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 ADVANCES IN
FOOD AND NUTRITION
RESEARCH

VOLUME 51
 ADVISORY BOARD
KEN BUCKLE
University of New South Wales, Australia

MARY ELLEN CAMIRE

University of Maine, USA

BRUCE CHASSY
University of Illinois, USA

DENNIS GORDON
North Dakota State University, USA

ROBERT HUTKINS
University of Nebraska, USA

RONALD JACKSON
Quebec, Canada

DARYL B. LUND
University of Wisconsin, USA

CONNIE WEAVER
Purdue University, USA

RONALD WROLSTAD
Oregon State University, USA

HOWARD ZHANG
Ohio State University, USA

SERIES EDITORS
GEORGE F. STEWART (1948–1982)
EMIL M. MRAK (1948–1987)
C. O. CHICHESTER (1959–1988)
BERNARD S. SCHWEIGERT (1984–1988)
JOHN E. KINSELLA (1989–1993)
STEVE L. TAYLOR (1995– )
 ADVANCES IN
FOOD AND NUTRITION
RESEARCH
VOLUME 51

Edited by

STEVE L. TAYLOR
Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska
USA

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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For information on all Academic Press publications

visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com

ISBN-13: 978-0-12-016451-6
ISBN-10: 0-12-016451-5

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

06 07 08 09 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

Contributors to Volume 51. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Flaxseed
Clifford Hall III, Mehmet C. Tulbek, and Yingying Xu

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
II. Flaxseed Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
III. Health Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IV. Flaxseed Quality and End Use Functionality . . . . . . . . . . 47
V. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Lycopene
A. V. Rao, M. R. Ray, and L. G. Rao

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
II. Oxidative Stress and Chronic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
III. Chemistry and Dietary Sources of Lycopene . . . . . . . . . . 102
IV. Analytical Methods of Measuring Lycopene in Food
and Other Biological Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
V. Stability and Antioxidant Properties of Lycopene
and Its Isomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
VI. Bioavailability, Tissue Distribution, Metabolism,
and Safety of Lycopene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
VII. Mechanisms of Action of Lycopene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
VIII. Lycopene and Human Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
IX. Dietary Intake Levels of Lycopene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
X. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
vi CONTENTS

Food Components That Reduce Cholesterol Absorption

Timothy P. Carr and Elliot D. Jesch

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
II. Mechanisms of Cholesterol Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
III. Food Components That Reduce Cholesterol Absorption . . . . 170
IV. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Imaging Techniques for the Study of Food

Microstructure: A Review
Pasquale M. Falcone, Antonietta Baiano, Amalia Conte,
Lucia Mancini, Giuliana Tromba, Franco Zanini,
and Matteo A. Del Nobile

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
II. Image Acquisition Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
III. Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
IV. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Electrodialysis Applications in the Food Industry

Marcello Fidaleo and Mauro Moresi

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
II. ED Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
III. ED Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
IV. Mathematical Modeling of an ED Device . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
V. Present Problems and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 51

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.

Antonietta Baiano, Department of Food Science, University of Foggia,

Foggia, FG 71100, Italy (205)
Timothy P. Carr, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583 (165)
Amalia Conte, Department of Food Science, University of Foggia, Foggia,
FG 71100, Italy (205)
Matteo A. Del Nobile, Department of Food Science, University of Foggia,
Foggia, FG 71100, Italy (205)
Pasquale M. Falcone, Department of Food Science, University of Foggia,
Foggia, FG 71100, Italy (205)
Marcello Fidaleo, Department of Food Science and Technology, University
of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy (265)
Clifford Hall III, Department of Cereal and Food Sciences, North Dakota
State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105 (1)
Elliot D. Jesch, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences,University
of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583 (165)
Lucia Mancini, Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A. in Area Science Park I,
Basovizza, TS 34012, Italy (205)
Mauro Moresi, Department of Food Science and Technology, University
of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy (265)
A. V. Rao, Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (99)
L. G. Rao, Department of Medicine, Calcium Research Laboratory,
St. Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (99)
viii CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 51

