X-RAYS AS ENERGY:

x-rays ⭬ type of electromagnetic radiation (EMR)*

*EMR – radiation that has both electrical & magnetic

properties

⭬WAVES ⭬ because they move in waves that have

wavelength & frequency
An x-ray photon can be visualized as two
perpendicular sine waves traveling in straight line
at the speed of light.
One of the sine waves represents an electric field &
the other a magnetic field.
amplitu
de

These 3 sine waves have different

wavelengths.
The shorter the wavelength , the
higher the frequency.
 Three wave parameters:
1. velocity
fully describe
2. frequency fully describe a phenomenon
a
of EMR
phenomenon
3. wavelength
of
- wavelength (λ) – distance between 2 successive crestsEMR
or
λ- troughs
lambda - unit is in angstroms (Å)
- x-rays used in radiography range from
about 0.1 to 1.0 Å ⭬ 1Å = 10 m

- frequency ( ν/f) – represents the number of waves passing a

given point per given unit of time
ν-
- unit is in Hertz (Hz)
velocity
⭬ 1Hz= 1cps
- x-rays used in radiography range in frequency
from about 3x1019 – 3x1018

⭬wavelength & frequency are inversely related ⭬ if one

increases, the other decreases
- velocity of all EMR ⭬ 3x108m/sec 186,000miles/s in vacuum
- - EMW equation

where: c - speed of light (3x108)

λ- wavelength
ν or f – frequency

The highest energy x-ray produced at 100kVp (100keV)

has a frequency of 2.42x1019 Hz. What is its wavelength?
TERMINOLOGY FOR
RADIOLOGY:
NUMERIC PREFIXES
The electromagnetic spectrum extends over more than 25 orde
magnitude.
 - x-rays also behave like particles and move as photons* or
quanta (plural)
* photon or quantum(singular) – small, discrete
bundle of energy

⭬ energy of individual photon is measured in units of

electron volts (eV)
- x-ray energy ranges approx. 10keV to 50MeV
- λ is approx. 10-10 to 10-14
- ν is 1018 to 1022Hz

- Planck’s Quantum Equation where: E – photon energy

h – Planck’s constant
E=hν or E=hc/λ
(numerical value of
or
4.13570x10-15eV-s or
E(keV)=12.4/λ
6.62607x10-34J-s )
or ν= E/h
⭬ 12.4 when the unit of
energy is keV & wavelength is in
Angstrom
ν or f - photon frequency in Hz
What is the frequency of a 70keV x-ray?

What is the photon energy of an x-ray w/ a wavelength of

0.124Å ?
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS:

-invisible

- electrically neutral – cannot be accelerated or made to

change direction by a magnet or
electric field

- no mass – no resistance to being put to motion &

cannot produce force

- travel at the speed of light in a vacuum – move at a

constant velocity of 3x108m/s or 186,000miles/s
in vacuum

- cannot be optically focused – optical lenses have no

ability in focusing or refracting x-
ray photons
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS: ……
- form a polyenergetic or heterogeneous beam –
different energies (kVp)

- can be produced in a range of energies – medically

useful of x-ray energies extends from 20 to
150kVp

- travel in straight lines

- can cause some substances to fluoresce

- cause chemical changes in radiographic &

photographic film

- can penetrate the human body

- can produce secondary radiation

- cause damage to living tissue

Control
Console/Panel
X-RAY PRODUCTION :
- requires a rapidly moving stream of electrons that
are suddenly decelerated or stopped

- source of electrons is the cathode

- electrons are stopped or decelerated by the anode

- electrons move between the cathode & anode because

there is a difference in charge between the electrodes
November 8, 1895: Roentgen's Discovery of X-Rays
 tube x-ray tube
cabl stand
e

vertic
al
gridde
d
cassett
e
holde
r

cassette collimator/beam
x-ray
tray restricting device
table
X-ray Tube

- made of thin Pyrex glass & metal enclosure to w/

stand high heat load & minimize x-ray absorption
- it is gas evacuated
⭬ in order to prevent the electrons to collide w/
the air molecules in the tube
- most important component of the radiographic system
⭬ part that produces x-rays
X-ray Tube
……
X-ray Tube
……
X-ray Tube
……
Protective Housing
- made of lead & steel
- when x-rays are produced, they are emitted isotopically

- we only use x-rays emitted through the window or port

⭬ useful or primary beam
- some tubes contain oil that serves as insulator against electric
shock & as a thermal cushion
⭬ dissipate heat
- some protective housing has a cooling fan to air-cool the tube
& oil
Internal Components:
⬧ cathode – negatively charged electrode
- primary parts ⭬ filament & a focusing cup
Internal Components---- X-ray tube…..

