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CRC Press
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 Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 A brief introduction to directional statistics . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 A brief outline of the theoretical advances presented in this
book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Directional datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Paleomagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Political sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Text mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Wildfire orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Life sciences and bioinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Basics and notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Plan of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Advances in flexible parametric distribution theory 17

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Flexible parametric modeling: an active research area on Rp 17
2.1.2 Organization of the remainder of the chapter . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Flexible circular distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Four ways to construct circular densities . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 The classics: von Mises, cardioid and wrapped Cauchy
distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.3 Beyond the classics: modern exible circular modeling . . 22
2.2.4 Flexible modeling of symmetric data: the Jones–Pewsey
distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.5 Sine-skewing: a simple tool to skew any symmetric distri-
bution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
 2.2.6 Skewness combined with unimodality: the scale-transforming
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.7 A general device for building symmetric bipolar distributions 28
2.2.8 A brief description of three other exible models . . . . . 30
2.3 Flexible spherical distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.1 Classical spherical distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2 Rotationally symmetric distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.3 A general method to skew-rotationally symmetric distribu-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Flexible toroidal and cylindrical distributions . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Some history, motivations and goals . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.2 The bivariate von Mises distribution and its variants . . . . 43
2.4.3 Mardia–Sutton type cylindrical distributions . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.4 Johnson–Wehrly type cylindrical distributions . . . . . . . 47
2.4.5 The copula approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3 Advances in kernel density estimation on directional supports 55

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.1 Kernel density estimation on the real line . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.2 Organization of the remainder of the chapter . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Definitions and main properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.1 Spherical kernel density estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.2 Cylindrical kernel density estimation . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 A delicate yet crucial issue: bandwidth choice . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.1 Spherical AMISE and bandwidth selection . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.2 Rule of thumb based on the FvML distribution . . . . . . 63
3.3.3 A gain in generality: AMISE via mixtures of FvML densities 64
3.3.4 Three further proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.5 Bandwidth selection in the cylindrical setting . . . . . . . 66
3.4 Inferential procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4.1 Non-parametric goodness-of-fit test for directional data . . 66
3.4.2 Non-parametric independence test for cylindrical data . . 68
3.4.3 An overview of non-parametric regression . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Computational and graphical methods 73
4.1 Ordering data on the sphere: quantiles and depth functions . . . . 73
4.1.1 Ordering on R and Rp , and organization of the remainder
of the section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1.2 Classical depth functions on the sphere . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.1.3 Projected quantiles and related asymptotic results . . . . . 75
4.1.4 The angular Mahalanobis depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.5 Statistical procedures based on projected quantiles and the
angular Mahalanobis depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Statistical inference under order restrictions on the circle . . . . . 81
4.2.1 Isotonic regression estimation and organization of the re-
mainder of the section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.2 Order restrictions on the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.3 Circular isotonic regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Exploring data features with the CircSiZer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.1 The SiZer, scale space theory and organization of the re-
mainder of the section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.2 The CircSiZer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.3 Kernel choice based on causality: the special role of the
wrapped normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4 Computationally fast estimation for high-dimensional FvML dis-
tributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.1 Maximum likelihood expressions for the parameters of
FvML distributions and organization of the section . . . . 89
4.4.2 Approximations for the concentration parameter from
Mardia & Jupp (2000) and their limitations in high dimen-
sions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.3 New (high-dimensional) approximations for the concentra-
tion parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5 Local asymptotic normality for directional data 97

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1.1 The LAN property on Rp and its deep impact on asymp-
totic statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1.2 Organization of the remainder of the chapter . . . . . . . 98
 5.2 Local asymptotic normality and optimal testing . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.1 Contiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.2 Local asymptotic normality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.3 Optimal testing in LAN experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.4 LAN, semiparametric efficiency and invariance . . . . . . 105
5.3 LAN for directional data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.3.1 The Le Cam methodology for curved experiments and as-
sociated efficient tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2 LAN property for rotationally symmetric distributions . . 111
5.3.3 Application 1: Optimal inference based on signed-ranks . 113
5.3.4 Application 2: ANOVA on spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3.5 Application 3: Asymptotic power of tests of concentration 118
5.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6 Recent results for tests of uniformity and symmetry 121

