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The Emperor and the Army in the
Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395

With The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395 Mark
Hebblewhite offers the first study solely dedicated to examining the nature of the
relationship between the emperor and his army in the politically and militarily
volatile later Roman Empire. Bringing together a wide range of available liter-
ary, epigraphic and numismatic evidence, he demonstrates that emperors of the
period considered the army to be the key institution they had to mollify in order
to retain power, so they consequently employed a range of strategies to keep the
troops loyal to their cause. Key to these efforts were imperial attempts to project
the emperor as a worthy general (imperator) and a generous provider of military
pay and benefits. Also important were the honorific and symbolic gestures each
emperor made to the army in order to convince them that they and the empire
could prosper only under his rule.

Mark Hebblewhite completed his PhD at Macquarie University, Australia, in

2012 and has taught widely in the field of Ancient History. His research interests
centre on the ideology and politics of the later Roman Empire, with particular
reference to the role of the army. He is currently an Adjunct Associate Lecturer at
the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
The Emperor and the Army
in the Later Roman Empire,
AD 235–395

Mark Hebblewhite
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2017 Mark Hebblewhite
The right of Mark Hebblewhite to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-4724-5759-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-61601-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

List of figuresvi
Preface x
Selected Roman emperors and usurpers, 235–395 xii
Abbreviations xiv

Introduction 1

1 Dawn of the warrior-emperor 8

2 Advertising military success 33

3 Praemia militiae 71

4 The emperor, the law and disciplina militaris 120

5 Rituals of identity 140

6 Symbols of power 180

Conclusion 215

Bibliography 219
Index 233
Figures

1.1 PHILIP II 13

(obv) M IVL PHILIPPVS CAES, bare-headed and draped,
bust right.
(rev) PRINCIPI IUVENT. S.C. Philip II, in military dress, stg.
R., holding transverse spear and globe. (RIC IV.iii.: n. 255a)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com.
1.2 PHILIP I and II 15
(obv) IMP PHILIPPVS AVG, radiate, draped and cuirassed,
bust right.
(rev) VIRTUS AUGG Philip I and II on horses galloping
r., each raising r. hand, one holding a spear.
(RIC IV.iii.: n. 10)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com.
1.3 CONSTANTIUS II 17
(obv) FL IVL CONSTANTIVS NOB C, laureate, draped and
cuirassed, bust left.
(rev) VIRTVS-CAESS, campgate, five layers, four turrets, open
doors with panels marked by transverse lines or dots. (RIC
VII: Arles, n. 297)
Credit: With permission of Wildwinds.com for deamoneta.com.
2.1 AURELIAN 35
(obv) IMP AURELIANUS AUG laureate, cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) VIRTUS AUG – Mars walking r., holding spear and
trophy. (RIC V.i.: n. 1)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Steve Santore.
2.2 GALLIENUS 36
(obv) GALLIENVS P F AVG, radiate, cuirassed, bust left,
holding spear over shoulder and shield on left arm.
(rev) VIRT GALLIENI AUG – Emp. walking r., treading down
enemy. (RIC V.i.: n. 54)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com.
 Figures vii
2.3 FLORIANUS 37
(obv) IMP C M ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVG, radiate, draped
and cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) VICTORIA PERPET VA AVG, Victory standing right,
holding palm branch and handing wreath to Florianus
standing left, holding scepter.
Credit: Image courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc.
(www.cngcoins.com).
2.4 GALLIENUS 38
(obv) GALLIENVS P F AVG, radiate and cuirassed,
bust right.
(rev) GERMANICUS MAX V – Trophy between two captives.
(RIC V.i.: n. 18)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Steve Santore.
2.5 AURELIAN 40
(obv) IMP C AURELIANUS AUG – Laureate, draped and
cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) PM T BP VII COS II PP, Mars advancing right, holding
spear and trophy. (RIC V.i.: n. 16)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Bank Leu AG.
2.6 PROBUS 41
(obv) VIRTUS PROBI AUG – Radiate, helmeted, cuirassed,
bust left, holding spear and shield.
(rev) VIRTVS AVG, Soldier standing left holding Victory and
spear, resting hand on shield. (RIC V.ii.: n. 437)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for
deamoneta.com.
2.7 CONSTANTINE 45
(obv) CONSTANTI NVS P F AVG, laureate, bust right.
(rev) VICTOR OMNIUM GENTIUM – Emperor in military
dress, stg. l., holding standard, shield set on ground; in front
of him, two suppliants; behind, captive std. on ground. (RIC
VII: Trier, n. 27)
Source: Image courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc.
(www.cngcoins.com).
2.8 MAGNENTIUS 47
(obv) IM CAE MAGN-ENTIVS AVG, bare-headed, draped and
cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) FEL TEMP-REPARATIO, emperor standing left on galley,
holding Victory and Labarum, Victory seated at the helm.
(RIC VIII: n. 260)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Roma
Numismatics.
viii Figures
2.9 VALENS 48
(obv) DN VALENS PERF AVG, diademed, draped and
cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) RESTITUTOR-REIPUBLICAE – Emperor stg. facing,
head r., holding Labarum and Victory with cross. (RIC IX:
Antioch, n. 2)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Numismatica
Ars Classica.
5.1 TACITUS 151
(obv) IMP C M CL TACITVS P F AVG, laureate, cuirassed, bust
left, with aegis, holding Victory with trophy and parazonium.
(rev) ADLOCVTIO TACITI AVG, Tacitus in military dress,
standing right on low dais, raising hand, being crowned by
Victory, standing behind him holding palm branch; before the
dais, an officer standing right, facing five soldiers standing
left, saluting the emperor; vexillum, legionary eagle and
standard in background. (Gnecchi II, 2)
Source: With permission of wildwinds.com for Numismatik
Lanz, Munich.
5.2 GALERIUS ADLOCUTIO SCENE – ARCH OF GALERIUS
(South pier, east face) 155
Credit: Image courtesy of Bill Leadbetter.
6.1 VALENTINIAN 1 188
(obv) DN VALENTINIANVS PF AVG, pearl-diademed, draped
and cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) RESITITVTOR REIPVBLICAE, Emperor standing
facing, head right, holding Victory on globe and Labarum.
(RIC IX: Antioch, 2a)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Numismatica
Ars Classica.
6.2 GALLIENUS 194
(rev) LEG 1 ADI VI.P.VI.F (RIC V.I.: n. 315)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com.
6.3 GORDIAN III 198
(obv) IMP CAES M ANT GORDIANVS AVG, laureate, draped
and cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) FIDES MILITVM, S C across field, Fides standing left,
holding standard and sceptre. (RIC IV: 254a)
Credit: Image courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc.
(www.cngcoins.com).
6.4 QUINTILLUS 199
(obv) IMP C M AVR QVINTILLVS AVG, laureate, draped and
cuirassed, bust right.
 Figures ix
(rev) FIDES EXERCITI – Fides stg. l., holding two standards.
(Calico 3968)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Freeman and Sear.
6.5 DIOCLETIAN 203
(obv) DIOCLETIANVS AVG, laureate, bust right.
(rev) VIRTUS-MILITUM – Three-turreted camp-gate, open; no
doors. (RIC VI: Antioch, n. 37a)
Credit: With permission of wildwinds.com for Freeman and Sear.
6.6 CONSTANTINE 204
(obv) CONSTANTI NVS MAX AVG, laureate (with rosettes),
draped and cuirassed, bust right.
(rev) GLOR-IA EXERCITUS – GLORIA EXERCITVS, two
soldiers, each holding reversed spear and resting on shield,
flanking two standards. (RIC VII: Antioch, n. 86)
Credit: Image courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc.
(www.cngcoins.com).
Preface

