP and NADPH. This stage also involves the splitting of water molecules, releasing
oxygen as a byproduct. In the Calvin cycle, which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, the
ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions are used to fix carbon dioxide into
organic molecules, ultimately synthesizing glucose. Essential components for photosynthesis
include light, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, and various enzymes that facilitate the
reactions.
Photovoltaic Cells: Photovoltaics (PV)cells is the conversion of light into electricity using
semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. These are light-absorbing
materials for photovoltaic cells that mimic natural pigments to convert sunlight into electricity
effectively.
Comparison of Photovoltaic Cells and Photosynthesis:
Feature Photosynthesis Photovoltaic Cells
Energy Source Sunlight Sunlight
Primary Function Converts light energy into Converts light energy into
chemical energy (glucose) electrical energy
Key Components Chlorophyll, water, carbon Semiconductors (typically
dioxide, enzymes silicon), conductors, metal
contacts
Location of Chloroplasts in plant cells Photovoltaic panels or
Process solar cells
Initial Reactants Water and carbon dioxide Photons (light particles)
Products Glucose and oxygen Electrical current
Mechanism Light-dependent reactions Photovoltaic effect
and Calvin cycle (generation of electron
hole pairs)
Energy Storage Chemical bonds in glucose Electrical energy stored in
batteries or used
immediately
Efficiency Generally low (1-2% in Higher (up to 20-22% in
natural conditions) commercial solar cells)
Environmental Generally beneficial Depends on production
Impact (produces oxygen, absorbs and disposal of solar cells
CO2)

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Both photosynthesis and photovoltaic cells harness sunlight as an energy source, but they serve
different purposes and utilize distinct mechanisms. Photosynthesis is a natural process essential
for life on Earth, converting light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose, which serves
as food for plants and, indirectly, for animals. This process also produces oxygen, contributing
to the Earth's oxygen supply and reducing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.
Photovoltaic cells, on the other hand, are human-made devices designed to convert sunlight
directly into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. When sunlight hits the
semiconductor material in the cells, it generates electron-hole pairs that create an electric
current. This electrical energy can be used immediately or stored for later use, making
photovoltaic cells a crucial technology for renewable energy production. The efficiency of
photovoltaic cells is generally higher compared to the natural efficiency of photosynthesis,
making them more effective for large-scale energy production. However, the environmental
impact of producing and disposing of solar cells must be managed carefully to ensure
sustainable benefits. Bio-inspiration in designing photovoltaic (PV) cells draws from the
principles and efficiency of natural processes like photosynthesis. Researchers and engineers
study the highly efficient light harvesting mechanisms found in plants to develop advanced PV
technologies. For instance, the unique arrangement and structure of chlorophyll molecules in
plant cells, which maximize light absorption and energy transfer, inspire the design of
nanostructured materials and multi-junction solar cells in PV technology. Additionally, the way
plants optimize light capture under varying light conditions informs the development of
adaptive PV systems that can adjust to changes in light intensity. By mimicking these biological
processes, bio-inspired PV cells aim to enhance energy conversion efficiency, reduce material
costs, and improve overall sustainability, bridging the gap between natural energy harnessing
and human-engineered solutions.
Bionic Leaf: The Bionic Leaf is an innovative technology that seeks to artificially replicate the
process of photosynthesis to produce renewable fuels. Unlike natural photosynthesis, which
produces glucose and oxygen, the Bionic Leaf uses sunlight to drive a series of reactions that
split water into hydrogen and oxygen using specialized catalysts. The generated hydrogen,
along with carbon dioxide, is then fed to engineered bacteria, which convert these inputs into
liquid fuels such as isopropanol. This bio-inspired approach leverages the efficiency of natural
processes while employing advanced materials and synthetic biology to enhance performance
and scalability. The Bionic Leaf holds promise for sustainable energy production, as it can
create clean fuels with a higher efficiency compared to traditional biofuels. Additionally, it
offers potential benefits for carbon capture and reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
contributing to efforts to combat climate change. By combining principles from nature with
cutting-edge technology, the Bionic Leaf exemplifies how bio-inspiration can lead to
groundbreaking solutions in energy and environmental sustainability.

Feature Bionic Leaf Natural Photosynthesis

Primary Function Artificially mimics Natural process to produce

photosynthesis to produce glucose and oxygen
fuel
Energy Source Sunlight Sunlight
Key Components Catalysts, water-splitting Chlorophyll, water, dioxide,
devices, bacteria enzymes carbon
Initial Reactants Water and carbon dioxide Water and carbon dioxide

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 Products Hydrogen and liquid fuels Glucose and oxygen
(e.g., isopropanol)
Mechanism Catalysts split water into Light-dependent reactions
hydrogen and oxygen, and Calvin cycle
bacteria convert hydrogen
and CO2 into liquid fuel
Efficiency Higher due to optimized Typically lower, efficiency
catalysts and synthetic varies by plant species
processes
Applications Renewable fuel production, Energy storage ecological
carbon capture balance in plants,
Environmental Impact Potentially positive, Generally beneficial,
renewable energy source, reduces CO2, produces
reduced carbon footprint oxygen

Bio-inspiration plays a crucial role in designing the Bionic Leaf by mimicking the highly
efficient and elegant processes found in natural photosynthesis. Researchers look to plants,
which have evolved over millions of years to optimize light absorption and energy conversion,
as a blueprint for developing artificial systems. By studying the way chlorophyll and other
pigments capture and utilize sunlight, scientists can design advanced catalysts that efficiently
split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Additionally, the complex metabolic pathways in plants
that convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds inspire the engineering of bacteria used in
the Bionic Leaf to produce liquid fuels. This bio-inspired approach not only enhances the
efficiency of energy conversion but also offers a sustainable method for producing clean fuels.
By bridging natural processes and modern technology, the Bionic Leaf aims to achieve higher
performance and scalability, demonstrating how bio-inspiration can drive innovation in
renewable energy solutions.
BIRD FLYING (GPS and aircrafts)
The mechanics of bird flight have inspired numerous innovations in bio-design, particularly in
the fields of aerodynamics and engineering. Birds achieve flight through a complex interplay
of wing shape, feather structure, and muscle control, which allows for efficient lift, thrust, and
manoeuvrability. Engineers have studied these natural mechanisms to design aircraft and
drones that emulate bird flight. For instance, the flexible and adaptable wing structures of birds
have influenced the development of morphing wings in aircraft, which can change shape to
optimize performance under different flight conditions. Additionally, the lightweight yet strong
skeletal structure of birds has inspired the use of advanced materials and design techniques in
aviation to improve fuel efficiency and reduce weight. The flapping motion of bird wings has
also led to the creation of flapping-wing drones, known as ornithopters, which offer enhanced
agility and the ability to navigate through complex environments. By integrating these bio-
inspired principles, modern aerial technologies aim to achieve greater efficiency, versatility,
and sustainability, demonstrating the profound impact of nature-inspired design on engineering
advancements.
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology has revolutionized navigation and location
tracking by providing precise, real-time information about one's position anywhere on Earth.
Utilizing a network of satellites that transmit signals to receivers on the ground, GPS systems
calculate exact locations through triangulation. These systems are integral to various

8
applications, from everyday navigation in smartphones and cars to critical uses in aviation,
maritime, and emergency services. As GPS technology continues to evolve, innovations
inspired by the natural world, particularly bird flight, are enhancing its accuracy, efficiency,
and adaptability, ensuring reliable performance in diverse conditions and optimizing energy
use.
Bird flight has significantly inspired the development of GPS systems, particularly in how birds
navigate over long distances with remarkable accuracy. Birds utilize a combination of visual
landmarks, the Earth's magnetic field, and even the position of the sun and stars to find their
way. This natural navigation system has led to advancements in GPS technology, where similar
principles are applied to enhance precision and reliability. For example, the use of multiple
satellite signals in GPS mimics the way birds use multiple environmental cues for triangulation.
Additionally, understanding how birds adjust their flight paths in real-time based on changing
environmental factors has inspired adaptive algorithms in GPS systems, improving route
optimization and efficiency. This bio-inspired approach enhances the accuracy of GPS
navigation, enabling more precise location tracking and route planning, and underscores the
profound influence of biological systems on technological innovation.
Key Bio-design inspirations are as follows:
Navigation and Orientation:
• Natural Inspiration: Birds navigate using Earth's magnetic field and celestial cues.
• Bioinspired Application: Develop GPS systems that mimic avian navigation strategies for
accurate and robust global positioning.
Efficient Energy Use:
• Natural Inspiration: Birds optimize flight efficiency through wing shape and flight patterns.
• Bioinspired Application: Design GPS devices with energy-efficient algorithms and hardware
configurations inspired by bird flight mechanics.
Adaptability and Robustness:
• Natural Inspiration: Birds adapt to varying environmental conditions during migration.
• Bioinspired Application: Implement adaptive algorithms in GPS systems to ensure reliable
performance in diverse geographic and atmospheric conditions.
Aircrafts
Aircraft design integrates numerous elements to achieve efficient and safe flight, drawing
inspiration from both natural phenomena and advanced engineering principles. Key
components include aerodynamics, structural integrity, propulsion systems, and navigation
capabilities, each crucial for optimizing performance and ensuring passenger safety. Bird flight
has profoundly influenced aircraft design, particularly in aerodynamic efficiency and
manoeuvrability. Birds adapt their wing shapes and flight patterns to achieve optimal lift and
control, inspiring innovations such as wing morphing technologies and biomimetic wing
designs in aircraft. By emulating these natural principles, engineers strive to enhance flight
efficiency, reduce fuel consumption, and improve overall performance, underscoring the
ongoing synergy between nature's ingenuity and human technological advancements in
aviation.
Key Bio-design inspirations are as follows:

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Aerodynamic Efficiency:
• Natural Inspiration: Birds utilize streamlined shapes and wing morphologies for efficient
flight.
• Bioinspired Application: Design aircraft wings and fuselages that mimic avian aerodynamics
to improve fuel efficiency and performance.
Manoeuvrability and Stability:
• Natural Inspiration: Birds demonstrate agile manoeuvring and stable flight control.
• Bioinspired Application: Develop aircraft control systems and autopilots inspired by avian
flight dynamics for enhanced manoeuvrability and stability.
Structural Materials:
• Natural Inspiration: Birds have lightweight yet strong bones and feathers.
• Bioinspired Application: Explore lightweight and durable materials for aircraft construction
inspired by bird skeletal and feather structures.
Bird flight provides valuable insights into developing nature-bioinspired materials and
mechanisms in GPS systems and aircraft design. By emulating avian navigation strategies,
aerodynamics, and structural adaptations, engineers can enhance the efficiency, performance,
and sustainability of modern technologies.
LOTUS LEAF EFFECT (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces)
The Lotus Leaf Effect, also known as the Lotus Effect, refers to the unique property of lotus
leaves and certain other plants that allows them to repel water and remain clean. This
phenomenon is primarily due to the micro- and nano-structural characteristics of the lotus leaf
surface, which are covered with tiny protrusions and wax-like hydrophobic (water-repelling)
substances. These microscopic structures create a rough and water-repellent surface,
minimizing contact between water droplets and the leaf. As a result, water beads up and rolls
off the surface, carrying away dirt and contaminants, which keeps the leaf clean.