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.1.1 Organization of the remainder of the chapter . . . . . . . 122
6.2 Recent advances concerning the Rayleigh test of uniformity . . . . 123
6.3 Sobolev tests of uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.4 Uniformity tests based on random projections . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.5 Testing for uniformity with noisy data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.6 Tests of re ective symmetry on the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.7 Tests of rotational symmetry on hyperspheres . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.8 Testing for spherical location in the vicinity of the uniform distri-
bution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7 High-dimensional directional statistics 135

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.1.1 High-dimensional techniques in Rp . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.1.2 Organization of the remainder of the chapter . . . . . . . 136
7.2 Distributions on high-dimensional spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3 Testing uniformity in the high-dimensional case . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.4 Location tests in the high-dimensional case . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5 Concentration tests in the high-dimensional case . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.6 Principal nested spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
 7.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Bibliography 149

Index 173
 Preface

Aim of the book

The field of directional statistics has received a lot of attention over the past two
decades. This is mainly due to new demands from domains such as bioinformat-
ics, machine learning and cosmology, but also to the availability of massive data
requiring adapted statistical techniques, and to technological advances. Our goal is
to provide a thorough overview of the developments that have taken place since the
beginning of the 21st century, hereby building upon earlier works like the seminal
and inspiring monograph by Mardia & Jupp (2000). We shall focus here solely
on theoretical developments; the description of modern datasets and their analysis
will be provided in the companion book Applied Directional Statistics: Modern
Methods and Case Studies for which the authors are acting as editors.

Complementarity with existing literature

The present book has a well-defined target: reference the methodological improve-
ments on directional statistics that have appeared after the cornerstone reference
books by Mardia & Jupp (2000) and Jammalamadaka & SenGupta (2001). This
has so far been only partially done by Pewsey et al. (2013) but specifically for the
circular setting and with more focus on applications. The present book fills this
gap and will therefore be of interest for researchers and practitioners dealing with
directional data and aiming for a recent methodological avour.

Acknowledgments

There are a number of people we wish to thank for their contributions to our book.
We thank our editor, John Kimmel, for insightful exchanges and for the initial
proposal to write this book. We are grateful to Arthur Pewsey for a very care-
ful reading of the entire book, to Toshihiro Abe, Rosa Crujeiras, Yves Dominicy,
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Oliver Dukes, Eduardo García-Portugués, Thomas Hamelryck, Shogo Kato, Irene
Klugkist, Davy Paindaveine, Thanh Mai Pham Ngoc and Yvik Swan for their help-
ful comments and suggestions, to José Ameireijas-Alonso for his help with some
of the graphics, and to Kim Schalbar for checking the bibliography.
Our very special thanks go to our families, to whom we dedicate this book.
 Introduction

1.1 Overview

1.1.1 A brief introduction to directional statistics

Directional statistics is a branch of statistics dealing with observations that are di-
rections. In most cases, these observations lie on the circumference of the unit
circle of R2 (one then speaks of circular statistics) or on the surface of the unit hy-
persphere of Rp for p 3 (implying the terminology of spherical statistics)1 . Data
of this type typically arise in meteorology (wind directions), astronomy (directions
of cosmic rays or stars), earth sciences (location of an earthquake’s epicentre on the
surface of the earth) and biology (circadian rhythms, studies of animal navigation),
to cite but these. The key difficulty when dealing with such data is the curvature of
the sample space since the unit hypersphere or circle is a non-linear manifold. This
can readily be seen on a very simple example. Imagine two points on the sphere
of R3 and consider their average. This point will in general not lie on the sphere.
This reasoning of course extends to several points on the sphere, entailing that the
basic concept of sample mean needs to be adapted in order to yield a true mean
direction on the sphere. Thus, the wheel has to be reinvented for virtually every
classical concept from multivariate statistics.
This state of mind has, however, been ignored for a long time. Primitive statis-
tical analysis of directional data can be traced back to the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury by the likes of C. F. Gauss, yet it took till the seminal paper by Fisher (1953)
before researchers became fully aware of the necessity to take the curved nature of
the sample space into account. Sir Ronald Fisher successfully laid out the conse-
quences of simplifying every directional problem through linear approximations.
Quoting Fisher (1953): “Any topological framework requires the developments of
a theory of errors of characteristic and appropriate mathematical form.” Indeed,
while it was perfectly reasonable that Gauss used a tangent space approximation
1
This includes data on the torus (product of two circles or spheres) and cylinder (product of Rp
with a circle or sphere), but not other more general manifolds such as Stiefel or Grassmann manifolds.
2 Chapter 1. Introduction

