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ITS CHARACTERISTICS & COMMONALITY
Slavery in the Islamic World
 Mary Ann Fay
Editor

Slavery in the Islamic

World
Its Characteristics and Commonality
Editor
Mary Ann Fay
Morgan State University
Baltimore, MD, USA

ISBN 978-1-349-95354-7    ISBN 978-1-137-59755-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59755-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018955710

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover image © syolacan

Cover design: Tjaša Krivec

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
America, Inc.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A.
 Acknowledgements

This collection of scholarly articles on slavery and Islam was made pos-
sible by the authors who committed themselves to this project in spite
of some bumps and setbacks along the way. Various authors of the vol-
ume, in addition to working on their own chapters, brought with them
images that have now been incorporated into the texts. I would also like
to acknowledge the reviewer who gave the anthology a valuable assess-
ment that encouraged me as the editor to move forward. I am also grate-
ful for the translation of Professor Helen Harrison of the text in French
of Professor Sarga Moussa’s chapter that added so much to the volume.
Thanks also to Katelyn Zingg and Mary Fata, whose capable editing
brought this project to completion. Finally, this collection of chapters
would not have been possible without the constant encouragement and
assistance of my husband, John Willoughby and our son Zack.

v
 Contents

1 Introduction: What Is Islamic About Slavery in the

Islamic World?   1
Mary Ann Fay

2 “What Is Islamic About Slavery in Muslim Societies?”

Cooper, Concubinage and Contemporary Legacies of
‘Islamic Slavery’ in North, West and East Africa   7
E. Ann McDougall

3 Reading the Hidden History of the Cape: Islam and

Slavery in the Making of Race and Sex in South Africa  37
Gabeba Baderoon

4 French and English Orientalisms and the Study of Slavery

and Abolition in North Africa and the Middle East: What
Are the Connections?  51
Diane Robinson-Dunn

5 The Figure of the Eunuch in the Lettres persanes:

Re-evaluation and Resistance  75
Sarga Moussa

vii
viii Contents

6 Gender, Race and Slavery in the Mamluk Households of

Eighteenth-Century Egypt  91
Mary Ann Fay

7 Africans in the Palace: The Testimony of Taj al-Saltana

Qajar from the Royal Harem in Iran 101
Anthony A. Lee

8 Encountering Domestic Slavery: A Narrative from the

Arabian Gulf 125
Rima Sabban

9 “Tyran[n]ical Masters Are the Turks”: The Comparative

Context of Barbary Slavery 155
Christine E. Sears

10 The “Slave Wife” Between Private Household and Public

Order in Colonial Algeria (1848–1906) 179
Sarah Ghabrial

Index 203
 Notes on Contributors

E. Ann McDougall is Professor of History, Department of History and

Classics, at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. Recent publica-
tions include: “Three Women of the Sahara: Fatma, Odette and Sophie”
in J. Byfield and D. Hodgson Eds., Global Africa (2017); “Colonial
labour, Tawdenni and ‘L’enfer du sel’: the struggle from slave to free
labour in a Saharan salt mine”, Labour History, 58, 2017; “‘Hidden in
Plain Sight’: haratin in Nouakchott’s urban niches”, Baz Lecoq and Eric
Haonou Eds. “Post-Slavery”, International Journal of African Historical
Studies 48:2, 2015.
Gabeba Baderoon is the author of Regarding Muslims: From Slavery to
Post-apartheid (awarded the 2017 National Institute for the Humanities
and Social Sciences Best Non-fiction Monograph Award) and the poetry
collections The Dream in the Next Body, A hundred silences and The History
of Intimacy. With Alicia Decker, Baderoon co-directs the African Feminist
Initiative at Pennsylvania State University, where she is an Associate
Professor of Women’s, Gender and Sexuality Studies and African Studies.
Baderoon is a member of the editorial board of the African Poetry Book
Fund. She is an Extraordinary Professor of English at Stellenbosch
University and a Fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study.
Mary Ann Fay is former Associate Professor of History in the Department
of History and Geography at Morgan State University, USA, and is the
author of Unveiling the Harem: Elite Women and the Paradox of Seclusion
in Eighteenth-Century Cairo.