Fig: Representing the surface of lotus leaf

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Superhydrophobic Surfaces
The principle of super hydrophobic surfaces, the super hydrophobic effect refers to the ability
of certain surfaces to repel water and resist wetting. Super hydrophobic surfaces are
characterized by a high contact angle between water droplets and the surface, typically over
150 degrees, and a low contact angle hysteresis, meaning that the droplets roll off the surface
with ease. The super hydrophobic effect is achieved through the use of various techniques.
These techniques create a surface structure that traps air between the surface and the water
droplets, reducing the contact area between them and making it more difficult for the droplets
to wet the surface.

Figure: Representing super hydrophobic and super hydrophilic effects

Superhydrophobic surfaces not only provide practical benefits like self-cleaning and stain
resistance but also contribute to sustainability efforts by reducing water usage and chemical
pollutants associated with cleaning processes. These bio-inspired innovations continue to
expand into various industries, offering enhanced functionality and environmental
advantages.
Materials and Examples:
Super hydrophobic surfaces are created by modifying the surface chemistry and structure of
materials to achieve extremely high-water repellency. Several materials and coating techniques
are used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces. Here are some commonly used materials and
examples:
 Fluoropolymers: Fluoropolymer-based coatings are widely used for super hydrophobic
surfaces due to their low surface energy and water-repellent properties. Examples include
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) coatings.
 Silica-based Nanoparticles: Silica nanoparticles can be functionalized and applied to surfaces
to create super hydrophobicity. These nanoparticles create a rough surface structure that traps
air pockets, preventing water from wetting the surface. Additionally, the surface can be
modified with hydrophobic molecules. Examples include silica nanoparticles coated with
hydrophobic agents like alkyl silanes.
 Carbon-based Materials: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and carbon nanofibers are
used to create super hydrophobic surfaces. These materials can be aligned or randomly
distributed to form a rough surface with hydrophobic properties. The combination of their
unique structures and hydrophobic coatings contributes to water repellence.

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 Metal-based Materials: Various metals and metal oxides can be used to create super
hydrophobic surfaces. One approach involves creating micro/nanostructured surfaces using
etching techniques, such as chemical etching or electrochemical etching, on metals like
aluminium, copper, or stainless steel. These structures, combined with appropriate surface
treatments, enhance water repellence.
Applications of Superhydrophobic Surfaces:
Application Description Examples
Textiles Water-resistant clothing, Gore-Tex, Nano-Care,
stain-proof fabrics, outdoor NeverWet
gear
Architecture Self-cleaning coatings for Stocoat Lotusan, SiloxoGrip
buildings, facades, and roofs
Consumer Electronics Water-repellent coatings for Liquipel, P2i, HzO
smartphones, tablets, and
wearable devices
Automotive Hydrophobic coatings for Rain-X, Aquapel, Nanolex
windshields, windows, and
car bodies to improve
visibility and reduce
cleaning efforts
Medical Devices Biocompatible implants with Orthopaedic implants with
reduced biofouling potential, hydrophobic coatings
medical equipment coatings
Food Packaging Water-resistant and easy- Superhydrophobic coatings
clean packaging materials to on paper and cardboard
prevent moisture damage
and extend shelf life
Marine Applications Antifouling coatings for ship Superhydrophobic paints
hulls to reduce drag and and coatings
improve fuel efficiency
Oil and Gas Industry Water-repellent coatings for Superhydrophobic coatings
pipelines and equipment to for offshore platforms
prevent corrosion and
reduce maintenance costs
Environmental Remediation Oil spill cleanup Superhydrophobic materials
technologies that repel water used in oil spill recovery
and separate oil from water
effectively

Self-Cleaning surfaces
Self-cleaning surfaces are engineered to repel water and dirt, keeping themselves clean with
minimal maintenance. These surfaces draw inspiration from the Lotus Effect, named after the
lotus leaf, which remains clean due to its unique micro- and nano-structural properties. The
surface of a lotus leaf is covered with microscopic bumps and a hydrophobic (water-repelling)
waxy layer. This structure causes water droplets to bead up and roll off, picking up dirt and
contaminants along the way. Engineers have mimicked this natural phenomenon to create

12
materials and coatings that maintain cleanliness through similar mechanisms. These bio-
inspired self-cleaning surfaces have numerous applications, offering practical and
environmental benefits by reducing the need for frequent cleaning and the use of harsh
chemicals.
Materials and examples of self-cleaning surfaces:
a) Photocatalytic coating: Photocatalytic materials, such as titanium dioxide, can be used
as coatings on surface to create self-cleaning properties. When exposed to UV light,
photocatalytic surface generates reactive oxygen species that break down organic
matter, resulting in the decomposition of dirt and pollutants.
b) Super hydrophobic coatings: Super hydrophobic surfaces exhibit extremely high-water
repellence, which help in the self-cleaning process. When water comes into contact with
these surfaces, it forms spherical droplets that easily roll off, carrying away dirt and
contaminants. Example: A super hydrophobic coating includes those made from
fluoropolymers, nanostructured surfaces, or combinations of hydrophobic materials.
c) Self-Cleaning Glass: Self-cleaning glass incorporates a thin layer of titanium dioxide
(TiO2) or other photocatalytic materials on the surface. When exposed to UV light, the
photocatalytic reaction breaks down organic matter, while the hydrophilic nature of the
surface allows water to spread and wash away the debris, resulting in a self-cleaning
effect.
d) Oleophobic Coatings: Oleophobic surfaces repel oil and grease, making them resistant
to stains and easier to clean. These coatings are typically made from fluorinated
materials that have low surface energy, preventing oil or oily substances from adhering
to the surface.
e) Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surfaces with micro- or nanostructures can exhibit
self-cleaning properties due to their ability to reduce contact area and enhance surface
roughness. The surface structures can trap air or create a lotus leaf-like effect,
preventing the adhesion of dirt and facilitating self-cleaning when exposed to water or
airflow.
f) Self-Cleaning Fabrics: Fabrics treated with hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings can
repel liquids, stains, and dirt, making them easier to clean. These coatings can be
applied to textiles used in clothing, upholstery, or outdoor equipment, reducing the need
for frequent washing and maintenance.

Applications of Self-Cleaning Surfaces:

Application Description Examples
Architecture Self-cleaning coatings for Stocoat Lotusan, Pilkington
buildings, facades, and Active Glass
windows
Consumer Electronics Water-repellent and smudge- Corning Gorilla Glass with
resistant coatings for hydrophobic coating
smartphones, tablets, and
wearable devices
Automotive Hydrophobic coatings for Rain-X, Aquapel, ClearPlex
windshields, windows, and
car bodies to improve

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 visibility and reduce
cleaning efforts
Textiles Stain-proof and water- Gore-Tex, Nano-Care,
resistant clothing and fabrics NeverWet
Solar Panels Dust and water-repellent Self-cleaning solar panel
coatings to maintain coatings
efficiency and reduce
maintenance
Medical Devices Biocompatible and self- Self-cleaning catheters,
cleaning surfaces to prevent antimicrobial coatings
bacterial growth and reduce
infection risks
Food Packaging Water-resistant and easy- Hydrophobic paper and
clean packaging materials to coatings on cardboard
prevent moisture damage packaging
and extend shelf life
Public Infrastructure Self-cleaning coatings for Anti-graffiti coatings, self-
public spaces such as cleaning public benches
restrooms, transportation
hubs, and outdoor furniture
to reduce maintenance costs
Marine Applications Antifouling coatings for ship Superhydrophobic and self-
hulls to reduce drag, cleaning marine paints
improve fuel efficiency, and
prevent the accumulation of
marine organisms

Self-cleaning surfaces, inspired by the Lotus Effect, provide a wide range of benefits across
various industries, enhancing durability, reducing maintenance costs, and promoting
environmental sustainability by minimizing the need for cleaning agents and water.

PLANT BURRS (Velcro)

Plant burrs are small, seed-bearing structures found on certain plants, such as burdock (A
member of Sunflower family). These burrs are covered with tiny hooks that latch onto the fur,
feathers, or clothing of animals and humans, aiding in seed dispersion. The ingenious
mechanism of plant burrs inspired the invention of Velcro, a revolutionary fastening system. In
the 1940s, Swiss engineer George De Mestral examined burrs that stuck to his dog's fur under
a microscope and discovered the hook-and-loop structure. Mimicking this natural design, he
created Velcro by pairing one strip of fabric with tiny hooks and another with small loops. This
simple yet effective design resulted in a durable, reusable, and easy-to-use fastening system
with widespread applications.
Applications of Velcro:
1. Clothing and footwear: Velcro is commonly used in clothing and footwear for closures
and adjustable straps. It can be easily opened and closed, making it convenient for users
with limited dexterity or mobility.
Example: Velcro straps on shoes, jackets, and hats

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 2. Medical devices: Velcro is used in medical devices such as braces, splints, and
compression garments for its adjustable and secure fastening capabilities.
Example: Velcro on knee braces, wrist supports, and medical wraps
3. Aerospace equipment: Velcro used in aerospace equipment, such as satellites and
spacecraft, to secure components in place and prevent them from vibrating or shifting
during launch or flight.
Example: Velcro strips on astronauts' suits and spacecraft interiors
4. Automotive industry: Velcro is used in the automotive industry for range of
applications, such as securing carpets and headliners, and attaching door panels and
seat cushions.
Example: Velcro on car floor mats and interior fittings
5. Packaging industry: Velcro is used in packaging industry for resealable closures on
bags, pouches, and other types of packaging.
Example: Velcro on reusable bags, storage bins
6. Sports equipment: Velcro is used in sports equipment, such as helmets and gloves for
its ability to provide a secure and adjustable fit.
Example: Velcro on backpacks, tents, and sports gloves
Velcro, inspired by the natural hook-and-loop mechanism of plant burrs, has become a
ubiquitous fastening solution across various industries, offering convenience, reliability, and
versatility in countless applications.

SHARK SKIN (Friction reducing swim suits)

Shark skin has a unique structure that significantly reduces drag and enhances swimming
efficiency. The skin is covered with tiny, tooth-like scales called dermal denticles, which are
aligned in a way that reduces turbulence and allows water to flow smoothly over the shark's
body. This natural design minimizes friction and prevents the growth of algae and barnacles,
keeping the shark streamlined. Researchers and engineers have mimicked this microstructure
to create friction-reducing swimsuits. These swimsuits are designed with textured surfaces that
replicate the denticles' properties, helping swimmers reduce drag in the water. The material
used in these swimsuits often features tiny ridges and grooves, strategically placed to disrupt
water flow in a manner similar to shark skin. This biomimetic approach has led to significant
advancements in competitive swimwear, enhancing performance by allowing swimmers to
move more efficiently through the water.
Advantages of Shark Skin-Inspired Swimsuits:
1. Reduced Drag: The textured surface of the swimsuit minimizes friction between the
swimmer and the water, allowing for faster movement and improved swim times.
2. Enhanced Performance: By reducing drag, swimmers can achieve greater speeds with
less effort, providing a competitive edge in races.
3. Energy Efficiency: Swimmers expend less energy to maintain speed, which can lead to
improved endurance and reduced fatigue during long-distance events.
4. Streamlined Design: The swimsuit's structure helps maintain a streamlined body
position, reducing water resistance and improving overall hydrodynamics.
5. Durability and Longevity: The materials used in these swimsuits are often highly
durable, providing long lasting performance and resistance to wear and tear from
frequent use and chlorine exposure.