M. R. Ray, London Regional Cancer Program, London, Ontario,

Canada (99)
Giuliana Tromba, Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A. in Area Science Park I,
Basovizza, TS 34012, Italy (205)
Mehmet C. Tulbek, Northern Crops Institute, North Dakota State
University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105 (1)
Yingying Xu, Department of Cereal and Food Sciences, North Dakota
State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105 (1)
Franco Zanini, Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A. in Area Science Park I,
Basovizza, TS 34012, Italy (205)
 FLAXSEED

CLIFFORD HALL III,* MEHMET C. TULBEK,{

AND YINGYING XU*
*Department of Cereal and Food Sciences, North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota 58105
{
Northern Crops Institute, North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota 58105

I. Introduction
II. Flaxseed Components
A. Flaxseed Oil
B. Protein
C. Cyanogenic Glycosides
D. Dietary Fiber (Mucilage or Gum)
E. Polyphenols and Lignans
F. Other Components
III. Health Benefits
A. Introduction
B. Role of Flaxseed in Cardiovascular
Disease Prevention
C. Role of Flaxseed in Cancer Prevention
D. Role of Flaxseed in Diabetes Prevention
E. Safety of Flaxseed
IV. Flaxseed Quality and End Use Functionality
A. Introduction
B. Sensory Properties of Flaxseed
C. Flaxseed Processing
D. Flaxseed Oil
E. Flaxseed Gum
F. Roasted Flaxseed
G. Baking Applications
H. Extruded Products
I. Dairy Products
J. Antifungal Properties
K. Value-Added Animal Products
V. Conclusion
References

ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH VOL 51 ISSN: 1043-4526

# 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved DOI: 10.1016/S1043-4526(06)51001-0
2 C. HALL III ET AL.

I. INTRODUCTION

Flaxseed or linseed (Linum usitatissimum) is an ancient crop that has been

used for food and fiber. In North America, flaxseed is the preferred term for
flax used in human consumption whereas Europeans use the term linseed for
edible flax (Vaisey-Genser and Morris, 2003). Historical records indicate that
flaxseed dates back to around 9000–8000 B.C. in Turkey (van Zeiste, 1972),
Iran (Helbaek, 1969), Jordon (Hopf, 1983; Rollefson et al., 1985), and Syria
(Hillman, 1975; Hillman et al., 1989). Although the evidence does not clearly
show that flaxseed was cultivated, the seeds have been found alongside
domesticated wheat and barley (Zohary and Hopf, 2000). Domestication of
flaxseed is clearly evident around 7000–4500 B.C. (reviewed in Vaisey-Genser
and Morris, 2003; Zohary and Hopf, 2000). The first probable use of flaxseed
as food may have been as an ingredient in breads (Stitt, 1994) and as a laxative
(Judd, 1995).
Flaxseed is grown in approximately 50 countries most of which are in
theNorthern Hemisphere. In 2002, Canada was the largest producer of flax-
seed accounting for approximately 33%, of the 2 million metric tons pro-
duced, followed by China (20%), the United States (16%), and India (11%)
(Berglund, 2002). In general, the world supply of flaxseed has remained
constant. Flaxseed acreage in the United States reached 516,000 harvested
acres in 2004. Ninety-four percent of the flaxseed was grown in North Dakota
followed by Montana (4%), and South Dakota (2%) (National Agricultural
Statistics Service, 2005). Production in North Dakota totaled 10.5 million
bushels and the yield per acre was 20.3 bushels (National Agricultural Statis-
tics Service, 2005). The estimated harvest acreage for 2005 in North Dakota
was approximately 955,000 acres (National Agricultural Statistics Service,
2006). Flaxseed acreage in the Canada totaled 1.9 million with a production of
approximately 42 million bushels in 2004 (Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, 2006).
History shows that flaxseed has been used as an ingredient in breakfast
cereals and breads; however, since the 1990s, a number of products contain-
ing flaxseed have been developed primarily for the health food market. The
renewed interest in flaxseed as a food source is due to findings that suggest
that flaxseed can provide a variety of health benefits (Thompson and
Cunnane, 2003). The components that contribute the health benefits include
lignans (secoisolariciresinol diglucoside [SDG] being the predominant form),
a-linolenic acid (ALA), and nonstarch polysaccharides (i.e., gum or fiber).
Flaxseed is an oilseed that contains roughly 38–45% oil. ALA, a poly-
unsaturated lipid, accounts for 52% of the fatty acids in the oil. Flaxseed is also
a rich source of plant lignans (up to 13 mg/g flaxseed). The interest in ALA and
 FLAXSEED 3