ix
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Sarah Ghabrial is Assistant Professor of Law and Society with a focus

on the Global South, cross-appointed to the departments of History and
Political Science at Concordia University in Montreal. She specializes in
the history of the Maghreb and France in the modern period and is par-
ticularly interested in questions of gender, race, colonialism, pluralism and
modernity, as well as Islamic law and society. Her book manuscript in
progress is a social and gender history of the French colonial administra-
tion of Islamic “family law” in Algeria from 1870 to 1930.
Anthony A. Lee teaches African history and African-American history at
UCLA and at West Los Angeles College. His current interest is in African
slaves in Iran in the nineteenth century. His most recent publication is the
volume, edited with Awet T. Weldemichael and Edward A. Alpers,
Changing Horizons of African History (Africa World Press, 2017).
Sarga Moussa received his degree from the University of Geneva
(Switzerland) in 1993. He is Director of Research at the National Center
for Scientific Research in France and a member of the research team
THALIM (CNRS-University of Paris 3: Sorbonne Nouvelle). He is a spe-
cialist in literary Orientalism through a broad nineteenth century and
works also on the representation of slavery and the discourse of race.
He has published extensively about travellers in the Orient in French
literature, and he edited Littérature et esclavage, XVIIIe-XIXe siècles,
Paris, Desjonquères, 2010. His most recent work is entitled Le Mythe
bédouin chez les voyageurs aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles, Paris, Presses de
l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2016.
Diane Robinson-Dunn is a historian and scholar who specializes in the
British Empire, more specifically the study of transnational, cross-cultural
movements that developed in the course of imperial expansion during the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from the Near or Middle to
Far East. She received her Ph.D. from Stony Brook University and studied
Arabic at the Arabic Language Institute, The American University in
Cairo. She is Professor in the Department of History at the University of
Detroit Mercy and the author of The Harem, Slavery and British Imperial
Culture.
Rima Sabban is Associate Professor of Sociology and is currently the
Assistant Dean for Research and Graduate Studies at Zayed University.
She is the author of two books, Maids Crossing and Motherhood. She has
authored and co-authored numerous book chapters and papers on youth,
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
   xi

globalization and Gulf civil society. Sabban is a recipient of numerous

research grants, including one from the National Research Foundation
in which she worked on globalization and the transformation of the
UAE family.
Christine E. Sears is Associate Professor of History at the University of
Alabama in Huntsville, where she teaches courses in comparative slavery,
the Atlantic world, and the early American republic. Her first book,
American Slaves and African Masters (Palgrave, 2012), explores the
slaveries endured by Americans captured by Barbary pirates and ship-
wrecked in the Western Sahara. She co-edited New Directions in Slavery
Studies: Commodification, Community and Comparisons in Slave Studies
(LSU Press, 2015) and contributed an essay entitled “‘In Algiers, the
City of Bondage’: Comparative Slavery in the Urban Context,” which
challenges the notion that slavery was ill-suited to urban environments.
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 The White Slave, 1888 (oil on canvas), Lecomte du Nouÿ,
Jean-Jules-­Antoine (1842–1923)/Musée des Beaux-Arts,
Nantes, France/Bridgeman Images 58
Fig. 4.2 Sir William Allan, The Slave Market, Constantinople, National
Galleries of Scotland 60
Fig. 4.3 Jean-Leon Gérôme, The Slave Market, 1866 (Image courtesy of
the Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts, USA) 61
Fig. 4.4 Harem: After the Bath, c.1894 (color litho), Bouchard, Paul
Louis (1853–1937)/Private Collection/Photo © Fototeca
Gilardi/Bridgeman Images 62
Fig. 4.5 Adrien Tanoux, Après le Bain, 1912 © RMN-Grand Palais/Art
Resource, NY 63
Fig. 4.6 Sketch by Arthur Munby, 1828–1910 (Poem Credit: Poem by
Mohja Kahf. Reprinted with permission of the University Press
of Florida) 64
Fig. 7.1 Taj al-Saltana as a young woman, apparently taken from a
newspaper clipping. (Source: Crowning Anguish, 311) 105
Fig. 7.2 Painting of Taj al-Saltana. (Source: Crowning Anguish,
frontispiece)106
Fig. 7.3 The young E’temad al-Dowleh (later, Muzaffar al-Din Shah),
the son of Nasir al-Din Shah, surrounded by aristocratic
relatives and enslaved African women. (Source: Middle East
Eye. http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/
they-are-iranian-discovering-african-history-and-slavery-
iran-970665328)110