- filament ⭬ coiled thoriated tungsten wire

⭬ high thermionic emission
- melting point is 3410⭬C
- does not vaporize easily

Thermionic emission is the ⭬ addition of 1 – 2% thorium increases

emission efficiency of thermionic
emission
of electrons from &
a heated prolong tube life
metal
(cathode).
Internal Components---- X-ray
tube…..
- approx. 2mm in diameter & 1 to 2cm long
- emits electrons when heated
⭬ when current through filament is
sufficiently high, outer-shell electrons
of filament atoms are “boiled off”
& ejected of at the filament ⭬
thermionic emission
- dual focus tube ⭬ 2 focal spots : large & small
filaments
⭬ small focal spot – used for
better *spatial resolution
*spatial resolution – refers to the
smallest detail that can
be detected in an image
- ranges from 0.1 to 0.5mm

⭬ large focal spot – used when technical

factors that produce high
heat are required
- ranges from 0.4 to 1.2mm
spatial
resolution
spatial resolution
spatial resolution
X-ray Tube
……

- focusing cup⭬ made of nickel & nearly

surrounds the filament

⭬ where filament is embedded

- negatively charged wherein it confines the

electron beam to a small area of the
anode
⭬ effectiveness is determined by its:
- size & shape
- charge
- filament size
- shape
- position of filament in the
focusing cup
W/o focusing cup,
the
electron beam is
spread
beyond the anode
because of mutual
electrostatic
repulsion
among the
electrons.

W/ a focusing cup, w/c is

negatively charged, the
electron beam is
condensed & directed
to the target.
X-ray Tube ……Internal
Components: …..
 - stationary anode – target consists of tungsten alloy
metal embedded in the copper
anode

- rotating anode – made of tungsten alloy

⭬ alloy used ⭬ rhenium
⭬ added
mechanical strength to
w/stand the stresses
of high-speed rotation

mammography ⭬ molybdenum or
rhodium
X-ray Tube ……Internal Components: …..
FUNCTION :
- receives electrons emitted by the cathode &
conducts them through the tube to
connecting cables & back to the high-voltage
generator
- provides mechanical support for the target
- good thermal dissipater
⭬ when projectile electrons from the
cathode interact w/ the anode, more
than 99% of their kinetic energy is
converted into heat
⭬ this heat must be
dissipated quickly

- common anode materials ⭬ copper

- molybdenum
- graphite
- target (actual focal spot) ⭬ area of anode struck by the
electrons from the cathode
- tungsten material is the material choice because of its:
⭬ atomic number – high , 74, resulting from high
efficiency of x-ray production &
high energy x-rays

⭬thermal conductivity – nearly equal to that of copper

- efficient metal for dissipating heat
produced

⭬ high melting point – 3400°C

- can withstand up under high tube
current w/o pitting or bubbling

ROTATING ANODE
- allows the electron beam to interact w/
much larger area
- RPM ⭬ 3400 revolutions per minute
(rpm)
LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE (Göetze Principle)
- describes how electrons interact w/ anode
& change direction
- describes the relationship between the
actual and effective focal spots in the x-
ray tube
- the phenomenon that results in the
difference between the size & shape of
the actual focal spot* and the effective
focal spot** caused by the angle of the
target of an x-ray tube

* actual (apparent) focal spot (AFS) – size of

the area of the anode target that is
exposed to electrons from the tube
current
- depends on the size of the filament
producing the electron stream
** effective focal spot (EFS) – focal spot
size as measured directly under the
anode target

- advantage⭬ improves spatial resolution of x-

ray beam & heat capacity of
the anode
The line-focus principle allows high
anode heating w/ small effective
focal spots.
As the target angle decreases, so doe
the effective focal spot size.

Some targets have two (2)

angles to produce two
focal spots.
⭬ anode angle & effective focal spot
⭬ 7-20°
- the amount of anode angle determines the size of the
EFS
- the smaller the angle, the smaller the EFS size

effective focal length = actual focal

length (sinθ )

The actual anode focal area for a 20° anode

angle is 4mm (length) x 1.2mm (width). What
is the projected focal spot size at the central
axis?
HEEL EFFECT
- unfortunate consequence of line focus principle
- radiation intensity on the cathode side of the x-ray
beam is higher than on the anode side ⭬ x-rays are
more intense on the cathode
side of the tube
- intensity of x-rays decreases
toward the
anode side
- generally the smaller the anode angle, the larger the
heel effect
- in general, positioning the cathode side of the x-ray
tube over the thickest part of the anatomy provides
more uniform optical density (OD) on the film
- effective focal spot is smaller on the anode side of the
beam than on the cathode side
Image taken w/ cathode Image taken w/ the anode side
side (up) superior anode up w/ cathode side positioned
side down ( inferior) the thicker side (inferior)
IMPROPER PROPER
The effective focal
spot changes size
& shape across
the
projected x-ray
field
Focal Spot Size Variation
Extrafocal Radiation (off-focus)
- result from electrons interacting
outside
the focal spot
- this caused x-rays to be
produced outside the focal spot
- undesirable because it extends
the size of the focal spot, increases
patient dose & reduced image
contrast