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THE SIMPLE PHYSICS OF ENERGY USE
The Simple Physics of Energy Use

Peter Rez
Arizona State University, USA

3
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Peter Rez 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017943722
ISBN 978–0–19–880229–7 (hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–880230–3 (pbk.)
DOI 10.1093/oso/9780198802297.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 I dedicate this work to the memory of Prof Sir David MacKay FRS and my former
colleague Prof Ken Mossman.

David MacKay’s work “Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air” was an
inspiration. In a witty and amusing way he used simple physics analysis to show what
the options were for energy policy in the United Kingdom. I have gratefully borrowed
from his approach to various topics. May this work be a continuation in his struggle
against “twaddle”.

Ken Mossman was a radiation biologist. In our frequent discussions he showed me that
radiation was a part of our natural environment. In radiation protection he advocated
for setting limits based on radiation that was already there, not on arbitrary models
that could never be experimentally verified.

“If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants” attributed to Isaac
Newton
Finally I dedicate this work to my children Avi, Violet and Charlie who will have to
deal with the mess my generation and those preceding it have left!
Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Richard Silverman, former general manager of SRP, and Megan

Grabel, former counsel to APS, for giving me the view of senior management at
the local electrical utility companies.
I particularly want to thank Robert Hess, senior engineer at SRP, for many
discussions, critical reading of the manuscript and carefully checking calculations
of the efficiency of gas turbines and combined cycle generation systems.
I’d like to thank Dr Abraham Arbib, for sharing his notes on a course that he
had given and his perspective from the period when he has deputy chief scientist
at the Israeli Energy ministry. There are interesting comparisons between Israel
and Phoenix AZ, both have approximately the same peak electricity demand, and
both are the Physicists ideal of an “isolated system”, albeit for different reasons!
I’d like to thank Andy Waye, Rob Harvey and Pat McLeod for reading
and commenting on the manuscript, and Frank Setzler for providing useful
information on aircraft engines.
I especially want to thank Prof Mike Kelly, FRS for his support and encour-
agement.
I’d also like to acknowledge the lively discussions with the students in my
class “The Science of Sustainability” over the years. Learning and teaching are
inexorably mixed!
I am most grateful to Sonke Adlung and Ania Wronski at Oxford University
Press for taking on this project and seeing it to completion.
Finally I’d like to thank my wife Marilyn and my children Avi Violet and
Charlie for their patience while I neglected domestic duties to write this book!
Looking back over papers I have written I find errors that I did not notice at
the time. It’s inevitable that there are some in this work, I take full responsibility
and will correct any brought to my attention in future editions.

Peter Rez
Scottsdale, AZ
Contents

Introduction 1

1 Energy and Society 3

1.1 Energy and power 3
1.2 Energy use around the world 4
1.3 Summary 11
Bibliography 11

Part I Controlling the Indoor Environment

2 Buildings 15
2.1 Heat flow through materials 15
2.2 Small buildings 20
2.3 Large buildings 22
2.4 Degree days 24
2.5 Heating and cooling the efficient way 26
2.6 How do air conditioners and heat pumps work? 29
2.7 Refrigerators 36
2.8 Lighting 38
2.9 Summary 41
Bibliography 41

3 Electrical Power Generation: Fossil Fuels 43

3.1 Electric generators 43
3.2 The ideal heat engine: The Carnot cycle 45
3.3 Heat engines: The Rankine cycle 47
3.4 Heat engines: The Brayton cycle 50
3.5 Combined cycle 54
3.6 Summary 56
Bibliography 56

4 Nuclear Power Generation 57

4.1 Nuclear Reactions 57
4.2 Nuclear Reactors 58
4.3 Radioactive Waste 62
4.4 Energy from Natural Radioactivity 66
4.5 Nuclear Fusion 69
x Contents

4.6 Summary 72
Bibliography 72

5 Electrical Power Distribution 74

5.1 Transmission losses 74
5.2 Matching supply and demand—when is electrical power used, how is demand met? 78
5.3 Summary 80
General reference on resistance and Ohm’s law 81

6 Electrical Power Generation: Renewables—Solar and Wind 82

6.1 Solar radiation 83
6.2 Solar thermal 85
6.3 Photovoltaics 89
6.4 Wind 97
6.5 Integration 105
6.6 Summary 108
Bibliography 109