15
 6. Algae and Bacteria Resistance: Inspired by the anti-fouling properties of shark skin,
these swimsuits may resist the buildup of algae and bacteria, promoting hygiene and
reducing maintenance needs.
Materials used:
 Polyurethane: A type of polymer that is commonly used in the production of swim suits,
as it is durable and can be moulded into a variety of shapes.
 Lycra/Spandex: Both are made from same synthetic fibre, which is technically called
elastane.
 High-tech fabrics: A range of high- tech fabrics have been developed specifically for
use in swim suits.
Shark skin-inspired swimsuits represent a significant breakthrough in competitive swimming,
combining advanced biomimetic design with practical performance benefits. By harnessing the
natural efficiency of shark skin, these swimsuits help athletes achieve new levels of speed and
efficiency in the water.

KINGFISHER BEAK (Bullet train)

The Physics behind the Kingfisher
Beak Streamlining: The beak of a kingfisher is long, slender, and sharply pointed, which helps
reduce drag or air resistance as the bird dives into the water.
• The streamlined shape allows the kingfisher to smoothly cut through the air and
minimize the energy required for the dive.
Surface Tension: When the kingfisher hits the water, it encounters the resistance caused by
surface tension. Surface tension is the cohesive force between water molecules that creates a
"skin" on the water's surface.
• The sharp beak of the kingfisher helps to pierce through the water's surface,
breaking the surface tension and reducing the force required to enter the water.
Minimizing Splash: As the kingfisher dives, it needs to enter the water with minimal
disturbance to avoid scaring away the fish it intends to catch.
• The beak's narrow and pointed design helps create a smooth entry by minimizing
the disturbance of the water surface, allowing the kingfisher to enter silently and
effectively.
The kingfisher beak is an excellent example of nature’s design for efficient diving and fishing.
Its unique shape and structure enable the kingfisher to minimize the impact of water resistance
and achieve successful dive.
The bio-design of the kingfisher's beak has significantly influenced the design of bullet trains,
particularly in reducing noise and improving aerodynamic efficiency. The kingfisher is known
for its ability to dive into water with minimal splash to catch fish. This ability is attributed to
its long, slender, and streamlined beak, which allows it to transition smoothly between different
mediums (air and water) with minimal resistance. Japanese engineer Eiji Nakatsu, inspired by
the kingfisher's beak, applied this principle to the design of the Shinkansen bullet trains. The
previous train models faced a problem known as the "tunnel boom," a loud noise produced
when trains entered tunnels at high speeds. This noise resulted from the sudden compression
of air, causing a shockwave. By redesigning the front of the train to mimic the shape of the
kingfisher's beak, engineers were able to significantly reduce this aerodynamic issue. The
streamlined nose of the train allows it to cut through the air more efficiently and transition
smoothly into tunnels, reducing the air pressure changes and thus minimizing noise.

16
Advantages of Kingfisher Beak-Inspired Bullet Train Design:
1. Noise Reduction: The streamlined shape of the train's nose reduces the air pressure
changes when entering tunnels, significantly minimizing the "tunnel boom" noise.
2. Improved Aerodynamics: The beak-like design reduces air resistance, allowing the train
to travel at higher speeds with greater efficiency and less energy consumption.
3. Energy Efficiency: Reduced air resistance leads to lower energy requirements for
maintaining high speeds, resulting in more energy-efficient operation.
4. Passenger Comfort: The reduction in noise and vibration enhances the overall comfort
and experience for passengers traveling at high speeds.
5. Environmental Impact Improved aerodynamic efficiency and reduced energy
consumption contribute to lower greenhouse gas emissions, making the train more
environmentally friendly.
6. Innovative Design: The bio-inspired approach demonstrates the potential of
biomimicry in solving engineering challenges and advancing technology through
natural principles.

HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES

Human blood substitutes, also known as artificial blood or blood surrogates, are developed to
replicate and fulfil some of the functions of natural blood, particularly oxygen transport. These
substitutes are designed to be used in situations where blood transfusions are not available,
feasible, or when there is a risk of blood-borne infections. There are two primary types of
human blood substitutes: haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbon
emulsions (PFCs).
Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs)
HBOCs are derived from haemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. These
substitutes can be made from human, bovine, or recombinant haemoglobin. The haemoglobin
is modified and stabilized to function outside of red blood cells, providing the following
benefits:
 Oxygen Delivery: HBOCs can efficiently transport oxygen to tissues and organs.
 Universal Compatibility: They can be used regardless of the recipient's blood type,
reducing the need for blood type matching.
 Long Shelf Life: HBOCs are often more stable and have a longer shelf life compared
to donated blood.
 Reduced risk of infections: Blood transfusions carry a small risk of transmitting
infections, such as viruses or bacteria, from the donor to the recipient. Since HBOCs
are synthetic and do not rely on human donors, the risk of infections associated with
transfusion can be significantly reduced. 

Examples of HBOCs
There are several examples of haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) that have been
developed or are currently in development. Here are a few examples:

17
Hemopure: Hemopure is an HBOC that is made from bovine haemoglobin. It has been
approved for use in South Africa, Russia, and some other countries.
Oxyglobin: Oxyglobin is another HBOC that is made from bovine haemoglobin. It is approved
for veterinary use in the United States and has been used to treat anaemia in dogs.
Hemospan: Hemospan is an HBOC that is being developed by Sangart Inc. It is currently in
clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues.
MP4OX: MP4OX is an HBOC that is being developed by Baxter Healthcare. It is designed to
increase oxygen delivery to tissues and also to scavenge harmful free radicals in the
bloodstream.
Hemolink: Hemolink is an HBOC that is being developed by Hemosol Inc. It is designed to be
used in trauma and surgical settings and has shown promise in improving oxygen delivery to
tissues.
Polyheme: Human-derived haemoglobin, chemically stabilized, room temperature storage.

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
PFCs are synthetic compounds capable of dissolving large amounts of gases, including oxygen
and carbon dioxide. These emulsions can carry and release oxygen effectively, and they offer
several advantages:
 High Oxygen Solubility: PFCs can carry significantly more oxygen than plasma.
 Reduced Risk of Disease Transmission: Being entirely synthetic, PFCs eliminate the
risk of transmitting blood-borne infections.
 Versatile Applications: PFCs can be used in various medical situations, including
trauma, surgery, and conditions requiring enhanced oxygen delivery.
 Stability and long shelf life: PFCs are chemically stable and have a long shelf life,
making them suitable for storage and use in emergency situations where the availability
of fresh blood or other oxygen carriers may be limited.

Examples of PFCs
Perftoran: Perftoran is a PFC that was developed in Russia and is used in several countries,
including Russia, Ukraine, and China. It has been used in the treatment of a variety of
conditions, including trauma, heart attack, and stroke.
Oxycyte: Oxycyte is a PFC that is being developed by Oxygen Biotherapeutics. It is currently
in clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues in patients with
traumatic brain injury.This is another PFC-based blood substitute being developed by Oxygen
Biotherapeutics. It is designed to be used as an oxygen carrier during surgery and other medical
procedures.
Hemopure-PFC: Hemopure-PFC is a hybrid blood substitute that combines a PFC with a
haemoglobin-based oxygen carrier. It is being developed by HbO2 Therapeutics and has shown
promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues in preclinical studies.
Oxygent: Synthetic, biocompatible, high oxygen solubility, reduces disease transmission,
suitable for all blood types.

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Applications of Human Blood Substitutes:
1. Trauma Care: Used in emergency situations where rapid blood loss occurs, providing a
temporary solution until a proper blood transfusion can be administered.
2. Surgery: Employed during surgeries to maintain adequate oxygen delivery when there
is a significant risk of blood loss or when stored blood supplies are limited.
3. Military Use: Provides a portable and easily storable option for treating soldiers injured
in combat zones where access to blood supplies may be limited.
4. Cancer Treatment: Used to support patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiation
therapy, where blood counts can be critically low.
5. Organ Transplants: Helps maintain oxygenation in transplanted organs during transport
and in recipients during the transplant procedure.
6. Chronic Anaemia: Offers a temporary solution for patients with chronic anaemia who
may not tolerate frequent blood transfusions.
7. Developing Countries: Provides an alternative in regions where safe blood supplies are
scarce or where blood storage and transportation infrastructure is inadequate.
8. Medical Research: Serves as a research tool for studying various medical conditions
and the effects of oxygen delivery without the variables introduced by human blood
components.
Human blood substitutes offer promising solutions for a range of medical challenges,
enhancing the capacity to manage blood loss and improve patient outcomes in diverse clinical
scenarios. While they are not yet a complete replacement for natural blood, ongoing research
and development continue to improve their efficacy and safety, bringing them closer to
widespread clinical use.

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 QUESTION BANK
1) Explain echolocation and its inspiration.
2) Explain how echolocation inspired ultrasonography and sonar.
3) Explain how bats use echolocation for navigation.
4) Explain the working principle of ultrasonography and discuss its advantages and
limitations.
5) Explain the working principle of sonar and discuss its uses.
6) Write the note on Bionic leaf, GPS and aircrafts.
7) Explain the term Swimsuits and bullet train using biological concepts.
8) Write a short note on haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOC’s) and
perfluorocarbons (PFC).
9) Explain how Kingfisher beak is bioinspired.
10) Compare Photovoltaic cell to a photosynthesis.
11) Explain how Velcro is bioinspired from Plant burrs.
12) Discuss the materials and examples of self-cleaning surface.
13) Write the note on Super hydrophobic surfaces.

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 COURSE TITLE- BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

COURSE CODE- BBOC407

MODULE 5-TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING

SYLLABUS

Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds (architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering

solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis), scaffolds and tissue engineering,
Bioprinting techniques and materials, 3D printing of ear, bone and skin. 3D printed foods.
Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science, DNA origami and Biocomputing,
Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis. Self-healing Bioconcrete (based
on bacillus spores, calcium lactate nutrients and biomineralization processes) and
Bioremediation and Biomining via microbial surface adsorption (removal of heavy metals like
Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic).