This book began life as my dissertation, which I completed as a student at Mac-

quarie University, Australia, in 2012. Given my career as a political advisor, I had
originally thought to look at the civilian advisors of the very misunderstood Con-
stantius II. However, my longstanding love of the Roman army kept drawing me
away. I quickly came to the conclusion that no other institution within the Roman
Empire was as inherently political as the Roman army. Added to this was a pre-
dilection, dating from my undergraduate days, for both the chaotic years of the
third-century crisis and the remarkable period of transformation that occurred in
the following century. It became clear to me that the role of the army in imperial
politics was clearest during this diverse epoch.
At its heart this is a book about power and the exercise of power. Some will
find my thesis of the Roman army as a towering goliath determining the course of
imperial history as overly simplistic. What of the Senate? What of the aristocracy
or, for that matter, religious leaders and even the urban plebs in any number of cit-
ies across the empire? While it is true that the emperor did have to appease numer-
ous interest groups in the empire to stay in power, there was simply no institution
as important to him as the army. Its influence on political power was immediate,
overwhelming and final. An emperor could withstand a discontented Senate or an
angry citizenry, but he was helpless in the face of an army that was determined to
end his rule. Even a relatively small section of this huge institution could impact
the course of imperial politics in a far more decisive way than its civilian or reli-
gious counterparts could ever hope to.
That no one has yet attempted to write a dedicated monograph on the influence
of the army on imperial politics during the period 235–395, and more importantly
on how the emperor attempted to come to grips with this power, continues to
surprise me. But while there is clearly room for this book, I make no claim that it
will be the final word on the subject. In fact, I hope it inspires a renewed interest in
unravelling the most important relationship an emperor entered into upon taking
the throne: the one with his army.
I would not have been able to complete this book without help from many peo-
ple. My colleagues, Dr Peter Brennan, Associate Professor Ted Nixon, Dr Peter
Edwell, Dr Christopher Matthew and Dr Jeroen Wijnendaele, all proved them-
selves to be indispensible sounding boards who not only greatly assisted me in
 Preface xi
sharpening my arguments but who also saved me from many inconsistencies and
outright errors. Any remaining errors in this book remain mine alone. In under-
taking this journey I was very fortunate in my commissioning editor, Michael
Greenwood. His patience and professionalism made a necessarily long process far
less stressful than it may have otherwise been.
My family has offered me unflinching support while I completed this book.
I would like to thank my mother, Frances Hebblewhite, and my parents-in-law,
Gail and Len Willan, for their encouragement through a long and sometimes tax-
ing journey. My father, Ken Hebblewhite, passed away while I was still complet-
ing the thesis that would eventually become this book. He sparked my love of
history many, many years ago, and I’m sure he would have enjoyed seeing the
fruits of the seed he planted. Finally, this book is dedicated to my partner Melissa
Willan and my son Tobias Hebblewhite. It goes without saying that I was only
able to complete this project with their love, support and encouragement. I remain
forever indebted to both of them.
Finally, I owe a great debt to the musical artists who provided the soundtrack
to the very solitary task of writing and editing. The dulcet tones of Slayer, Iron
Maiden, Judas Priest, Motörhead, Public Enemy, Bad Religion and of course the
mighty Black Sabbath were my constant companions as I completed this book.
Given the turmoil, war and horror of their age, I would like to think that the
emperors I have examined here would have found these apocalyptic sounds more
than appropriate for their often grim endeavours.
Selected Roman emperors
and usurpers, 235–395

