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 Republican Rome,
the Army and the Allies
 Emilio Gabba

REPUBLICAN
ROME, THE ARMY
AND THE ALLIES
Translated by P.J. Cuff

U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A P R E S S
Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976
 UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
Berkeley and Los Angeles,
California
ISBN 0-520-03259-4
Library of Congress
Catalog Card No. 76-14307

© Basil Blackwell igyG

Translated by arrangement from
Esercito e società nella tarda Repubblica Romana
© Nuova Italia Editrice 1973

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher

Set in Castellar (display)

and Monotype Fournier {text)
Made and printed in Great Britain by
Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Ltd
Bungay, Suffolk
 Contents

Preface vii
I The Origins of the Professional
Army at Rome i
II The Roman Professional Army
from Marius to Augustus 20
III The Origins of the Social War
and Roman Politics after 89 BC 70
IV M. Livius Drusus and Sulla's Reforms 131
V The Equestrian Class and Sulla's Reforms 142
VI The lex Plotia agraria 151
VII Review of Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy 154
VIII Review of Badian, Foreign Clientelae 162
Notes 171
Index 263
Index of Passages 268
 Preface

The school of Ancient History which flourished in the University of Pavia

after the last war and which was bred and nurtured by Professor Fraccaro,
needs no introduction. From this small town in northern Italy which had
already made a substantial contribution to learning in the past (to mention
only Alessandro Volta) there came a stream of papers on ancient history
which gave fresh illumination to old problems and unique insight into new
ones; the work of (Prof.) G. Tibiletti on the newly-discovered Tabula
Hebana (Athenaeum N.S. X X V I I 1949, 210 f.) was matched by his re-
examination of the problems of Republican agrarian politics (Athenaeum
N.S. X X V I 1 9 4 8 , 1 7 3 f.; ibid. XXVII1949, 3 f.; ibid. X X V I I I 1 9 5 0 , 1 8 3 f.)
and of the repetundae courts (.Athenaeum N.S. X X X I 1 9 5 3 , 5 f.). Each article
is an original and lasting contribution to the study of Roman History.
To this school (Prof.) Gabba had the honour to belong. His work, like
that of his contemporary Tibiletti, immediately displayed that quality of
freshness and originality which distinguishes the best in scholarship. Gabba
would be the first to attribute any talent he may possess to the guidance of
his teacher Fraccaro, but as one who was fortunate enough to be present in
Pavia soon after the papers began to appear I can testify that the bulk of his
achievement is none other than the product of his own flair for sensitive
judgement, disciplined imagination and clear argument.
Gabba's articles have recently been collected in Esercito e Società nella
tarda repubblica romana (Florence 1973) and I have selected the most
important of them for translation. His earliest inquiry was into the Roman
army of the Republic. The first article which appears in this translation ('The
origins of the professional army at Rome . . .') sets out to show how the
vii
viii Preface
so-called reform of Marius in 107 BC was no more than the last stage in a
process which had been going on for over a hundred years and was therefore
in itself worthy of little remark; it was later propaganda which set out to
paint Marius' levy of that year in sombre colours.
The purpose of the next article ('The Roman Professional Army from
Marius to Augustus') is to describe the significance of that force in the
political history of the last century of the Roman Republic, concentrating in
particular on its role as a medium for the advancement of the lower classes
of Italy to important posts in the state's service, and on the problem of the
veterans.
This important contribution to Republican history (and in particular to
the analysis of the origins of the Principate) was soon followed by a sub-
stantial but more controversial essay on the Social War ('The Origins of the
Social W a r . . . ' ) . Here Gabba examines the causes of that war and sets it in
the political context of the period, relying principally on the account to be
found in Appian. The second part of the article deals with Sertorius and his
struggle in Spain.
These are the major works I have translated. In addition I have included
the article on 'M. Livius Drusus and Sulla's Reforms', which analyses the
programme of the tribune of 91 BC and draws an interesting parallel between
his policy and that of Sulla (it also contains some useful commentary on
Cicero's pro Sex. Roseto Amerind)', also 'The Equestrian Class and Sulla's
Senate', which is concerned with problems of recruitment to the Senate and
with Sulla's attitude to the Equites; and finally 'The lex Plotia agraria, a
valuable note on the provisions made for Pompey's Spanish veterans. The
collection is completed by two reviews, both of classics (Toynbee's
Hannibal's Legacy and Badian's Foreign Clientelae) and both in their own
way excellent examples of the author's ability to criticize sympathetically and
constructively in the best tradition of review-discussions. They are, in my
view, outstanding among all the assessments of these two works which have
appeared.
I hope that this translation will be of service to those students of Roman
history who do not read Italian but who wish to supplement their reading of
standard English interpretations by recourse to works which have made a
considerable impact on world scholarship and which should continue to be
basic studies for many years to come. The text I have used is that in Esercito
e Società, which has incorporated some useful amendments and additions to
the original articles. Its page numbers are set in italic figures within brackets,
in the headlines of this book. Where an article has appeared in Esercito e
Società and has not been translated by me, I have given full references.
Square brackets in the translation indicate my own addenda. All notes are to
be found on p. 171 ff.
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 Preface ix
There are debts to acknowledge. I am grateful to Professor E. Badian
who made some useful comments. My University and my College gave me
the leave which enabled me to write this translation and financial assistance
which helped me to make it suitable for publication. The University of
Western Australia, where most of it was written, provided that quiet
hospitality which it is no longer easy to find in the northern hemisphere.
I am indebted to my colleague, Mr. G. W. Bond, who read the proofs and to
Miss S. Robb who did most of the typing. The debit side of my personal
account with my wife and family has substantially increased during the last
eighteen months. But my principal obligation - and it is a very substantial
one - is to Mr. M. W. Frederiksen and Mrs. Ursula Hall (formerly Ewins);
the former has read most, and the latter all, of the translation. Without their
generosity, their unfailing ear for the Italian language and their sensitive
appreciation of Professor Gabba's thought, this book would not have been
possible.
The memorial which follows comes from both the author of Esercito e
Società and his translator.