Muscular Systems as scaffolds

The use of muscular systems as scaffolds in regenerative medicine is an area of active research
and development. Muscles used as scaffolds for the regeneration of tissues due to their inherent
mechanical properties and ability to support cell growth and tissue formation. For example, is
in the treatment of damaged or diseased heart tissue. Researchers have developed methods for
using muscle cells to create a functional, three-dimensional scaffold that can support the growth
of new heart tissue. In this approach, muscle cells are harvested from the patient and then
seeded onto a scaffold, such as a hydrogel or artificial matrix.
The scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow and differentiate into new heart
tissue, which can help to repair the damaged or diseased tissue.
Another example is in the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries, such as those caused by trauma
or disease. In this case, muscle cells can be harvested and seeded onto a scaffold, which can
then be implanted into the damaged muscle to promote the growth of new, functional tissue.
While the use of muscular systems as scaffolds is still in the experimental stage, it holds great
promise for the treatment of a variety of conditions and represents an area of active research
and development in the field of regenerative medicine.
Architecture:
  Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into bundles, called fascicles,
surrounded by a middle layer of connective tissue called the perimysium.
 This fascicular organization is common in muscles of the limbs; it allows the nervous
system to trigger a specific movement of a muscle by activating a subset of muscle
fibers within a fascicle of the muscle.
 Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is encased in a thin connective tissue layer of
collagen and reticular fibers called the endomysium.
 The endomysium surrounds the extracellular matrix of the cells and plays a role in
transferring force produced by the muscle fibers to the tendons.
 Inside the muscle fibers, there are tiny structures called myofibrils. Myofibrils are made
up of smaller units called sarcomeres, which are responsible for muscle contraction.
 Sarcomeres contain thin (Actin) and thick filaments (Myosin) that work together to
make the muscle fibers contract.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a protective layer called endomysium.
 Multiple muscle fibers are grouped together into bundles called fascicles.
 Fascicles are surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called perimysium.
 All the fascicles together make up the entire muscle, which is surrounded by a layer
called epimysium.
 The muscle also has a special membrane called the sarcolemma, which protects the
muscle fiber.
 Inside the muscle fiber, there are small tunnels called T-tubules that help transmit
signals for muscle contraction.
 Muscles work through the coordination of motor units, which consist of a motor neuron
and the muscle fibers it controls.
 This architecture allows muscles to generate force, move our bodies, and perform
various activities.
Mechanisms:
1. Harvesting of muscle cells: Muscle cells are typically obtained from the patient and
then isolated and expanded in culture.
2. Seeding onto scaffold: The muscle cells are then seeded onto a scaffold, such as a
hydrogel or artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow
and differentiate into new tissue.
3. Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are seeded onto the scaffold,
they undergo differentiation, in which they change into specific cell types, such as
muscle cells or heart cells. The cells also begin to organize and form new tissue, such
as heart tissue or skeletal muscle tissue.
4. Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then implanted into the patient
to promote the growth of new, functional tissue or enzymes that break down and wash
away the cellular components, while preserving the ECM (extra cellular matrix).
5. ECM scaffold: The remaining ECM, which forms the structure of the muscle, is now
a scaffold. It consists of proteins, such as collagen and elastin, and other molecules that
provide support and signals for tissue growth.
6. Seeding cells: The decellularized muscle scaffold is then seeded with desired cells.
These can be stem cells or specialized cells relevant to the type of tissue being
regenerated. The cells are introduced onto the scaffold, allowing them to attach and
populate the structure.
Muscle Cells as Scaffold: Muscle cells can be used as a scaffold for tissue generation by
removing the living cells from the muscle tissue, leaving behind the structure known as the
extracellular matrix (ECM). This decellularized muscle scaffold provides a framework that can
guide and support the growth of new tissues. The process,
1. Harvesting muscle tissue: A small sample of muscle tissue is taken, typically from a
donor or an animal model.
2. Cell removal: The living cells within the muscle tissue are removed using a process
called decellularization. This involves treating the tissue with specific chemical
solutions.
3. Tissue growth: Over time, the seeded cells proliferate and differentiate, meaning they
multiply and transform into specific cell types required for the desired tissue. The
ECM scaffold guides the cells' growth, providing physical support, and biochemical
cues to influence their behavior.
4. Tissue integration: As the cells continue to grow, they populate the scaffold and
form new tissue. The new tissue integrates with the surrounding native tissue,
gradually replacing the decellularized scaffold with functional, regenerated tissue. By
utilizing the decellularized muscle scaffold, the process of tissue generation takes
advantage of the existing three-dimensional architecture and mechanical properties of
the muscle.
This approach has the potential to address challenges in tissue engineering, such as creating a
suitable environment for cell growth, promoting vascularization, and facilitating functional
integration of regenerated tissues.
Applications in Tissue Engineering
Biocompatible Scaffolds:
 Mimicking Muscle Structure: Tissue engineering develops scaffolds that mimic the
hierarchical structure of muscle fibers. Biodegradable polymers and hydrogels with
fibrousarchitecture promote cell attachment and growth, resembling natural muscle
tissue.
 Electrospinning Techniques: Advanced manufacturing techniques like
electrospinning create nanofibrous scaffolds that mimic the muscle extracellular
matrix, supporting cell proliferation and differentiation.
Functional Integration:
 Mechanical Properties: Scaffolds designed for muscle tissue engineering need to
have mechanical properties that match those of natural muscle tissue. This includes
elasticity, tensile strength, and the ability to withstand repetitive contractions.
 Bioactive Materials: Incorporating bioactive molecules such as growth factors and
peptides into scaffolds can enhance their ability to integrate with the surrounding
tissues,promoting vascularization and nerve ingrowth.
Dynamic and Adaptive Scaffolds:
 Smart Materials: Smart materials inspired by muscle tissue's adaptive nature respond
to mechanical stimuli or changes in the biological environment, aiding in the
regeneration of dynamic, responsive tissues.
 Cellular Interaction: Scaffolds that can facilitate the interaction between muscle cells
and other cell types, such as endothelial cells for blood vessel formation, are crucial
for successful tissue regeneration.
Clinical Applications:
  Muscle Repair and Regeneration: Engineered muscle tissues can repair or replace
damaged muscle from trauma, surgery, or degenerative diseases, greatly benefiting
reconstructive surgery and regenerative medicine.
 Implantable Devices: Muscle-mimicking scaffolds can be used in the development of
implantable devices that require mechanical support and integration with the host
tissue, such as pacemakers and biohybrid devices.
Skeletal Systems as scaffolds:
Skeletal System: The skeletal system of human beings refers to the framework of bones,
joints, and connective tissues that provide structure, support, and protection to the body.
The key components and functions of the skeletal system are:
• Bones: The human body consists of 206 bones that vary in size and shape.
• Bones are composed of hard and dense connective tissue that provides
strength and support.
• They serve as the anchor points for muscles, protect internal organs, and store
minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
• Cartilage: Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in certain joints and structures
such as the ears and nose.
• It acts as a cushion between bones, reducing friction and absorbing shock.
• Ligaments: Ligaments are tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect bones to other
bones in joints, providing stability and preventing excessive movement.
• Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the
skull, vertebral column, and ribcage.
• The skull protects the brain
• the vertebral column (spine) supports the body's weight and houses the spinal
cord.
• The ribcage encloses and protects the heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.
• Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the limbs
and the shoulder and pelvic girdles.
• The upper limbs (arms) consist of the humerus (upper arm bone), radius and
ulna (forearm bones), and the hand bones.
• The lower limbs (legs) include the femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (lower
leg bones), and the foot bones.
• The shoulder and pelvic girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
• Joints: Joints are the points where bones meet and allow for movement. Different types
of joints, including hinge joints (e.g., elbow and knee) that enable bending and
straightening, ball-and-socket joints (e.g., hip and shoulder) that allow for a wide
range of motion, and pivot joints (e.g., between the atlas and axis vertebrae) that
allow rotational movement.
Architecture:
The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons, forming the
framework of the body and providing support, protection, and movement.
Bone Structure:
 Compact Bone: Dense and solid outer layer of bone that provides strength and rigidity.
 Spongy Bone: Honeycomb-like inner structure of bone that contains red bone marrow,
where blood cells are produced.
 Bone Marrow: Soft, fatty tissue found in the cavities of bones, responsible for
hematopoiesis (blood cell production).
Bone Classification:
 Long Bones: Found in the arms, legs, fingers, and toes. They are longer than they are
wide and provide support and movement.
 Short Bones: Cube-shaped bones found in the wrists and ankles, providing stability
and some movement.
 Flat Bones: Thin, flat bones such as the skull, ribs, and sternum, protecting vital organs
and providing attachment sites for muscles.
 Irregular Bones: Complexly shaped bones like the vertebrae and facial bones,
contributing to the structure and protection of specific body parts.
Bone Development and Growth:
 Ossification: The process by which cartilage is replaced by bone during embryonic
development and throughout childhood.
 Epiphyseal Plates: Cartilaginous plates at the ends of long bones where growth occurs.
They are eventually replaced by bone once growth is complete.
Joint Structure:
 Articulations: Points where bones come together, allowing for movement and
flexibility.
 Synovial Joints: Freely movable joints surrounded by a joint capsule containing
synovial fluid, which lubricates and nourishes the joint.

Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis:

Bioengineering is rapidly advancing solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis
through groundbreaking innovations in gene editing, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and
biomechanical engineering. These interdisciplinary approaches show great potential in
enhancing quality of life, mobility, and treatment efficacy for individuals affected by these
challenging conditions. Ongoing research and development are essential to harnessing these
innovations for clinical use and overcoming the multifaceted complexities of muscular
dystrophy and osteoporosis.
Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy:
Muscular dystrophy refers to a group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive
weakening and degeneration of skeletal muscles. It results from mutations in genes
responsible for the structure and function of muscles, leading to muscle weakness, loss of
muscle mass, and in some cases, mobility impairment. Symptoms typically manifest in
childhood, and the severity and progression of the condition vary depending on the specific
type of muscular dystrophy.
Bioengineering Solutions for Muscular Dystrophy are as follows:
Gene Therapy:
 CRISPR-Cas9 Technology: Targeted gene editing to correct mutations responsible for
muscular dystrophy, such as in the dystrophin gene for Duchenne muscular dystrophy
(DMD).
 Viral Vectors: Delivery of functional genes to muscle cells using viral vectors to
replace or supplement defective genes.
Muscle Tissue Engineering:
 3D Bioprinting: Fabrication of muscle tissue constructs using biocompatible materials
and patient-derived cells to replace damaged muscle.
 Cell Therapy: Transplantation of stem cells or myoblasts into affected muscles to
promote regeneration and improve muscle function.
Exoskeletons and Assistive Devices:
 Powered Exoskeletons: Wearable robotic devices that assist with movement and
support weakened muscles, enhancing mobility and reducing fatigue.
 Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES): Electrical stimulation of muscles to induce
contractions and maintain muscle strength.
Drug Delivery Systems:
 Localized Drug Delivery: Development of biomaterial-based systems for targeted
delivery of therapeutic agents, such as growth factors or gene-editing tools, directly
to affected muscle tissues.
 Drug Screening Platforms: High-throughput screening platforms using muscle cells
derived from patient samples to identify potential therapeutic compounds.

Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis:

Osteoporosis is a condition characterized by weakened bones due to loss of bone density and
deterioration of bone tissue. It occurs when bone resorption (the process of breaking down
bone tissue) outpaces bone formation, resulting in brittle and fragile bones that are prone to
fractures, especially in the spine, hips, and wrists. Osteoporosis often develops gradually and
is more common in older adults, particularly women after menopause, but can also occur due
to other factors such as hormonal imbalances, nutritional deficiencies, or certain medical
conditions.
Bioengineering Solutions for Osteoporosis are as follows:
Bone Tissue Engineering:
 Scaffold Design: Development of scaffolds using biocompatible materials (e.g.,
calcium phosphate ceramics, polymers) that mimic the structure and properties of
natural bone.
 Osteoinductive Factors: Incorporation of growth factors and osteoinductive molecules
into scaffolds to promote bone formation and repair.
 Stem Cell Therapy: Application of mesenchymal stem cells or induced pluripotent
stem cells to regenerate bone tissue and enhance bone density.
Mechanical Stimulation:
 Biomechanical Engineering: Design of devices and systems that apply mechanical
 stimuli to bones to stimulate bone growth and increase bone density.
 Bone Loading Devices: Use of vibration therapy and mechanical loading devices to
enhance bone strength and reduce the risk of fractures.
Drug Delivery and Therapy:
 Antiresorptive Agents: Development of controlled-release systems for drugs that
inhibit bone resorption (e.g., bisphosphonates, denosumab).
 Anabolic Agents: Delivery of growth factors or small molecules that stimulate bone
formation and increase bone mass.
Personalized Medicine Approaches:
 Genetic Screening: Identification of genetic factors contributing to osteoporosis
susceptibility, guiding personalized treatment strategies.
 Patient-Specific Implants: Customized implants and scaffolds tailored to individual
patient anatomy and bone defect characteristics.