xiii
xiv List of Figures

Fig. 7.4 Agha Mehrab, an African Eunuch in the Harem of Nasir

al-Din Shah. (Source: Mirzai, History of Slavery, 110. From
the Golestan Palace) 112
Fig. 10.1 Ghardaia mission station. (Source: AGMAfr—Archives
Générales des Missionnaires d’Afrique—Photothèque. Rome.
Italie, 2010) 191
Fig. 10.2 White Sisters with néophytes. (Source: AGMAfr—Archives
Générales des Missionnaires d’Afrique—Photothèque. Rome.
Italie, 2010) 191
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: What Is Islamic About Slavery

in the Islamic World?

Mary Ann Fay

Scholars of slavery in the Islamic world of the Middle East and North
Africa arrived as late-comers to the field of slavery studies and have, there-
fore, inherited a large body of research with various approaches to the
subject that have informed the study of slavery in the Islamic world. One
of the goals for this collection is to determine where slavery in the Islamic
world fits within the global history of slavery and the various models that
have been developed to analyze it. To that end, the proposed volume will
also focus on a question about Islamic slavery that has frequently been
asked but not answered satisfactorily, namely, what is Islamic about slavery
in the Islamic world. Another goal is to contribute to the scholarly research
on slavery in the Islamic lands, which continues to be understudied and
under-represented in global slavery studies.
The nine authors in this proposed volume come from various fields
including history, sociology, literature, women’s studies, African studies
and comparative slavery studies. The authors use various methodologies
for analytical purposes including gender, race and sexuality that are
grounded in the specificities of the historical context. The geography of

M. A. Fay (*)
Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, USA

© The Author(s) 2019 1

M. A. Fay (ed.), Slavery in the Islamic World,
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59755-7_1
2 M. A. FAY

slavery in the proposed volume encompasses the Middle East and North
Africa as well as East and West Africa, the Indian Ocean and Cape Town,
South Africa. Before discussing the content of the proposed volume, I
want to comment briefly on the various approaches to the study of slavery
and critique their usefulness for studies of Islamic slavery.
Until fairly recently, the paradigm for global slavery—the acquisition of
slaves, their treatment in captivity, the relationship between the slaves and
their master and the slaves and the law—was based on Atlantic or New
World slavery. In his exhaustive 1982 study of slavery from the ancient world
to the nineteenth century, Orlando Patterson created a model for slavery
based on what he described as the “social death” of the slave. According to
Patterson, slavery was based on the most extreme form of domination exer-
cised by the master and the total powerlessness of the slave. The result was
the “total alienation and deracination” of the slave. A slave “ceased to belong
to any legitimate social order.” Thus, “slaves were isolated from the social
heritage of their ancestors,” and “not allowed freely to integrate the experi-
ence of their ancestors into their lives, to inform their understanding of
social reality with the inherited meanings of their natural forebears, or to
anchor the living present in any conscious community of memory.”
Patterson’s study was challenged by scholars who rejected the concept
of a universal model of slavery as practiced in the West and also of the
alleged “social death” of slaves. The scholars contributing to this volume,
while refraining from describing any form of slavery as “benign,” note that
the humanity of slaves could be preserved in various ways including the
regulation of slavery by the law, the community consensus on how slaves
should be treated, and the particular way that household slavery endowed
the enslaved—in particular eunuchs and concubines—with agency and
even authority.
For most of world history, the chattel slavery of the sugar, rice and cot-
ton plantations of the Americas, the Caribbean and Brazil was regarded as
the paradigm for global slavery. However, scholars of non-Western slavery
argued that slavery as practiced in Africa, the Middle East, the Indian sub-­
continent and East and South Asia was in fact the norm and New World
slavery, the deviation. As early as 1977, Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff
proposed, based on their research, that slavery in Africa was more benign
because it did not follow the Western model.
Claire C. Klein and Martin H. Robertson’s research on sub-Saharan
African slavery showed that slaves were predominantly female although
accounts of African slavery were written as though slaves were exclusively
 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS ISLAMIC ABOUT SLAVERY IN THE ISLAMIC… 3