for his highly concentrated (directional) astronomical measurements, the same can-
not be said about more dispersed datasets. Fisher used as illustrating example the
direction of remanent magnetism found in igneous or sedimentary rocks.
The impact of the Fisher (1953) paper led to a methodological and system-
atic study of directional data holding account of their actual topology. Numerous
procedures and directional distributions were proposed and studied, mostly by ex-
tending to the directional setting classical concepts from multivariate analysis such
as point estimation, one- and multi-sample testing procedures, or regression. For
detailed accounts of these early developments from distinct perspectives, we re-
fer the reader to the monographs by Mardia (1972), Watson (1983), Fisher et al.
(1987) and Fisher (1993), to the discussion paper by Mardia (1975) as well as to
the review paper by Jupp & Mardia (1989).
After this very active period, there was almost a lull in directional research
in the 1990s. The situation has fortunately changed since the beginning of the
new millennium. We have identified three main reasons for this resurgence of in-
terest. First, the highly in uential and very comprehensible book by Mardia &
Jupp (2000) rendered directional statistics very popular. The ease of exposition
combined with the versatility of presented results attracted the interest of theoret-
ical statisticians as well as practitioners. Moreover, one year later appeared the
seminal book by Jammalamadaka & SenGupta (2001) focussing on circular statis-
tics. Second, and partially a consequence of the previous argument, researchers
from life sciences, ecology and machine learning, among others, recognized the
importance of directional statistics for their works. This has led to new demands
and hence the necessity of novel methods and procedures. Third and finally, the
technological advances have reshaped the entire field of statistics. The exponen-
tial increase in computing power and the availability of massive amounts of data
have brought computer-intensive methods and high-dimensional statistics to the
forefront of modern research in statistics, and hence also to directional statistics.

1.1.2 A brief outline of the theoretical advances presented in this book

The present book covers important theoretical developments in directional statistics

over the past two decades, more precisely since the cornerstone reference books by
Mardia & Jupp (2000) and Jammalamadaka & SenGupta (2001). We perceive it as
a natural complement to these monographs, emphasizing modern research in the
field without repeating the material covered in earlier books. The book is meant
1.1. Overview 3

to be self-contained. We provide in Section 1.3 the basic knowledge required to

follow the exposition of material throughout the monograph. The chapters all start
with an introduction to the topic and brie y mention the state-of-the-art before the
year 2000.
Numerous research themes in directional statistics have been addressed in re-
cent years, resulting in a vast number of relevant methods and studies. We have
decided to build our book on the following five pillars:

Flexible parametric modeling: most classical distributions are able to model

the center of a data cloud and the concentration around that center. Aspects
such as skewness, peakedness or multi-modality cannot be addressed with
these models. Flexible modeling means the search for versatile parametric
distributions able to capture directional data features beyond location and
concentration. This domain has ourished since 2005.

Non-parametric inference: non-parametric statistics refer here mostly to ker-

nel density estimation and rank-based inference. First defined at the end of
the 1980s for spherical data, kernel density estimates have been largely stud-
ied, extended to other settings (torus and cylinder) and refined over the past
ten years. Rank-based inferential procedures have a long-standing history on
Rp but only appeared recently in directional statistics.