The following list includes the names and dates of selected emperors and usurpers
from the period AD 235–395 who have been referred to in this book.

Maximinus Thrax 235–238

Balbinus and Pupienus 238
Gordian III 238–244
Philip (the Arab) 244–249
Decius 249–251
Trebonianus Gallus 251–253
Valerian 253–260
Gallienus 253–268
Postumus (Western Empire) 260–269
Claudius (Gothicus) 268–270
Quintillus 270
Aurelian 270–275
Tacitus 275–276
Florianus 276
Probus 276–282
Carus, Carinus and Numerian 282–285
Diocletian 284–305
Maximian 286–305
Constantius 1 293–306
Galerius 293–311
Maximin Daia 305–312
Severus 305–307
Maxentius 306–312
Licinius 308–324
Constantine 1 306–337
Constantine II 337–340
Constans 337–350
Constantius II 337–361
Magnentius 350–353
Julian 361–363
 Selected Roman emperors and usurpers, 235–395 xiii
Jovian 363–364
Valentinian 1 364–375
Valens 364–378
Procopius 365–366
Gratian 375–383
Magnus Maximus 383–388
Valentinian II 375–392
Theodosius 1 379–395
Abbreviations

Abbreviations of ancient texts and authors follow those listed between

pp. 1464–1476 of Jones, A.H.M (1964) The Later Roman Empire, Vol. 2.
Baltimore. Those not contained in Jones follow the abbreviations set out in
Hornblower, S., Spawforth, S. and A., (eds.) (1996) The Oxford Classical Dic-
tionary, 3rd edn. Oxford.
For collections of papyri, standard abbreviations are used, as listed in the Duke
University Checklist of Greek, Latin, Demotic and Coptic Papyri, Ostraca and
Tablets: <http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/texts/clist.html>.

AE Le Anneé epigraphique (Paris 1893 –).

ANRW Aufstieg und Neidergang der römischen Welt.
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (eds.) Th. Mommsen et al., (Berlin
1863–).
CJ P. Krueger (ed.), Codex Iustinianus; Corpus Iuris Civilis vol 2, (Berlin,
1877).
CTh. Theodosian Code. (ed.) Th. Mommsen, (Berlin, 1954); (tr.) C. Pharr
(Princeton, 1952).
Dig. Digesta seu Pandectae.
DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers.
FIRA Fontes iuris Romani anteiustiniani, (eds.) S. Riccobono et al., (2nd edn.,
3 vols, Florence, 1940–1943).
HTR Harvard Theological Review.
ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, (ed.) H. Dessau. (Berlin 1892–1916).
JRMES Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies.
JRS Journal of Roman Studies.
LCL Loeb Classical Library.
NC Numismatic Chronicle.
NPNCF Nicene and Post Nicene Christian Fathers.
PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome.
PLRE Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, (ed.) J. Martindale (Cam-
bridge, 1971–1992).
RAC Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum.
 Abbreviations xv
RE Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart,
1893–).
RIC Roman Imperial Coinage.
SC Sources chrétiennes.
TTH Translated Texts for Historians (Liverpool).
ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.
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