7 Electrical Power Generation: Hydroelectricity, Tides and Pumped Storage 110

7.1 Hydroelectricity and tides 110
7.2 Energy storage 112
7.3 Summary 119
Bibliography 119

Part II Moving People and Things Around

8 Transportation: Fuel Energies 123

Bibliography 126

9 Ground Transportation: Road and Rail 127

9.1 Rolling along, cars and bicycles 127
9.2 Otto and diesel cycles 133
9.3 Efficiency: fuel use and other measures 139
9.4 Hybrid and electric vehicles 141
9.5 Freight transport: Trucks 147
9.6 Freight transport: Trains 149
9.7 Summary 150
Bibliography 150

10 Air Transportation 152

10.1 How fast should an airplane fly? 152
10.2 Powering airplanes: Propellers 160
10.3 Powering airplanes: Turbojets and turbofans 164
10.4 Efficiency of airplanes vs ground transportation 171
10.5 The hyperloop 171
 Contents xi

10.6 Summary 173

Bibliography 174

11 Ground Transportation: Ships 175

11.1 Hydrodynamic drag 175
11.2 Energy used to move freight 177
11.3 Oil transport 179
11.4 Summary 181
Bibliography 182

Part III Making Stuff

12 Materials That Come from the Earth 185

12.1 World use of materials 185
12.2 Iron and steel 187
12.3 Copper 190
12.4 Aluminium 192
12.5 Silicon 194
12.6 Glass 197
12.7 Cement and concrete 198
12.8 Plastics 200
12.9 Uranium 202
12.10 Summary 203
Bibliography 203

13 Agriculture—Things That Are Grown 205

13.1 Timber 205
13.2 Paper products 207
13.3 Crops for food 208
13.4 Making bread 210
13.5 Meat 211
13.6 Biofuels 213
13.7 Summary 214
Bibliography 215

14 Embodied Energy and Energy Return on Investment 216

14.1 Capital costs or running costs? 216
14.1.1 The house 217
14.1.2 The large building 219
14.1.3 Cars 220
14.1.4 Airplanes 222
14.1.5 Ships 224
xii Contents

14.2 Energy return on investment 225

14.2.1 Coal-fired power station 226
14.2.2 Natural gas turbine and combined cycle 227
14.2.3 Nuclear power 230
14.2.4 Photovoltaics 231
14.2.5 Wind turbines 233
14.2.6 Hydroelectricity 235
14.3 Summary 236
Bibliography 237

15 Summary—What Should Be Done? 240

Bibliography 246

Problems 247
Appendix A Energy Used by Different Countries, from the BP Statistical Review 257
Appendix B Thermodynamic Relations 259
Appendix C Ground Source Heat Pumps 265
Appendix D1 Work Done By Stirling Engine 268
Appendix D2 Ultimate Efficiency of Photovoltaic Cell 269
Appendix D3 Maximum Power of Photovoltaic Cell 270
Appendix E Betz’s Law 271
Appendix F Optimal Airspeeds 273
Appendix G Units 275
General Bibliography 279
Index 281
Introduction

Our standard of living depends on transforming energy locked up in fossil fuels,

atomic nuclei or provided free of charge by the sun and wind into a form that we
can use. That transformation of energy is governed by fundamental physics and
chemistry. This book is for those who want to understand more about where the
energy we use comes from, and how it gets used. It lays out the simple physics
behind our use of energy.
There’s also the concern that CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels will
change climate irreversibly in harmful ways. We hear a lot about how renewables
such as solar and wind are going to take over from fossil fuels in supplying the
electricity we use and will even power the cars we now drive. But is this realistic?
What does simple Physics say about whether this is even practical? Can CO2
emissions be eliminated, or is it only realistic to think of reducing them?
The answers to all these questions come from an analysis of the Physics in-
volved. Fortunately it’s all 19th century physics, mechanics, electricity, and a lot
of thermodynamics. Some discussion of simple nuclear physics is needed to un-
derstand nuclear power and the physics of semiconductors is fundamental to
understanding solar cells. No prior background has been assumed, for those who
have had a college level Introductory Physics class some of the material will be
useful revision. Only this time rather than talk about blocks sliding down planks
and idealized circuits we’re going to look at objects from everyday life like cars
and refrigerators.
Physics is about relationships and quantifying those relationships. When more
than two variables are involved I find it easier to see how things relate by writing
down an equation, rather than wading through a convoluted paragraph of text.
Don’t worry, the math in this book is confined to simple algebra and the rudi-
ments of trigonometry, material that is traditionally taught in 7th or 8th grade in
US public schools. Anything involving calculus is relegated to an Appendix and
has only been added for completeness.
To see what is important we have to put in numbers to estimate how big or
small things are. My aim is to give an overview of the big picture, to only worry
about what really makes a difference. This isn’t an engineering book; frequently
we’ll be content with an estimate that is accurate to 10%. Just as significantly,
we will not waste time on small factors that can be safely ignored. As the late
Sir David MacKay said in his book “Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air”,
“Every Big Counts”.