lignans as food ingredients has opened opportunities for the utilization of

flaxseed in foods. In contrast, the same level of interest has not been
observed for other flaxseed components, such as protein and dietary fiber,
which account for 20% and 28% of the flaxseed, respectively (Carter, 1993).
This chapter will provide a general overview of flaxseed research completed
over the past 50 years with the major focus being on data from 1990 to 2006.
It will highlight the basic composition, health benefits, and finally the
processing and application of flaxseed.

II. FLAXSEED COMPONENTS

A. FLAXSEED OIL

Flaxseed oil content falls in the range 38–45% oil depending on location,
cultivar, and environmental conditions (Daun et al., 2003; Oomah and
Mazza, 1997). Kozlowska (1989) reported an average of 41.4% oil content for
Polish cultivars. North Dakota flaxseed cultivars ranged from 31.9% to 37.8%
oil (Hettiarachchy et al., 1990). Wakjira et al. (2004) reported oil contents
between 29.1% and 35.9% among flaxseed cultivars grown in Ethiopia.
In addition to oil content, fatty acid distribution in flaxseed can be
aVected by environmental conditions (Taylor and Morrice 1991). Growing
conditions and variety can influence the unsaturated fatty acid content in
flaxseed (Daun et al., 2003). In contrast, the environment may also have an
undesired impact on flaxseed composition. Early and late frosts, heat dam-
age, and drought could have detrimental eVects on flaxseed quality (Daun
et al., 2003). Significantly lower oil contents and a darken oil from frost-
damaged immature seeds was reported by Gubbels et al. (1994). In addition,
higher concentrations of palmitic (P), linoleic (La), and linolenic (Ln)
acids and lower oleic (O) acid were observed in damaged seed compared to
normal seeds.
Wanasundara et al. (1999) reported that neutral lipids (acylglycerols
and fatty acids) constitute 96% of the total lipid in flaxseed, whereas polar
lipids (glycolipids and phospholipids) account for 1.4%. Stenberg et al.
(2005) observed similar findings except that less phospholipid was detected.
Froment et al. (1999) discussed the eVects of cultivar, location, and late
harvest on phospholipid content. Neutral lipid fraction of flaxseed meal was
95–98% triacylglycerols (TAG) and thus accounts for the predominant lipid
in flaxseed (Oomah et al., 1996).
Ayorinde (2000) reported trilinolenate (sn-LnLnLn; 35%) as the most
predominant TAG in flaxseed oil. In a study, Holcapek et al. (2003) observed
comparable results (Table I). TAG and diacylglycerol (DAG) composition of
4 C. HALL III ET AL.

TABLE I
TRIACYLGLYCEROL DISTRIBUTION OF FLAXSEEDa,b

Triacylglycerols (TG) % Triacylglycerols (TG) %

LnLnLn 30.4 OLnP 3.1

LaLnLn 18.7 LnLaP 3.0
OLnLn 13.5 SLaLa 1.1
LnLnP 6.9 OLaLa 1.0
OLaLn 5.9 LaLaLa 0.9
LaLaLn 5.3 OLaO 0.8
OLnO 4.2 LaOP 0.6
SLnLn 4.1 PLnP 0.5
a
Adapted from Holcapek et al. (2004).
b
P, palmitic acid; S, stearic acid; O, oleic acid; La, linoleic acid; Ln, linolenic acid.