Scaffolds and Tissue Engineering

Scaffolds play a pivotal role in tissue engineering, providing a three-dimensional structure
that supports the growth, differentiation, and organization of new tissues. They mimic the
extracellular matrix (ECM) of natural tissues, facilitating cell attachment, proliferation, and
the formation of functional tissue constructs. Advancements in scaffold design and materials
have significantly propelled the field of tissue engineering, offering promising solutions for
regenerative medicine and the treatment of various medical conditions.
Types of Scaffolds
Natural Scaffolds:
 Collagen: Biocompatible, promotes cell adhesion and growth.
 Chitosan: Biodegradable, supports cell proliferation.
 Alginate: Biocompatible, forms hydrogels.
Synthetic Scaffolds:
 PLA, PGA: Biodegradable polymers.
 PCL: Strong, slow-degrading polymer.
 PEG: Forms tunable hydrogels.
Composite Scaffolds:
 Hybrid Materials: Combines natural and synthetic benefits.
 Bioactive Glass: Enhances bone regeneration.

Scaffold Design and Fabrication Techniques:

3D Bioprinting:

 Customization: Precise, patient-specific structures.

 Layer-by-Layer: Incorporates cells and bioactive molecules.
Electrospinning:
 Nanofibrous Scaffolds: High surface area for cell attachment.
  Tailored Properties: Adjustable process parameters.
Freeze-Drying:

 Porous Scaffolds: Interconnected pores.

 Hydrogels: Supports cell encapsulation.
Solvent Casting and Particulate Leaching:
 Controlled Porosity: Simple, cost-effective.
Applications of Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering:
Bone Tissue Engineering:
 Bone Regeneration: Framework for osteoblasts.
 Load-Bearing: Uses calcium phosphate and bioactive glass.
Cartilage Tissue Engineering:
 Chondrocyte Support: Facilitates new cartilage formation.
 Hydrogels/Bioprinting: Mimics natural cartilage properties.
Skin Tissue Engineering:
 Wound Healing: Supports keratinocyte and fibroblast growth.
 Dermal Replacements: Full-thickness skin regeneration.
Cardiac Tissue Engineering:

 Heart Tissue Repair: Supports cardiac cell growth.

 Electrical Conductivity: Integrates with native heart tissue.
Scaffolds are essential for supporting cell growth and tissue development in tissue
engineering. Advances in materials and fabrication techniques expand their applications,
promising innovative solutions for regenerative medicine.
Bioprinting techniques and materials
Bioprinting is an advanced form of 3D printing that involves the layer-by-layer deposition of
biomaterials and living cells to create complex tissue structures. This technology holds great
potential for regenerative medicine, drug testing, and personalized medicine. Bioprinting is a
rapidly growing field that uses various techniques to produce three dimensional (3D) structures
and functional biological tissues for medical and scientific applications. The main objective of
bioprinting is to mimic the structure and function of human tissues and organs, leading to the
development of replacement parts for damaged or diseased organs.
Bioprinting Materials:
1. Hydrogels: Hydrogels are water-based polymer networks that closely mimic the
extracellular matrix (ECM) found in living tissues. They offer excellent
biocompatibility, mechanical support, and can be formulated to have similar physical
properties to native tissues. Examples of hydrogels used as bioinks include: Gelatin-
based hydrogels, Alginate hydrogels, Fibrin-based hydrogels, Collagen-based
hydrogels.
2. Cell-laden Aggregates: In some cases, cells are first aggregated into biomolecules and
biomaterials (or micro tissues) before being incorporated into the bioink. These
aggregates provide a more physiological environment for the cells and enhance their
viability and functionality.
3. Synthetic Polymer-based Bioinks: Synthetic polymers can be used to create bioinks
with well-defined mechanical properties and degradation rates. These bioinks provide
 control over various parameters, such as stiffness, porosity, and degradation, to support
specific tissue engineering goals. Examples of synthetic polymer-based bioinks
include: Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based bioinks, Polycaprolactone (PCL)-based
bioinks, Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based bioinks.
4. Composite Bioinks: Composite bioinks combine different materials to enhance the
bioink's properties, such as mechanical strength, printability, and cell behaviour. These
bioinks often contain a combination of natural and synthetic materials or a mixture of
different biomaterials. Examples: Gelatin-methacryloyl combined with alginate,
Collagen combined with hyaluronic acid (HA), Fibrin combined with nanoparticles or
growth factors.
5. Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (dECM): The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a
complex network of molecules surrounding cells in tissues and organs. It provides
structural support, biochemical signaling, and regulatory functions. The ECM of tissues
can be extracted and processed to remove cellular components, resulting in a
decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM). dECM bioinks contain natural signalling
molecules and proteins that promote cell attachment, growth, and differentiation.
Examples of dECM bioinks include:
1. Decellularized porcine small intestine submucosa (SIS)
2. Decellularized porcine or bovine dermis
3. Decellularized amniotic membrane
Types of bioprinting technique:
Bioprinting techniques involve the precise deposition of bioinks to create three dimensional
structures with living cells. Several techniques have been developed to accomplish this, each
with its own advantages and limitations.
1. Inkjet-based Bioprinting: Inkjet bioprinting works similarly to standard inkjet printing.
The bioink is loaded into cartridges, and droplets of the bioink are ejected through fine
nozzles onto a substrate. The droplets form layers, and the structure is built by
depositing subsequent layers. Inkjet bioprinting allows for high-resolution printing and
precise control over droplet size, but it may be limited by the viscosity of the bioink
and cell viability during the ejection process.
2. Extrusion-based Bioprinting: Extrusion-based bioprinting uses a syringe or a similar
mechanism to extrude the bioink through a nozzle. The bioink is deposited layer-by-
layer to create the desired structure. This technique is versatile and can handle a wide
range of bioinks with varying viscosities, including those with living cells or cell
aggregates. It allows for high cell viability and can produce structures with controlled
porosity. However, it may have limitations in achieving high resolution and complex
geometries.
3. Laser-assisted Bioprinting: Laser-assisted bioprinting utilizes laser energy to precisely
deposit bioinks onto a substrate. The bioink is placed on an energy-absorbing layer, and
the laser creates a pressure wave that propels the bioink onto the substrate in a
controlled manner. This technique offers high resolution, precision, and the ability to
print complex structures. It can be used with delicate bioinks and allows for cell
viability. However, laser-assisted bioprinting can be relatively slow and may have
limitations in terms of bioink viscosity.
4. Microvalve-based Bioprinting: Microvalve-based bioprinting employs microvalves to
control the deposition of bioinks. The bioink is pushed through microchannels, and the
microvalves open and close to release the bioink precisely. This technique provides
control over droplet size, deposition speed, and spatial accuracy. It is suitable for a
variety of bioink viscosities and can achieve high cell viability. However, the
complexity of the system and the need for careful calibration can be limitations.
Applications of Bioprinting:
Regenerative Medicine:
 Tissue and Organ Repair: Bioprinting functional tissues for implantation and repair of
damaged organs.
 Wound Healing: Creating skin grafts and wound dressings.
Drug Testing and Development:
 Tissue Models: Printing tissue models for drug screening and toxicity testing.
 Personalized Medicine: Tailoring drug treatments based on patient-specific tissue
models.
Research and Development:
 Disease Models: Creating models of diseases for research purposes.
 Cell Biology Studies: Studying cell behaviour in 3D environments.
Bioprinting is revolutionizing tissue engineering and regenerative medicine by enabling the
precise fabrication of complex tissue structures. The development of advanced bioprinting
techniques and materials continues to expand the potential applications of this technology,
promising innovative solutions for medical treatments and research.
3D printing of ear:
This process involves using a 3D printer to create an ear-shaped structure using a special
material, such as a biocompatible polymer or a hydrogel, as the "ink." The printed ear structure
is then seeded with human cartilage cells, which grow and develop into functional ear tissue
over time. The main advantage of 3D printing an ear is that it allows for the creation of an ear
that is custom-fitted to an individual patient, based on their specific ear shape and size. This
can be especially useful for children with congenital ear deformities or individuals who have
suffered ear injuries or losses. 3D printing can also be used to create ears that are anatomically
and functionally similar to a patient's normal ear, reducing the risk of complications associated
with traditional surgical methods.
Techniques:
 Extrusion Bioprinting: The most common method for ear tissue printing, where bioinks
containing cells and hydrogels are extruded through a nozzle to form the desired shape.
 Stereolithography (SLA): Utilized for high-precision printing, creating detailed ear
structures using photopolymerizable hydrogels.
Importance/application:
1. Personalized ear prosthesis: 3D printing allows for the creation of customized ear
prostheses that match the unique anatomy of each patient.
2. Faster production and lower costs: Traditional methods of ear prosthesis fabrication can
be time-consuming and expensive. 3D printing can reduce the production time and cost
of ear prosthesis.
3. Biocompatibility: 3D printing can use biocompatible materials for the production of ear
prostheses, reducing the risk of adverse reactions and improving patient outcomes.
4. Medical education: 3D printing of human ears can be used to educate medical students
and healthcare professionals on the anatomy and treatment of ear defects and injuries.
5. Reconstructive Surgery: Creating patient-specific ear implants for individuals with
congenital deformities or traumatic injuries.
6. Cosmetic Enhancements: For individuals seeking cosmetic improvements to their ear
shape or size, 3D printing offers a non-surgical alternative to traditional methods.

Materials used for 3D Printing of Human Ear

1. Hydrogels: Hydrogels are soft, gel-like materials that are commonly used in bioprinting
due to their ability to mimic the mechanical properties of human tissues.
• They can be used as the "ink" in 3D printing, providing a supportive structure
for the cells to grow and develop into functional tissue.
• Examples of hydrogels used in 3D printing of ears include alginate, gelatin, and
collagen.
• They have been used in the 3D printing of ear structures due to their ability to
mimic the mechanical properties of human ear tissue.
2. Biocompatible polymers: Biocompatible polymers are synthetic materials that are
compatible with human tissues and do not cause adverse reactions.
• They are commonly used as the "ink" in 3D printing of human ears because they
provide a stable structure for the cells to grow and develop into functional tissue.
• Polylactide (PLA): Polylactide is a biocompatible polymer that has been used
in 3D printing of ear structures.
• This material is favored for its biocompatibility and ability to support cell
growth.
3. Scaffolds: Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for the cells to
grow and develop.
• In the case of 3D printing of ears, scaffolds can be used to create a specific shape
or structure for the ear tissue to grow around.
4. Cell-embedded materials: Cell-embedded materials are materials that contain living
cells, which can be used to seed the 3D printed structure.
• The cells then grow and develop into functional ear tissue over time. Ceramics:
Ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, can be used in 3D printing of ear structures.
 • This material is a natural component of human bones and has been shown to be
biocompatible and effective in 3D printing of bones and other tissues.

