Course Title : Applied Physics

Course Code : GER151/CSC101

Lecturer : Ms. Naila

Topic: Diffraction, Interference, Polarization

Iqra University, Islamabad

 Diffraction
❑ Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a
wave encounters an obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the
bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or aperture
into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
➢ Narrower slits lead to greater diffraction.

❑ "In phase" describes when two or more waves are synchronized, with their
peaks and troughs occurring at the same time and position. This leads to
constructive interference, where their amplitudes combine to create a stronger
wave.

❑ Principle of superposition:
when two or more waves of the same type superimposes, the resultant displacement will
be the algebraic sum of the displacements due to each individual wave. Superposition of
two waves with displacement y1 and y2 is
Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025 y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
 Interference

❑ Interference
phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower,
or the same amplitude.

Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025

 Two source interference
Young’s Interference Experiment
In 1801, Thomas Young experimentally proved that light is a wave.

A screen having two narrow slits is illuminated by monochromatic light.

Superposition of wavelets result in series of bright and dark fringes.
Bright fringes are termed as maxima and dark fringes as minima.

➢ Young’s Interference Experiment demonstrates the

wave nature of light by showing interference patterns.
Light from a single source is split into two coherent
beams using a double slit which overlap on a screen,
creating alternating bright and dark fringes due to
constructive and destructive interference, respectively,
depending on path difference between the beams.
This experiment confirms that light behaves as a wave.

Interference occurred during experiment is of two types

Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025 ➤ Constructive Interference ➤ Destructive Interference
 Two source interference/ Young’s Interference Experiment
Derivation of Equation for Maxima and Minima

▪ A plane wave of monochromatic light passes through slits S1, S2 on screen B, creating an interference pattern on screen C.
▪ Point P on screen C, at angle θ(with central axis, dotted line in fig), intercepts rays r1 from bottom slit and r2 from the top slit.
▪ Initially, the waves are ‘in phase’ at the slits, which then travel different distances to reach point P hence causing a path length
difference ∆L and a resulting phase difference.
▪ When waves from rays r1 and r2 have an integer multiple path length difference ∆L, they interfere constructively at point P.

Using the approximated right triangle (formed by ‘slits and point P on

screen’, path length difference ∆L is given by:
∆L = d sin θ
where d is the slit separation and θ is the angle.
• For a bright fringe (maxima), path length difference ∆L must be zero
or an integer multiple of the wavelength:
d sin θ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, ...
• For a dark fringe (minima), the path length difference ∆L must be an
odd multiple of half a wavelength:

Naila Ashraf d sin θ = (m + 1/2) λ

Jan.,2025 where m = 0, 1, 2, ...
 Double slit interference, related problems
A double-slit experiment is set up with two narrow slits separated by a distance of d= 10⁻⁵ m in an
opaque barrier. Light of wavelength 6× 10⁻⁷ m illuminates the slits, creating an interference pattern
on a distant screen. Calculate the angular occurrence of the 5th bright fringes (constructive
interference maxima).
Given Data:
Slit separation: d = 10⁻⁵ m
Wavelength of light: λ = 6 × 10⁻⁷ m
Orders of maxima: m = 5
Solution:
The angular positions θ of the bright fringes are given by:
d sinθ = mλ
mλ
Rearranging it: θ = sin⁻¹( 𝑑 )

Fifth Maximum (m = 5):

θ₁ = sin⁻¹((5 × 6 × 10⁻⁷) / 10⁻⁵)
θ₁ = sin⁻¹(0.30)
θ₁ ≈ 17.46°
Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025
 Interference from thin films

❑ Thin film
‒ Soap film
‒ Film of oil spread on water surface
❑ Thickness : few micro meters
❑ Waves reflected from upper surface interfere with waves reflected
from lower surface
‒ Normal incidence colors on a sunlit soap bubble or an oil slick are caused
by the interference of light waves reflected from the
‒ Oblique incidence front and back surfaces of a thin transparent film.

Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025

 Interference from thin films
▪ air lies on both sides of the film and thus that n1 = n3
▪ we also assume that the light rays are almost perpendicular to the film
(θ = 0)
▪ We are interested in whether the film is bright or dark to an observer
viewing it almost perpendicularly

▪ Reflection of light produces ray r1 (reaches observer’s eye).

▪ Refraction: light enters the film, travels to point b (back surface) where at b,
light is reflected back to point c, undergoing Reflection and refraction again.
▪ Ray r2: Refracted at c, reaches the observer’s eye. Ray r2 travels twice across
the film (path difference ≈ 2L). Ray r1 does not travel through the film.

▪ Brightness or darkness at region ac depends on phase differences

between r1 and r2:
▪ In Phase: Interference maximum → Bright.
▪ Out of Phase: Interference minimum → Dark.
▪ Intermediate Phase: Partial interference → intermediate brightness.

Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025

 Interference from thin films

Refraction: Never causes a phase change.

Reflection: Can cause a phase change, depending on the refractive indexes of the two mediums.

•If light passing from a medium with greater refractive index (n) (slower medium) and reflects
at an interface with less dense medium.
•Result:
No phase change in the reflected wave & Reflection phase shift 0.

•If light passing from a medium with lesser refractive index (n) (faster medium) and reflects at
an interface with denser medium.
•Result:
•Reflected wave is inverted & Reflection phase shift = π radians (half a wavelength).