Pembroke College, Oxford P . J . CUFF

September i9j5
PLINIO FRACCARO
H. M. LAST
ABSENTES ADSUNT
 {pp. 1-2)

I
The Origins of the
Professional Army at Rome:
the 'proletarii' and
Marius' reform*

My object in this inquiry is to investigate Marius' reform of the levy in

107 BC and to assess how far it was responsible for that proletarian character
of the Roman legions which is the basis of the professional armies of the first
century BC. Without wishing to belittle the importance of the 107 dilectus
both for Roman military history and, more crucially, for the crisis which
overtook the Republican system, I think my study shows that the new type
of enrolment practised by Marius was only the final stage of a process which
had lasted for a century and which had led to the entry of more and more
proletarii into the Roman citizen militia. This process can, at least in part, be
reconstructed by a careful examination of the progressive reductions which
were made in the census minimum qualification of the fifth class in the
'Servian' system.
As a result, the dilectus of 107, as Delbrück had already tentatively sur-
mised, takes on a meaning somewhat different from that which has been
commonly accepted, and seems less of a revolution or an innovation. Hence
it becomes necessary to re-examine both its actual significance and the re-
actions it produced in the contemporary political scene. This reassessment
will involve inter alia a rejection of the view which sees 'social' significance
in the Marian levy although this is the interpretation which almost every
source offers us.
I do not, in fact, intend here to reconsider the professionalism of the
proletarian army and its political consequences which gave rise to the pos-
thumous attacks by the oligarchy on Marius' dilectus. I shall try only to show
1
2 (pp. 2—4) Origins of the Professional Army
how the professional army, whose birth modern scholars usually date to
107 BC, had origins of another kind, more complex and more remote.
In order that what follows may be the more easily understood, it is worth
summarizing the principles on which the Roman military system was tased
down to the end of the second century BC, even if they are to a large extent
familiar.
The citizen militia originated in the so-called 'Servian' constitution; under
this system legionary service was compulsory for citizen adsidui, those en-
rolled in the five classes into which the Roman people was divided according
to census qualifications. The first three classes supplied soldiers of heavy
armour, the last two those of light armour. All the citizens had to arm them-
selves at their own expense.
However, those who did not belong to the five classes, that is to say, those
who could not declare to the censors the minimum census qualification for
enrolment in the fifth class, were excluded from military service. This was
not because they were under no obligation to serve (all citizens had a duty
to share in the defence of the state) but because they were in practice ex-
empted from service as they lacked the means to provide arms. These
citizens were called proletarii or capite censi.1
However, even these did military service at times of especial danger, and
on these occasions they were armed at public expense and served in non-
regular units, quite separate from the legionary order of battle.

II
The proletarii and the citizen militia before 10 j BC

I . THE MINIMUM CENSUS Q U A L I F I C A T I O N

OF THE F I F T H ' S E R V I A N ' C L A S S

First some chronological points concerning the census qualifications of the

'Servian' system.
It is not possible to say with certainty in what period the census figures
which are preserved for us as Servian were actually in force in view of the
fact that, expressed as they are in sextantal asses,2 they share the uncertainty
which attends the origin of the silver denarius, itself intimately connected
with the sextantal as.
It is, however, undeniable that the figures were already in force during the
Second Punic War, for some of them are found in the well-known S.C.
dealing with the fitting-out of the fleet for Sicily in 214 BC.3 The figures
which the S.C. records are not explicable unless they are treated as expressed
in sextantal asses, and therefore we should reject the view of Mattingly who,
in line with his own dating of the silver denarius to 187 BC,4 has sought to
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