3D Printing of Bone:
This process involves using a 3D printer to create a bone-shaped structure using a special
material, such as a biocompatible polymer or a ceramic material, as the "ink." The printed bone
structure can then be implanted into a patient to replace missing or damaged bone tissue. There
are two main approaches to 3D printing of bones: additive manufacturing and scaffold-based
techniques. Additive manufacturing involves building up the bone structure layer by layer,
whereas scaffold-based techniques involve creating a porous structure that provides a
framework for bone cells to grow and develop.
 Additive manufacturing in 3D Printing of Bone: Additive manufacturing involves
building up the bone structure layer by layer using biocompatible materials. The layer-
by-layer deposition of material enables the creation of complex three-dimensional
structures that mimic the natural bone tissue.
 Scaffold-Based Techniques in 3D Printing of Bone: Scaffold-based techniques in 3D
printing of bone refer to the use of three-dimensional scaffolds as a framework or
template for the regeneration of bone tissue. These techniques involve the fabrication
of biocompatible and biodegradable scaffolds using 3D printing technology, which can
mimic the structure and properties of natural bone. The scaffold serves as a temporary
support structure that provides mechanical stability and guides the growth of new bone
tissue. It offers a three-dimensional framework with interconnected pores that allow for
cell infiltration, nutrient diffusion, and the deposition of extracellular matrix.
Techniques:
 Extrusion Bioprinting: Enables the deposition of bioinks with high cell density and
viscosity, suitable for large bone structures.
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Uses a laser to sinter powdered materials, creating
strong and precise bone constructs.
 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): Melts and extrudes thermoplastic filaments to
build bone scaffolds layer by layer.
Materials Used for 3D Printing of Bone:
Materials used for 3D printing of bones can vary, depending on the specific 3D printing
technique used and the desired outcome. Some of the most commonly used materials for 3D
printing of bones include:
 Biocompatible polymers: Biocompatible polymers are synthetic materials that are
compatible with human tissues and do not cause adverse reactions. They can be used
as the "ink" in 3D printing, providing a supportive structure for the cells to grow and
develop into functional bone tissue. Examples: polyethylene, polycaprolactone,
polylactide, and polyvinyl alcohol
 Ceramics: Ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, are natural components of human bones
and can be used as the "ink" in 3D printing. Hydroxyapatite is a biocompatible material
that has been shown to be an effective material for 3D printing of bones. Examples:
Hydroxyapatite, Calcium phosphate, Tricalcium phosphate.
 Scaffolds: Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for the cells to
grow and develop. In the case of 3D printing of bones, scaffolds can be used to create
a specific shape or structure for the bone tissue to grow around. Examples: Polyglycolic
acid (PGA), Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
  Cell-embedded materials: Cell-embedded materials are materials that contain living
cells, which can be used to seed the 3D printed structure. The cells then grow and
develop into functional bone tissue over time. Examples: Gelatine methacryloyl,
Alginate.
Applications:

 Bone Grafting: Providing custom-fit bone grafts for orthopedic and craniofacial
surgeries.
 Bone Regeneration: Supporting the repair of bone defects and fractures by promoting
new bone growth.
 Dental Implants: Creating precise bone structures for dental implant placement.

3D printing of skin:
3D printing of skin refers to the process of creating three-dimensional human skin tissue using
a 3D printer. The goal of 3D printing skin is to create functional, living tissue that can be used
for a variety of purposes, such as cosmetic testing, wound healing, and drug development. The
process involves the use of bioprinting technology, where a bioink made from living cells and
growth factors is printed in a specific pattern to create the desired tissue structure.
Techniques:
 Inkjet Bioprinting: Deposits droplets of bioink containing keratinocytes and fibroblasts
to form layered skin constructs.
 Extrusion Bioprinting: Creates multilayered skin models with controlled deposition of
different cell types and materials.
 Laser-Assisted Bioprinting (LAB): Provides high-resolution printing of skin cells and
ECM components.
Materials used for 3D printing of Skin
 Hydrogels: Hydrogels, such as alginate and collagen, are hydrophilic materials that can
be used to create 3D structures for cell growth. These materials have been used in the
3D printing of skin due to their ability to mimic the mechanical properties and water-
retaining capacity of human skin.
 Polymers: Biocompatible polymers, such as polyethylene glycol and polycaprolactone,
can be used in 3D printing of skin. These materials are synthetic and biocompatible,
making them suitable for use in the creation of 3D printed skin structures.
 Cell-laden hydrogels: Cell-laden hydrogels are materials that contain living cells and
can be used to create 3D printed skin structures. The cells within the hydrogel will grow
and develop into functional skin tissue over time.
 Scaffolds: Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for cells to
grow and develop. In the case of 3D printing of skin, scaffolds can be used to create a
specific shape or structure for the skin tissue to grow around. These materials can be
used alone or in combination with other materials to create the desired structure and
properties for 3D printing of skin.

Technological Importance of 3D Printing of Human Skin:

1. Better wound healing: 3D printing of skin can produce customized skin grafts that
promote wound healing and reduce the risk of infection. This is particularly important
for patients with burns, chronic wounds, or other skin injuries.
 2. Reduced scarring: 3D printed skin can promote more natural healing and reduce
scarring, improving the cosmetic appearance of the skin after injury.
3. Replication of skin structure: 3D printing can replicate the structure and properties of
natural skin, such as the thickness and elasticity of different layers of the skin. This can
improve the functionality and durability of the skin graft.
4. Reduced donor site morbidity: 3D printing of skin can reduce the need for skin grafts
from other parts of the patient's body, reducing donor site morbidity and promoting
faster healing.
5. Alternative to animal testing: 3D printing of skin can provide an alternative to animal
testing in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, reducing the ethical concerns and
improving the accuracy and relevance of testing.
6. Research and development: 3D printing of skin can be used in research and
development to study the properties and behavior of different skin types, test the
effectiveness of new treatments, and develop new skin care products.

3D printed foods:
3D printed food refers to food items that are created using 3D printing technology. This
technology allows for the creation of food items with intricate shapes and designs, which can
be customized based on individual preferences and dietary needs. The process of 3D printing
food involves the use of edible materials, such as pastes, gels, and powders, which are
combined and printed layer by layer to create the final product. The use of 3D printing in the
food industry has the potential to revolutionize the way food is produced, as it allows for the
precise control of portion sizes and ingredients, which can be beneficial for individuals with
specific dietary needs or restrictions. Additionally, 3D printing technology can be used to create
unique and customized food items that would be difficult to achieve using traditional cooking
methods.
Materials used for 3D Printing of Food:
 Edible pastes: Edible pastes, such as pureed fruit, chocolate, and cream cheese, can be
used in 3D printing of food. These materials are easily printable and can be used to
create intricate shapes and designs.
 Edible gels: Edible gels, such as agar and gelatin, can be used in 3D printing of food.
These materials are flexible and can be used to create 3D structures that are both
aesthetically pleasing and functional.
 Edible powders: Edible powders, such as flour and sugar, can be used in 3D printing of
food. These materials can be combined with liquids to form a printable mixture that can
be used to create 3D structures.
Examples of 3D Printed Food:
 Sweet and savory snacks: 3D printed snacks, such as crackers, cookies, and chips, can
be customized to include intricate shapes and designs.
 Pastries: 3D printing technology can be used to create intricate and aesthetically
pleasing pastries, such as cakes and cupcakes.
 Decorative garnishes: 3D printing technology can be used to create unique and
attractive garnishes for dishes, such as cheese and fruit designs.
The importance of 3D printing in the food industry:
• 3D printing has gained significant importance in the food industry due to its potential
to revolutionize various aspects of food production, customization, and innovation.
 1. Customization and Personalization: 3D printing enables the creation of customized
and personalized food products.
• It allows for the precise control of ingredients, textures, flavors, and nutritional
content, catering to individual preferences, dietary restrictions, and specific
nutritional needs.
• This customization capability opens up new possibilities for personalized
nutrition and addressing food allergies, intolerances, and specific dietary
requirements.
2. Novelty and Creativity: 3D printing in the food industry allows for the creation of
intricate and visually appealing food designs that are difficult to achieve with traditional
food preparation methods.
• It offers the opportunity to experiment with shapes, structures, colors, and
patterns, thereby enhancing the dining experience and presentation of food.
3. Enhanced Food Safety: With 3D printing, the entire food production process can be
tightly controlled and automated, reducing the risk of contamination and human error.
• The technology allows for the use of fresh, high-quality ingredients and
eliminates the need for excessive processing and preservatives.
• Additionally, 3D printing enables the production of food in a controlled, sterile
environment, minimizing the potential for bacterial growth and contamination.
4. Supply Chain Efficiency: 3D printing has the potential to streamline the food supply
chain by enabling on-demand production.
• It eliminates the need for long-distance transportation and storage of certain
food products, reducing food waste and improving overall efficiency.
• With 3D printing, food can be produced locally, minimizing the time and
resources required for distribution.
5. Sustainable Food Production: 3D printing has the potential to reduce food waste by
using precise ingredient measurements and optimizing production processes.
• It allows for the utilization of alternative food sources and byproducts, reducing
the strain on traditional food resources.
• Furthermore, 3D printing can promote sustainable farming practices by
reducing water usage and minimizing environmental impact.
6. Food Innovation and Research: 3D printing provides a platform for food scientists,
chefs, and researchers to explore new culinary concepts, textures, and flavors.
• It facilitates the development of novel food products and techniques that push
the boundaries of traditional food preparation.
• This innovation can lead to the creation of unique food experiences and
contribute to advancements in the field of gastronomy.
Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science:

Electrical tongue and electrical nose technologies are innovative tools in food science that
mimic human taste and smell sensors, respectively. These technologies enable the objective
analysis of flavour and aroma, enhancing quality control, product development, and food
safety.
Electrical tongue:
The electrical tongue, also known as an electronic tongue, is a cutting-edge analytical tool
designed to mimic the human taste system. Utilizing sensor arrays that detect various taste
profiles such as sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami, the electrical tongue translates chemical
interactions into electrical signals. This technology allows for objective, reproducible analysis
of liquid samples, making it invaluable for quality control, product development, and food
safety in the food and beverage industry. By providing precise and detailed taste profiles, the
electrical tongue enhances our ability to ensure consistency and authenticity in food products.
Mechanism:
 The electrical tongue, also known as an electronic tongue, uses sensor arrays to detect
and measure the chemical composition of liquids.
 Sensors are designed to respond to different taste profiles, such as sweet, sour, salty,
bitter, and umami.
 The data is processed using pattern recognition algorithms to identify and quantify taste
components.
Components:
 Sensor Array: Comprised of electrodes coated with substances that react with different
taste molecules.
 Signal Processor: Converts chemical interactions into electrical signals.
 Data Analysis Software: Uses algorithms to interpret the signals and generate taste
profiles.
Examples:
 Alpha MOS ASTREE Electronic Tongue: Used for taste analysis in beverages, dairy,
and pharmaceuticals.
 INSENT Electronic Tongue: Applied in the food and beverage industry for taste
evaluation and quality control.
Advantages of Electrical Tongue:
1. Non-invasive: The electrical tongue is a non-invasive technology, meaning that it does
not require human taste testers. This reduces the risk of contamination and allows for
the rapid and consistent analysis of food and beverage products.
2. High-throughput: The electrical tongue can analyze multiple samples in a short period
of time, making it well suited for high-throughput applications in the food and beverage
industry.
3. Objective analysis: The electrical tongue provides a numerical representation of the
taste and flavor of a food or beverage sample, which is less subjective than human taste
testing. This allows for the objective comparison and analysis of different products.
4. Cost-effective: The electrical tongue is a relatively low-cost technology compared to
other methods of food and beverage analysis, such as human taste testing.
Limitations of Electrical Tongue:
1. Limited sensory experience: The electrical tongue only measures a limited number of
aspects of taste and flavor, and may not be able to fully replicate the complex sensory
experience of tasting food and beverages.
2. Incomplete understanding: The technology behind the electrical tongue is still in the
early stages of development, and more research is needed to fully understand its
capabilities and limitations.
3. Interfering factors: The electrical properties of a food or beverage sample can be
influenced by factors such as temperature, humidity, and storage conditions, which can
affect the accuracy of the electrical tongue analysis.
 4. Calibration issues: The electrical tongue requires calibration to ensure accurate and
consistent results. Calibration procedures may be time-consuming and may need to be
repeated regularly to maintain the accuracy of the analysis.
Electrical nose:
The electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose, is a sophisticated device designed to
replicate the human olfactory system. Using an array of gas sensors, it detects and analyzes
volatile compounds responsible for aromas. This technology converts chemical signals into
electrical patterns, enabling precise and objective assessment of scent profiles in various
applications, including food quality assurance, flavour development, and environmental
monitoring. The electrical nose plays a crucial role in ensuring product consistency and safety
by providing accurate and real-time analysis of aroma characteristics.
Mechanism:
 The electrical nose, or electronic nose, consists of an array of gas sensors that detect
volatile compounds responsible for aroma.
 Each sensor reacts with specific odor molecules, producing a unique signal pattern.
 Data is processed and analyzed to identify and quantify different aromas.
Components:
 Sensor Array: Includes metal oxide semiconductors, conducting polymers, and
piezoelectric sensors.
 Sample Delivery System: Ensures consistent and controlled exposure of sensors to the
sample.
 Data Processing Unit: Analyzes the sensor signals and identifies odor patterns using
machine learning algorithms.
Examples:
 Alpha MOS FOX Electronic Nose: Utilized for aroma analysis in the food, beverage,
and fragrance industries.
 AIRSENSE PEN3: Applied for quality control, freshness assessment, and spoilage
detection in food products.
Advantages of Electrical Nose:
1. Rapid Analysis: The electrical nose can provide rapid and objective analysis of food
and beverage aromas and flavors, making it an important tool for quality control and
product development.
2. Non-Invasive: The electrical nose does not physically come into contact with the food
or beverage sample, making it a non-invasive method for aroma and flavor analysis.
3. Objective Analysis: The electrical nose provides an objective measurement of food and
beverage aromas and flavors, reducing the potential for human error or subjective bias.
4. Repeatability: The electrical nose provides consistent and repeatable results, making it
a reliable tool for product development and quality control.
5. Cost-Effective: The electrical nose is a cost-effective alternative to traditional sensory
analysis methods, as it can perform large numbers of analyses in a relatively short
amount of time.