Naila Ashraf Jan.,2025

 Interference from thin films
▪ At point a: Reflection from a medium with higher refractive index → Phase shift = 0.5 wavelength.
▪ At point b: Reflection from a medium with lower refractive index → No phase shift.
▪ Light of ray r2 travels twice across the film → Path length difference = 2L.
▪ Now, resulting interference depends on the phase difference caused by 2L
▪ For in-phase waves: If waves of r1 and r2 are to be in phase so that they produce fully
constructive interference, path length 2L must cause an additional phase difference of
Figure 35-17 Reflections
0.5, 1.5, 2.5,... wavelengths. Only then will the net phase difference be an integer number
from a thin film in air.
of wavelengths.
(where λn2=λ/n2)

▪ For out-of-phase waves: Path length 2L causes phase differences of 0, 1, 2…

wavelengths.
▪ Dark film condition:
Interference from thin films

Figure 35-17 Reflections

from a thin film in air.
 Diffraction and the wave theory
The wave theory of light (also known as wave optics) is a theory that describes light as a
wave rather than as a particle. It suggests that light behaves in many ways similar to other
types of waves, such as water waves or sound waves. According to this theory, light consists
of electromagnetic waves that travel through space, carrying energy and momentum. These
waves are characterized by properties such as wavelength, frequency, and amplitude.
 Polarization of electromagnetic waves
▪ Electromagnetic Waves:
▪ Electromagnetic waves consist of electric and magnetic fields
oscillating perpendicular to each other (fig. 1).
▪ Electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum or material
substance. All electromagnetic waves move through a vacuum at
the speed: c=3× 108 m/s.
▪ Plane of oscillation: The plane in which the electric field
oscillates.
▪ A wave is plane-polarized if its electric field oscillates in a single
direction e.g An electromagnetic wave with an electric field (a) E and B are generated from one another.
(b) Electric fields remain perpendicular to wave’s
oscillating along the y-axis (fig.2). direction but change orientation randomly.
▪ Waves emitted from sources like TV stations have afixed
polarization.
• Waves from common sources (e.g., the Sun, bulbs) oscillate in
random directions, is called polarized randomly, or unpolarized
Light.
 Polarization of electromagnetic waves
▪ Unpolarized light can be resolved into y and z components.
Each component oscillates in its respective plane
(Represented by two perpendicular double arrows indicating
oscillation directions).

We can transform unpolarized visible light into polarized light

by sending it through a polarizing sheet, commercially known
as Polaroids or Polaroid filters.
(a) Unpolarized light with
random oscillations.
 Polarization of electromagnetic waves
One-half Rule:(Only when light reaching a polarizing sheet is unpolarized)
▪ If unpolarized light passes through a polarizing sheet, if we can arrange for the y axis then
only y-components pass , so z-components are absorbed, reducing intensity by half. i.e.
𝑰𝒐
Transmitted intensity: I= 𝟐
▪ If light already polarized reaches a polarizing sheet at angle θ to
the sheet’s polarizing direction, then
▪ Parallel component 𝑬𝒚 = E cos θ is transmitted.
▪ Perpendicular component 𝑬𝒛 is absorbed.

❑ Maximum Intensity
▪ Occurs when the light is polarized parallel to the
polarizing sheet (when θ = 0⁰ or 180⁰).
The transmitted intensity I=𝐼0 ​ is the original intensity.
❑ Zero Intensity
▪ Occurs when the light is polarized perpendicular
to the polarizing sheet (when θ = 90⁰).
The transmitted intensity I= 0.
 Polarization of electromagnetic waves
❑ Maximum Intensity
▪ Occurs when the light is polarized parallel to the polarizing
sheet (when θ = 0⁰ or 180⁰).
The transmitted intensity I=𝐼0 ​ is the original intensity.
❑ Zero Intensity
▪ Occurs when the light is polarized perpendicular to the
polarizing sheet (when θ = 90⁰).
The transmitted intensity I= 0.
 Polarizing sheets
Relative Orientation of Two Polarizing Sheets
An arrangement is shown in which initially unpolarized light is sent through two polarizing sheets 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .
▪ first sheet is called the polarizer, and second the analyzer.
▪ As polarizing direction of 𝑃1 is vertical, light transmitted by 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 is polarized vertically.

i. If the polarizing direction of 𝑃2 is also vertical(parallel), then all the

light transmitted by 𝑃1 is transmitted by 𝑃2 (Fig. a).
ii. If the polarizing direction of P2 is horizontal(perpendicular), none
of the light transmitted by 𝑃1 is transmitted by 𝑃2 (Fig. b).

▪ Polarizing Directions at an Angle

If the angle between polarizing directions is between 0° and 90°,
some light is transmitted through 𝑃2 ,
 Polarizing sheets
Related Numerical problems

Solution:
First Polarizing sheet (P1):
by the one-half rule
𝑰
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐𝒐
Second sheet (P2): Because the light reaching the second sheet
is polarized, the intensity 𝑰𝟐 of the light transmitted by that
sheet is given by the cosine-squared rule ➢ Initial intensity emerges from the three-sheet system

Third sheet (P3): Intensity 𝑰𝟑 of light transmitted by 3rd sheet

is given by the cosine-squared rule.
= 9.4%
➢ This final transmitted light is polarized parallel to the x axis.