flaxseed oil was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass

spectrometry (HPLC-MS) with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization.
The most abundant TAG was again sn-LnLnLn (30.4%) but was slightly
lower than the observations of Ayorinde (2000) who used matrix-assisted
laser desorption ionization–time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF
MS) as a means to detect the TAG species. Other flaxseed TAG included
sn-LaLnLn, sn-OLnLn, sn-LnLnP, sn-LaLaLn, and sn-OLaLn. In total,
16 TAGs were detected, which is lower than the TAG totals of soybean,
sunflower, almond, pistachio, hazelnut, poppy seed, palm, Brazil nut, maca-
damia, and rapeseed oil samples. The composition of the DAG was mainly
LnLn in flaxseed oil, which exhibited the lowest equivalent carbon number
(24) among oil samples.
Flaxseed has a high ALA content, generally constituting 50–62% of total
fatty acids (Daun et al., 2003). Dorrell (1970) reported that fatty acid
distribution in flaxseed varied depending on the anatomical fractions. The
hull is the main source of palmitic acid, but it has a relatively low oil content.
Lower oleic and ALA and higher linoleic contents are present in the embryo
compared to whole seed. Oomah and Mazza (1997) also observed higher
levels of palmitic acid in the hull. However, the hull and whole seed gave
similar ALA values, compared to dehulled seed.
Fatty acid composition of flaxseed was aVected by cultivar (Froment
et al., 1998; Oomah and Mazza, 1997). DeClercq (2005) reported that
average ALA content of Canadian flaxseed grown in 2004 was 61.9%.
Similar high (56.5–61%) ALA levels were reported by Bozan and Temelli
(2002) for Turkish flaxseed. Results were higher than the average values of
 FLAXSEED 5

flaxseed grown in Poland (57.1%) (Kozlowska, 1989), Ethiopia (51.9%)

(Wakjira et al., 2004), and North Dakota (48.4%) (Hettiarachchy et al.,
1990). In our laboratory, we observe ALA contents in organic flaxseed of
approximately 50–52%. Linola, a low-ALA cultivar, developed for commer-
cial vegetable oil market was reported to contain 3–4% ALA and 75%
linoleic acid (LA) (Lukaszewicz et al., 2004). Stenberg et al. (2005) reported
that high-ALA flaxseed from Sweden contained 60.4% ALA, whereas high-
LA flaxseed exhibited only 2.7% ALA. Furthermore, diVerences in oil
content and fatty acid profile could be related to methods used to measure
these components. Type of solvent, extraction time, and sample preparation
could have a major impact on analytical results. Supercritical fluid CO2
extraction gave a higher average ALA content (60.5%) compared to the
soxhlet extraction method (56.7%) (Bozan and Temelli, 2002). Sikorska
et al. (2005) discussed scanning fluorescence spectroscopy method as a
means to detect adulteration in various oils including flaxseed oil.

B. PROTEIN

The protein content in flaxseed has been reported to be between 10.5% and
31% (Oomah and Mazza, 1993). The protein content of the most important
flaxseed cultivars grown in diVerent countries are presented in Table II.
Protein values of flaxseed from Poland were generally well above 24%,
whereas those from Canada were lower than 20% except for the cultivar
AC Linora. The protein content of 24.1% for No. 1 Canadian Western
flaxseed, from the 2001 harvest survey, was 1.7% higher than in 2000 and
1.6% higher than the 10-year mean of 22.5% (Canadian Grain Commission,
2001). Khategaon cultivar grown in India had a protein content of 21.9%
(Madhusudhan and Singh, 1983). The protein contents of 11 flaxseed culti-
vars grown in North Dakota ranged from 26.9% to 31.6% (Hettiarachchy
et al., 1990). The USDA reports the protein content of flaxseed as 19.5%
(USDA, 2005). DiVerences in protein can be attributed to both genetics and
environment. However, a conversion factor of 6.5 (Oomah and Mazza,
1993) from nitrogen to protein was used in the calculation of protein content
in Canada varieties, whereas a factor of 5.41 (Oomah and Mazza, 1998a)
was also used in the calculation of flaxseed protein content. Thus, protein
diVerences may be due to the conversion factor used in the determination of
protein (Table II).
The protein contents of flaxseed fractionation from research work in
diVerent countries is presented in Table III. The proximate protein con-
tents of dehulled and/or defatted flaxseed varied considerably, depending
on cultivar, growth location, and seed processing. Oomah and Mazza
(1997) reported that the hull fraction contains lower protein levels, and
6 C. HALL III ET AL.