Asymptotic statistics: most inferential procedures, also for directional data,

rely on asymptotic results. We shall describe crucial concepts such as con-
tiguity, local asymptotic normality and Le Cam’s theory of asymptotic ex-
periments. The latter is a complex but highly useful methodology to build
efficient statistical methods based on solid mathematical statistics grounds.
Initially designed for linear statistics, it was extended to the spherical set-
ting in 2013 by the authors and their coauthors. We shall further discuss the
nowadays unavoidable (n, p)-asymptotics where both the sample size n and
the dimension p of the data are very large. This is intrinsically linked to the
next point, namely

High-dimensional directional statistics: high-dimensional statistics figure

among the hottest topics in contemporary statistics. Numerous datasets have
dimensions larger than the sample size, thwarting the validity of existing
methods. This challenge has been taken up over the past decade, in particu-
lar driven by machine learning and genetics applications.
4 Chapter 1. Introduction

Computational and graphical methods: the incredible increase in both com-

puting power and complexity of the data have led to new handles for direc-
tional data. One the one hand, new visualization techniques reveal impor-
tant underlying data structures. On the other hand, efficient and computa-
tionally fast algorithms allow dealing with complex datasets such as high-
dimensional data or order-restricted data.

These ideas will be expounded in six thematic chapters whose detailed content is
given in Section 1.4. Of course, there are several further topics we had envisaged
to cover. We imposed on ourselves the above restriction for the sake of clarity and
to avoid overlaps with other recent books and the companion book Applied Direc-
tional Statistics: Modern Methods and Case Studies, hereafter MMCS, for which
we act as editors. The stochastic properties of needlets, a new form of spherical
wavelets, as well as their applications to cosmic microwave background radiation
data are reviewed in Chapter 10 of Marinucci & Peccati (2011). The even more re-
cent monograph by Pewsey et al. (2013) is dedicated to a detailed account of how
to implement circular statistics methods in R. The growing field of spatial direc-
tional statistics will be covered in MMCS. Modern application domains presented
in MMCS will include bioinformatics, machine learning, cosmology, ecology, en-
vironmental sciences and behavioral sciences.

1.2 Directional datasets

We now want to further familiarize the reader with directional statistics by describ-
ing five types of directional datasets. These are taken from completely different
domains and most of them re ect the aforementioned modern application areas.
They have thus been a driving force behind several of the theoretical developments
that we present in the subsequent chapters.

1.2.1 Paleomagnetism

We start with the classical domain of application that underpinned the argument
of Fisher (1953) to take into account the correct topology of the data: paleomag-
netism. This term refers to the study of the Earth’s magnetic field in rocks, sed-
iments, lava ows or other archeological materials. Certain minerals indeed con-
serve the direction of magnetic field when they cool down, allowing geologists to
gain information about the Earth’s magnetic field from ancient times as well as
1.2. Directional datasets 5

about plate tectonics. The associated data are spherical by nature, as illustrated in
Figure 1.1. This figure represents measurements of remanent magnetization in red
slits and claystones made at two different locations in Eastern New South Wales,
Australia.

Figure 1.1: Measurements of remanent magnetization in red slits and claystones made at
two different locations in Australia.

Typical research questions related to such data are the estimation of their modal
direction, estimation of the concentration around that direction, related hypothesis
tests about specific values, the determination of a probability distribution fitting
the data or a graphical device to illustrate the main features of the data. We de-
scribe several modern methods dealing with these issues throughout this mono-
graph. In the special situation of Figure 1.1, that is, when two or more datasets at
different locations are involved, new information can be gathered about the above-
mentioned tectonic plate movements or about whether the magnetization has been
acquired before some deformation. In plain words, one is interested in the question:
“do measurements of remanent magnetization at different locations come from the
same source?” This problem is rather old in paleomagnetism. It was popularized in
the seminal paper by Graham (1949) who developed the fold test for paleomagnetic
data. In mathematical terms, this problem becomes a hypothesis testing problem.
Suppose that we have m distinct datasets spread around sources µ i , i = 1, . . . , m,
where each source µ i lies on the unit sphere of R3 . Then the question becomes
an ANOVA testing problem of the form H0 : µ 1 = µ 2 = = µ m against
H1 : 91 i 6= j m such that µ i 6= µ j . Several papers have addressed this issue,
and in recent years the underlying assumptions have been lowered thanks to new
theoretical advances. We refer in particular to Chapter 5.
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