male. Other scholars of African slavery have noted that slavery was unlikely
to be lifelong or hereditary and have noted the importance of the
­assimilation of slaves into kin groups. Anthropologists introduced to slav-
ery studies the concept of rights in persons that conceptualize slavery on a
continuum from free person to slave.
An appropriate model or approach to slavery in Muslim societies appears
to be one that was first articulated by Moses I. Finley in 1980 in which he
made the distinction between “societies with slaves and slave societies.” Ira
Berlin in his 1998 history of slavery, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two
Centuries of Slavery in North America, elaborated on Finley’s insight by
distinguishing between a slave society and a society with slaves. According
to Berlin, the distinction was that in slave societies, slavery stood at the
center of economic production and the master-­slave relationship, which
provided the model for all social relations. In a society with slaves, the
slaves were marginal to the central productive process and slavery was just
one form of labor among many. The articles in this collection will demon-
strate that slavery in the Middle East adheres closely to the Finley-Berlin
model, that is, a society with slaves. One of the tasks of the authors in this
volume is to elucidate where and how in the Middle East, a society with
slaves had certain characteristics that defined it as Islamic.
Scholars of the Middle East and Islam were slow to develop slavery in
the Islamic lands as a field of research and to contribute to the conceptu-
alization of slavery as practiced among Muslims. Various reasons have
been given for the reluctance of Middle East scholars to engage in research
on slavery. Y. Hakan Erdem, Bernard Lewis and Murray Gordon con-
cluded that the study of slavery has been underdeveloped because of its
extreme sensitivity as a topic. Erdem has described the inattention to slav-
ery during the Ottoman period as “near-total collective amnesia” and
Gordon has charged “a conspiracy of silence” concerning Arab slavery.
This is no longer the case, and a robust corpus of scholarly literature on
slavery in the Islamic world has emerged. One of our goals for this volume
is to build on the present scholarship and continue the task of construct-
ing the field of slavery studies and Islam. The volume makes a significant
and timely contribution to Middle East and Islamic Studies, to the global
history of slavery and to the methodologies used for research. The authors
in this volume explore new ways of researching slavery that go beyond the
law and statistics to questions regarding gender and sexuality, retrieving
the voices of individual slaves and making the enslaved the subjects rather
than the objects of history. To name but a few, the approach of this volume
4 M. A. FAY

builds on the pioneering work of Terence Walz and Kenneth Cuno (eds.),
Race and Slavery in the Middle East; Madeline Zilfi, Women and Slavery in
the Late Ottoman Empire; Ehud Toledano, Slavery and Abolition in the
Ottoman Middle East; Eve M. Trout Powell, Tell This in My Memory:
Stories of Enslavement from Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Empire; and
Kecia Ali, Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam.
The nine chapters in this volume also demonstrate that slavery in the
Islamic lands was not race-based as was New World slavery where the
slaves were Black and when being Black in the American South, for exam-
ple, meant to be a slave. The enslaved males and females in the Islamic
lands came from different parts of the globe making slavery more diverse.
Europeans and Americans were captured and enslaved in North Africa and
White slaves were brought to the region from the Georgia and Circassia.
The Middle East was linked to the Indian Ocean trade by various trade
routes, which provided African slaves to Arabia, Oman, Persia and the
sheikhdoms of the Persian Gulf as well as to Egypt and North Africa.
In addition to contributing to the research on slaves and masters, the
individual authors confront and respond to a question that has been on
the fringes of scholarly inquiry concerning slavery in Middle East and
Islamic studies but that has not been answered satisfactorily: What is
Islamic about slavery in the Islamic world? Considered together, the arti-
cles problematize the existence of Islamic slavery as a distinct and coherent
system regulating and constructing the practice of slavery around the
world. Individually, the authors consider the way(s) in which Islam is a
factor in enslaving or being enslaved.
The authors engage with issues and questions such as: Is slavery in the
Islamic world a variation of slavery in Africa because it shares some of its
characteristics, such as the incorporation of slaves into households and the
fact that slavery was usually not lifelong or hereditary? Is it because it is
regulated by the law, which applies not only to free-born Muslims but also
to slaves? Is it because of the verses in the Qur’an that enjoin Muslims to
treat slaves with kindness, preserve their humanity and manumit them? Is
it Islamic because of a community consensus on how slaves should be
treated or perhaps because of the importance of slave concubines to the
reproduction of the family? These questions are addressed in various ways
by the authors in their individual chapters.
These articles demonstrate that Islam provides a universal template
which structures the slave-master relationship. The Qur’an and Islamic
law provide a framework governing treatment and manumission. The con-
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