TABLE II
PROTEIN CONTENT OF DIFFERENT FLAXSEED CULTIVARSa

Poland Canada USA

Kozlowska, 1989 Oomah and Mazza, 1993 Hettiarachchy et al., 1990

Variety Protein % Variety Proteinb % Variety Protein %

Avangard 24.7 Linott 19.81 Clark 27.3

Reina 25.2 Noralta 19.82 Culbert 30.0
Viking 25.6 DuVerin 18.42 DuVerin 31.6
Ottawa 25.8 McGregor 19.07 Flor 31.0
Hera 27.4 NorLin 19.49 Linott 26.9
Zielona 27.9 NorMan 19.45 Linton 29.4
Bionda 28.0 Vimy 19.03 McGegor 27.1
LCSD200 28.2 Andro 19.89 Neche 29.5
Svapo 28.6 Somme 19.67 Norlin 28.1
– – Flanders 19.33 Norman 27.0
– – AC Linora 20.18 Verne 29.5
a
Protein contents are calculated on dry basis.
b
N
6.5.

that dehulling increases protein content of flaxseed from 19.2% to 21.8%.

Bhatty and Cherdklatgumchal (1990) reported a protein content of about
20% in flaxseed hull, which was identical to that reported in an earlier study
by Peterson (1958). Bhatty and Cherdklatgumchal (1990) also reported
that the mean protein contents for laboratory-prepared meals and commer-
cial meals were statistically diVerent. Researchers from Germany (Krause
et al., 2002) reported that flaxseed meal from dehulled seed had a protein
content of 50%, which was close to the data reported by Indian researchers
(Madhusudhan and Singh, 1983).
The protein content in various extracts obtained from diVerent extraction
methods is given in Table IV. Krause et al. (2002) extracted protein by
isoelectric precipitation and micellization. The protein contents for
isoelectric-precipitated protein isolate and micelle protein isolate were the
same (Table IV). According to Dev and Quensel (1988), the protein contents
of high-mucilage protein concentrate from seed (HMPC-S) and high-
mucilage protein concentrate from expeller cake (HMPC-EC) were compa-
rable (63.4% and 65.5%), while low-mucilage protein isolate (LMPI)
contained much higher protein (86.6%). These results were consistent as
Zhang (1994) also observed protein contents of 66.3% and 86.5% in the
high-mucilage protein isolates HMPI and LMPI, respectively.
 TABLE III
PROTEIN CONTENT OF FLAXSEED FRACTIONa

Fractionation Protein % Cultivar Reference Country

Seed 19.2 NorMan, LinolaÔ947, McGregor, NorLin, Oomah and Mazza, 1997 Canada
Dehulled seed 21.8 Omega, Flanders, and Vimy

FLAXSEED
Hull 17.3
Dehulled seed 23.9 NorMan Lei et al., 2003
Meal 22.9
Hull 20.3 – Bhatty and Cherdklatgumchal,
Laboratory-prepared meal 43.9 Norlin, NorMan, 1990
and McGregor
Commercial meal 34.7 –
Dehulled meal 50.0 – Krause et al., 2002 Germany
Dehulled meal 48.9 Khategaon Madhusudhan and Singh, 1983 India
Meal 49.0 Viking Sammour, 1999 France
a
Protein data are based on dry basis.

7
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