Limitations of Electrical Nose:

1. Limited Sensory Experience: The electrical nose may not be able to fully replicate the
complex sensory experience of smelling food and beverages, as it only measures a
limited number of aspects of aroma and flavor.
 2. Calibration Challenges: The electrical nose requires calibration and validation to ensure
accurate results, which can be time-consuming and challenging.
3. Limited Range of Volatile Organic Compounds: The electrical nose is only capable of
detecting and quantifying a limited range of volatile organic compounds, which may
limit its ability to fully characterize the aroma and flavor of a sample.
4. Technical Challenges: The electrical nose technology is still in the early stages of
development, and further research is needed to fully understand its capabilities and
limitations.
5. High Cost: Some electrical nose systems can be expensive, making them less accessible
for some food and beverage companies.

DNA origami:

 DNA Origami is a technique in nanotechnology that involves folding DNA molecules

into specific shapes.
 The process involves using a long, single strand of DNA, called the scaffold, to guide
the folding of short, complementary DNA strands, called staples, into a desired shape.
 The first DNA origami structures were developed in the mid-2000s and since then, the
technique has been widely used in a variety of applications, including the creation of
nanoscale structures, the study of molecular interactions, and the development of new
drug delivery systems.

Technological Importance of DNA Origami:

The technological importance of DNA origami lies in its potential to be used in a wide range
of applications, including nanotechnology, materials science, and biomedicine.
Some of the key ways in which DNA origami can impact technology include:
1. Nanoscale manufacturing: DNA origami can be used as a template for the precise
assembly of nanoscale structures, which have applications in areas such as electronics,
photonics, and materials science.
2. Drug delivery: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for drug delivery,
as it can be designed to carry therapeutic agents directly to specific cells or tissues.
3. Biosensors: DNA origami can be used to develop new biosensors that can detect
specific biological molecules and signals in real-time.
4. Biomedical imaging: DNA origami can be used as a tool for biomedical imaging, as it
can be designed to target specific cells or tissues and provide high-resolution images.
5. Gene therapy: DNA origami can be used as a delivery vehicle for gene therapy, as it
can be programmed to target specific cells and deliver therapeutic genes to those cells.
6. Biocatalysis: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for biocatalysis, as
it can be designed to perform specific chemical reactions and act as a catalyst.
7. Nanopatterning: DNA origami can be used as a tool for nanopatterning, as it can be
programmed to arrange and position nanoscale structures with precise control.
Advantages of DNA Origami:
1. Programmability: DNA origami allows for the precise and controlled folding of DNA
molecules into specific shapes, which can be programmed to fit the requirements of a
particular application.
2. Versatility: DNA origami can be used to create a wide range of shapes, from simple 2D
shapes to complex 3D structures, which makes it a versatile tool for various
applications.
 3. High precision: DNA origami is capable of creating nanoscale structures with high
precision and accuracy, which is useful for many applications in the field of
nanotechnology.
4. Functionality: DNA origami structures can be functionalized with additional molecules
or materials, such as proteins, nanoparticles, or other materials, which makes them
useful for a variety of applications.
5. Biocompatibility: DNA is a naturally occurring molecule, which makes it
biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune response. This makes DNA origami
a promising tool for biomedical applications, such as drug delivery.
Limitations of DNA Origami:
1. Complexity: Creating complex DNA origami structures can be challenging and time
consuming, and requires specialized knowledge and expertise.
2. Cost: The cost of producing and synthesizing the DNA required for DNA origami can
be high, making it an expensive technique.
3. Stability: DNA origami structures are relatively fragile and can be degraded by enzymes
or other factors, which can limit their stability and shelf-life.
4. Scalability: The scalability of DNA origami remains a challenge, as producing large
quantities of complex DNA origami structures is difficult and expensive.

Biocomputing:
Biocomputing refers to the use of biological systems or molecules, such as DNA, proteins, and
cells, to perform computations or store information. This interdisciplinary field combines
principles of biology, computer science, and engineering to develop innovative solutions for
data processing and storage, as well as for creating functional biological devices.
DNA Computing:
 Uses DNA molecules as a medium for storing and processing information.
 Information is encoded in the sequence of nucleotides (A, T, C, G).
 Applications include solving complex mathematical problems and performing parallel
computations.
Protein-Based Computing:
 Utilizes proteins and enzymes to carry out computational tasks.
 Protein folding and interactions can be used to perform calculations.
 Applications range from drug design to molecular diagnostics.
Cellular Computing:
 Harnesses the computational capabilities of living cells.
 Cells can be engineered to perform logical operations or respond to specific stimuli.
 Used in biosensing, environmental monitoring, and biomedical applications.
Technological Importance
1. Computational power: Bio-computing systems have the potential to provide new levels
of computational power, as they can perform complex tasks and calculations using
biological processes.
2. Data storage: Bio-computing systems can be used to store and process large amounts
of data, as DNA has a high information density [consider that a single gram of DNA
can theoretically store up to 215 petabytes (1 petabyte = 1 million gigabytes) of data]
and can be easily synthesized and amplified.
 3. Medical applications: Bio-computing systems can be used to develop new diagnostic
and therapeutic approaches in medicine, such as biosensors and gene therapies.
4. Environmental monitoring: Bio-computing systems can be used to monitor and track
environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, in real-time.
5. Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems are energy-efficient, which is becoming
increasingly important as we face the challenge of climate change and the need to
reduce our energy consumption.
6. Robustness: Bio-computing systems are highly robust, as they are less susceptible to
errors and failures compared to traditional electronic systems.
7. Versatility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to perform
different tasks, which makes them highly versatile and adaptable.
Advantages of Bio-computing:
1. Biocompatibility: Bio-computing systems are made from biological components,
which are biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune response compared to
traditional electronic devices.
2. Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems use significantly less energy than traditional
electronic computers, as they rely on biological processes that occur naturally and do
not require external power.
3. Scalability: Bio-computing systems can be easily scaled up or down, as they are based
on biological processes that can be repeated and multiplied.
4. Robustness: Bio-computing systems are often more robust and reliable than traditional
electronic systems, as they are less susceptible to errors and failures.
5. Flexibility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to perform
different tasks, which makes them highly flexible and adaptable.
Limitations of Biocomputing:
1. Speed: Bio-computing systems are generally slower than traditional electronic
computers, as they rely on biological processes that occur over time.
2. Complexity: Bio-computing systems can be complex and challenging to design and
build, requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
3. Reliability: Bio-computing systems can be unreliable, as they are subject to the
fluctuations and errors inherent in biological systems.
4. Cost: Bio-computing systems can be expensive to produce, as they require specialized
materials and equipment.

Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis:

Bioimaging
Bioimaging encompasses a diverse set of techniques and technologies used to visualize
biological structures and processes at various scales, from molecules to organs. These imaging
methods play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology, medicine, and
biomedical research.
Key Techniques:
Optical Microscopy:
 Fluorescence Microscopy: Utilizes fluorescent dyes or proteins to label specific
molecules and visualize them under a microscope.
 Confocal Microscopy: Enhances image resolution and contrast by eliminating out of-
focus light, suitable for three-dimensional imaging.
 Super-Resolution Microscopy: Overcomes the diffraction limit of traditional optical
 microscopy, enabling higher resolution imaging at the nanoscale.
Electron Microscopy:
 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Uses electrons to image thin sections of
samples with high resolution, revealing detailed internal structures.
 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Provides detailed surface imaging of samples
using a focused beam of electrons.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
 Non-invasive imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to
generate detailed images of soft tissues, organs, and structures inside the body.
 Functional MRI (fMRI): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow
and oxygenation.
CT (Computed Tomography):
 X-ray based imaging technique that generates cross-sectional images (slices) of the
body.
 Used for detailed visualization of bones, organs, and soft tissues.
Ultrasound Imaging:
 Uses high-frequency sound waves to create real-time images of organs, tissues, and
blood flow inside the body.
 Non-invasive and widely used in obstetrics, cardiology, and diagnostics.
Nuclear Imaging:
 Includes techniques like PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT (Single
Photon Emission Computed Tomography).
 Uses radioactive tracers to detect biological processes, such as metabolism or blood
flow, in tissues.
Technological Importance
The technological importance of bio-imaging for disease diagnosis lies in its ability to provide
detailed images of the body's internal structures and functions, which can help healthcare
professionals to make accurate diagnoses and provide effective treatments.
1. Improved accuracy: Bio-imaging technologies can provide high-resolution images of
the body's internal structures, which can help healthcare professionals to identify subtle
changes and make accurate diagnoses.
2. Early detection: Bio-imaging can be used to detect diseases in their early stages, when
they are often more treatable. This can lead to earlier treatment and better outcomes for
patients
3. Multi-modality: Bio-imaging technologies can be combined to provide a multi-modal
view of the body's internal structures and functions, which can provide a more
comprehensive understanding of a disease or condition.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Many bio-imaging technologies are relatively low-cost, which
makes them accessible to a wider range of patients.
5. Minimally invasive: Many bio-imaging techniques are non-invasive, which means that
they do not require incisions or the insertion of instruments into the body. This makes
them less painful and less risky than many traditional diagnostic procedures.
6. Improved patient outcomes: By providing healthcare professionals with detailed
images of the body's internal structures and functions, bio-imaging can help to improve
patient outcomes by enabling earlier and more accurate diagnoses, and more effective
treatments.
 7. Advancements in research: Bio-imaging technologies are also important in advancing
medical research, by providing detailed images of the body's internal structures and
functions, which can help researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms
of diseases and develop new treatments.
Advantages
1. Non-invasive: Many bio-imaging techniques are non-invasive, which means that they
do not require incisions or the insertion of instruments into the body. This makes them
less painful and less risky than many traditional diagnostic procedures.
2. High resolution: Bio-imaging technologies can provide high-resolution images of the
body's internal structures, which can help healthcare professionals to identify subtle
changes and make accurate diagnoses.
3. Early detection: Bio-imaging can be used to detect diseases in their early stages, when
they are often more treatable. This can lead to earlier treatment and better outcomes for
patients.
4. Multi-modality: Bio-imaging technologies can be combined to provide a multi-modal
view of the body's internal structures and functions, which can provide a more
comprehensive understanding of a disease or condition.
5. Cost-effective: Many bio-imaging technologies are relatively low-cost, which makes
them accessible to a wider range of patients.

Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing disease diagnosis by leveraging advanced

algorithms and machine learning techniques to analyze medical data and assist healthcare
professionals in identifying diseases more accurately and efficiently.
Application:
1. Image analysis: AI algorithms can analyze medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans,
and MRIs, to detect signs of diseases. For example, AI algorithms can identify patterns
in medical images that may indicate the presence of a particular condition, such as a
tumor or an injury. This type of image analysis is known as computer-aided diagnosis
(CAD).
2. Data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large amounts of patient data, such as
electronic health records, to identify patterns and trends that may indicate a disease.
This type of data analysis is known as predictive analytics.
3. Diagnosis: AI algorithms can be used to diagnose diseases by evaluating symptoms,
test results, and other patient information. AI algorithms can help healthcare
professionals make faster and more accurate diagnoses, reducing the risk of
misdiagnosis.
4. Personalized medicine: AI algorithms can be used to create personalized treatment
plans for patients based on their specific medical histories, lifestyles, and other factors.
For example, AI algorithms can analyze a patient's medical history, lifestyle habits, and
genetic information to recommend the best course of treatment for their condition.
5. Clinical decision support: AI algorithms can be integrated into electronic health records
to provide healthcare professionals with real-time decision-making support. For
example, AI algorithms can provide physicians with information about the best
diagnostic tests to order, the most effective treatments to consider, and the best ways to
manage patient care.
Limitations
1. Lack of understanding of the underlying algorithms: AI algorithms can be complex and
difficult to understand, making it difficult for healthcare professionals to interpret the
 results. This can lead to confusion and mistrust of AI-based tools, particularly among
healthcare professionals who are not familiar with AI technology.
2. Bias: AI algorithms may be biased, leading to inaccurate or unfair diagnoses. For
example, if an AI algorithm is trained on data from a predominantly male population,
it may not accurately diagnose conditions that affect women differently.
3. Regulation: The use of AI in healthcare is heavily regulated, and it can be challenging
to get approval for new AI technologies. In many countries, AI algorithms must
undergo a rigorous evaluation process before they can be used in healthcare.
4. Cost: The development and implementation of AI algorithms can be expensive, which
may limit access to these technologies for some patients and healthcare facilities. This
is particularly true in low- and middle-income countries, where access to healthcare is
already limited.

Self-healing Bioconcrete (based on bacillus spores, calcium lactate nutrients and

biomineralization processes):
Self-healing bioconcrete is an innovative material that integrates biological components to
automatically repair cracks, significantly enhancing the durability and lifespan of concrete
structures. This approach leverages the biomineralization capabilities of Bacillus spores, which
are activated by calcium lactate nutrients to produce calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), sealing the
cracks.

Key Components and Mechanism:

Bacillus Spores:
 Microorganisms: Specific strains of Bacillus, such as Bacillus pasteurii or Bacillus
sphaericus, are used for their ability to precipitate calcium carbonate.
 Spore Form: These bacteria are introduced into the concrete in spore form, which can
survive the harsh environment of the concrete matrix and remain dormant until
activated by the presence of water.

Calcium Lactate Nutrients:

 Nutrient Source: Calcium lactate is added to the concrete mix as a nutrient source for
the Bacillus spores.
 Activation: When cracks form and water enter the concrete, it dissolves the calcium
lactate, providing the necessary nutrients for the Bacillus spores to germinate and
become active.
Biomineralization Process:
 Bacterial Activation: Upon activation by water and calcium lactate, the Bacillus spores
germinate and metabolize the nutrients.
 Calcium Carbonate Production: The bacteria convert the calcium lactate into calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃) through a series of biochemical reactions.
 Crack Sealing: The precipitated calcium carbonate fills the cracks, effectively sealing
them and restoring the integrity of the concrete.
Technological Importance of Self-Healing:
1. Increased durability: Self-healing bioconcrete has the ability to repair itself, which can
help to increase its overall durability and reduce the need for maintenance.
2. Improved sustainability: By using naturally occurring and non-toxic microorganisms,
self-healing bioconcrete is considered to be a more environmentally friendly alternative
to traditional concrete.
3. Reduced maintenance costs: Because self-healing bioconcrete is able to repair itself, it
has the potential to reduce the need for costly maintenance and repairs over time.
4. Increased longevity: By repairing cracks and reducing the amount of water that is able
to penetrate the surface, self-healing bioconcrete can help to extend the lifespan of
concrete structures.
5. New applications: The ability of self-healing bioconcrete to repair itself may open up
new applications for concrete that were not possible with traditional concrete.
6. Reduced carbon footprint: The biomineralization process used in self-healing
bioconcrete has the potential to reduce the carbon footprint associated with concrete
production, as it eliminates the need for concrete to be transported and replaced when
it becomes damaged.

Bioremediation and Biomining via microbial surface adsorption (removal of heavy metals
like Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic):
• Bioremediation and biomining are two related but distinct processes that utilize
living organisms to clean up contaminated environments or extract valuable
minerals, respectively.
• Bioremediation refers to the use of microorganisms, plants, or animals to clean
up contaminated environments, such as soil, water, or air.
• This process occurs naturally over time, but can also be accelerated through the
addition of specific microorganisms or other biotic agents.
• The goal of bioremediation is to remove contaminants from the environment and
restore it to a healthy state.
• Biomining, on the other hand, refers to the use of microorganisms to extract
valuable minerals from ore deposits.
• This process involves the use of microorganisms to dissolve minerals from ore,
creating a solution that can be separated and purified to obtain the valuable
minerals.
• Biomining is often used in the extraction of metals such as copper, gold, and
nickel, and has several advantages over traditional mining methods, including
lower energy costs, reduced waste, and increased metal recovery.
• Bioremediation and biomining via microbial surface adsorption is a process that
utilizes microorganisms to remove heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury,
and arsenic from contaminated environments or ore deposits, respectively.
• The process of removing polluting heavy metals using bioremediation or
biomining via microbial surface adsorption.
Comparing Bioremediation via microbial surface adsorption and Biomining via
microbial surface adsorption:

Aspect Bioremediation via microbial Biomining via microbial

surface adsorption surface adsorption
Objective To remove or neutralize To extract valuable metals or
pollutants/contaminants from minerals from ores
the environment
Process Microorganisms adsorb and Microorganisms adsorb and
degrade pollutants or extract metals from ores
contaminants
Targeted Focuses on organic pollutant Focuses on desired
contaminants/Metals surfaces Metals or minerals
Microorganisms Diverse range of microbial Specific microbial strains
strains with pollutant-degrading with metal adsorption
capabilities capabilities
Surface adsorption Microorganisms attach to Microorganisms attach to
mechanism pollutant surfaces metal surfaces
Environmental impact Can restore ecosystems and Can potentially cause some
improve environmental quality environmental disturbances
Time frame for results Can take months to years for Quicker results for metal
significant quality extraction in controlled
conditions
Waste generation and May generate waste that Mining operations for metal
disposal considerations requires proper disposal extraction

Microbial Surface Adsorption for Heavy Metal Removal:

Heavy Sources Health Effects Microorganisms Applications
Metal
Lead (Pb) Industrial processes, Neurotoxicity, Pseudomonas, Treatment of
lead- developmental Bacillus industrial
based paints, disorders, anemia, effluents,
contaminated water kidney damage contaminated
supplies, water bodies
batteries
Cadmiu Mining, smelting, Renal dysfunction, Aspergillus niger, Remediation of
m(Cd) battery bone Saccharomyces soil and water
manufacturing, demineralization, cerevisiae, contaminated by
phosphate fertilizers carcinogenicity Rhizopus arrhizus mining and
industrial
activities
Mercur Coal combustion, Neurotoxicity, Desulfovibrio Treatment of
y(Hg) mining, chlor-alkali immune system desulfuricans, mercury-
plants, improper suppression, Bacillus cereus contaminated
disposal of teratogenic effects wastewater and
mercury-containing soils
products
Arseni Pesticides, mining, Skin lesions, Shewanella, Remediation of
c(As) smelting, cardiovascular Cyanobacteria groundwater and
contaminated diseases, industrial
groundwater carcinogenicity effluents
containing
arsenic

Advantages of Bioremediation and Biomining:

1. Environmentally friendly: The use of microorganisms to remove heavy metals from
contaminated environments or ore deposits is an environmentally friendly alternative
to traditional methods such as chemical leaching, which can produce toxic waste
products.
2. Cost-effective: Bioremediation and biomining using microbial surface adsorption is
often less expensive than traditional methods for removing heavy metals, as it does not
require the use of costly chemicals or equipment.
3. Selective: Microorganisms can be selected based on their ability to remove specific
heavy metals, which allows for the removal of specific contaminants in a targeted
manner.
4. Effective: Microorganisms can effectively remove high levels of heavy metals from
contaminated environments or ore deposits, making this process a useful tool for
environmental remediation and mining.
5. Sustainability: The microorganisms used in bioremediation and biomining can be
cultured and reused, making the process sustainable over the long term. Limitations of
Bioremediation and Biomining.
Limitations of Bioremediation and Biomining
1. Slow process: The process of removing heavy metals via microbial surface adsorption
can be slow, as it may take several months or even years for the microorganisms to
adsorb the heavy metals.
2. Incomplete removal: While microbial surface adsorption is effective in removing high
levels of heavy metals, it may not be able to remove all of the contaminants, leaving
some heavy metals behind.
3. Microbial inhibition: Some environmental conditions, such as high levels of other
heavy metals or low pH, can inhibit the growth and activity of the microorganisms,
reducing their ability to remove heavy metals.
4. Difficulty in harvesting: Harvesting the microorganisms that have adsorbed the heavy
metals can be difficult, as the microorganisms may form dense biofilms or be difficult
to separate from the contaminated environment or ore deposit.
5. Limited application: The effectiveness of microbial surface adsorption for removing
heavy metals is limited by the ability of the microorganisms to adsorb specific heavy
metals. Some heavy metals, such as mercury, may not be effectively removed using this
process.
 QUESTION BANK
1. Discuss technological importance of 3D printing of human ear.
2. Discuss materials used in 3D printing of bone.
3. Write a short note on i). Electronic nose ii) Self-healing bio concrete.
4. Evaluate the advantages of bioremediation and biomining.
5. Discuss the technological importance of self-healing bio concrete.
6. Evaluate the importance of 3D printing in the food industry.
7. How Artificial intelligence can be applied in diagnosis of disease.
8. Explain DNA origami and Biocomputing.
9. Explain the importance of Bioimaging.
10. Write a note on Bioremediation and Biomining via Microbial Surface Adsorption.
11. Write a note on bioprinting materials and explain different types of bioprinting
techniques.
12. Elaborate the application and importance of 3D printing of ears. Discuss about the
materials used for the same.
13. Write the short note on electrical tongue and electrical nose.
14. Write the short note on muscular system and skeletal system as scaffolds.