The Simple Physics of Energy Use. Peter Rez, Oxford University Press (2017).
© Peter Rez. DOI 10.1093/oso/9780198802297.001.0001
2 Introduction

As we’ll see in Chapter 1 we use energy for three things;

Controlling the environment in buildings (heating, cooling, lighting),

Moving people and things around
Making stuff.

In many developed countries if you were to guess that about 1/3 of energy use
goes for each of these activities you would not be far wrong. I therefore follow
these divisions and the book is divided into sections that concentrate on each of
these three main energy uses.
There’s also the use of electricity to move energy from one place to another.
Given that electrical energy generation makes a significant contribution to CO2
emissions, and is also where renewables potentially can make the largest impact,
a large section is devoted to electrical power generation. As most electrical energy
is used in buildings (some is used in manufacturing material) it’s appropriate that
it is grouped with the section on energy use in buildings.
I avoid discussing economic issues and monetary costs, except peripherally.
They can change, sometimes in relatively short time periods. Traditionally, burn-
ing natural gas was the most expensive way to generate electricity and utilities
only used it to meet peak demand. Fracking changed all that, and now the low
cost of natural gas in the United States alters the economic analysis for coal, nu-
clear and renewables. It is interesting to think of energy as a form of currency,
and Chapter 14 is a discussion of energy costs and energy return on investment
for energy generation sources.
Policy implications will be left to the final Chapter. Much energy can be saved
with appropriate building design. Moving to a warmer climate helps. More energy
is used in heating buildings in cold places than in air conditioning in hot places. To
reduce CO2 emissions in electricity generation it’s necessary to make an impact
on baseload generation. Substituting nuclear for coal is the most effective, but
replacing coal with combined cycle natural gas also makes a significant difference.
As we’ll see, solutions involving renewables are local, not global. A simple test is
whether the renewable can provide for the energy needs of a single family home.
To displace fossil fuels from their dominant position in transportation the en-
ergy density of batteries will have to improve by a factor of 4-5, and that will
only help with ground transportation over land. Finally CO2 emission is inevita-
ble when materials that we use are extracted from ores mined from the ground.
Making products last longer, combined with efficient recycling and reuse is the
answer.
Energy and Society
1
1.1 Energy and power
1.1 Energy and power 3
Energy is defined in physics as the capacity for doing work. Energy used equals 1.2 Energy use around the world 4
work done. The equation 1.3 Summary 11
Bibliography 11
E = W (1.1)

applies also in relativistic mechanics, which is outside the range of everyday ex-
perience. Work in physics textbooks is narrowly defined and does not seem that
connected to what we mean by work in normal conversation. There will be ex-
amples of pushing blocks up inclines, moving charges through electric fields or
compressing gases, but it is hard to relate what is going on in these standard text-
book exercises to the use of energy and ‘work’ in the world around us. The aim
of this book is to make that connection, and to show how a knowledge of simple
physics is essential in any attempt to formulate a policy on energy.
We also learn from simple physics that energy is conserved—that is, it can
change from one form to another, but overall there are neither gains nor losses.
An example would be a truck rolling down a hill, gaining speed. It loses gravita-
tional potential energy and gains kinetic energy. We make use of the conversion
of thermal or heat energy to mechanical energy or work in all forms of transpor-
tation using heat engines. Conversion of thermal energy to mechanical energy to
electrical energy is intrinsic to most modes of electrical power generation. When
discussing our energy use, it is useful to follow the energy conversion chain back
to the beginning and think about the original source of the energy, the primary
energy. In many cases, it is the heat energy released from combustion of fossil
fuels, but it could also be the energy released in nuclear fission, or the solar or
wind energy captured and used by our system.
If we are going to analyse how energy is used, we need to be able to quantify it
and consider the rate at which it is used. The change in energy E during a time
t is the power P:

E
P= (1.2)
t

There are a confusing variety of measures for both energy and power. Theoretical
physicists just avoid the problem of units by setting all the important quantities

The Simple Physics of Energy Use. Peter Rez, Oxford University Press (2017).
© Peter Rez. DOI 10.1093/oso/9780198802297.001.0001
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